TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR OF WOLOF
el
.»;
~4
....
e::::-~
THESIS
SUBMITrED
FOR
THE
DEGREE
Of
DOCTOR
Of
PHILOSOrHY
1 CONSEd. r. :<:;c.: ",:j :'j' Ni'&'LGj~\\CI-lE
1 t~OU:~ L'[NS(~;t~"I~L;".L::,\\ i "j' '(;~,a);;
l C. A. M. E. S. -
OUAGApOUGOU
A . ,
~ ';1 ~~O~J i\\"1l1!i~
i
rnvee ..•. :J)' ~'(,.,,' l.J.,••U·.j~.,.·...•.•.
11!_~~~gistr~~~:_n~1,,~~j:(~ f
JEAN LEOPOLD DIOUF
CENTRE
OF
ADVANCED
STUDY
IN
UNGUISTICS
ANNAMALAI
~, UNIVERSITY
~~~~~,~
ANNAMALAINAGAR
1982

---

, Dedicate this
Thesis to my Schoolmaster
Abdoulaye Etienne Diop

---

DR. A. KAMATCHINATHAN,M.A.,Ph.D"
ANNAMALA INAGAR,
Read er,
Centre of Advanced 5tudy in Linguistics,
Date:
f-r,)/ "/h-
Annamal3i University,
. Annamalainagar .
. ...
~
C E RTl FIC A T E
This is to certify that this thesis entitled
'Transformational Generative Grammar of Wolof' is a bona-
fide record of research work done by Mr. Jean Léopold DiouF,
Junior Research Fellow of the Centre of Advanced Study in
Linguistics, AnnamaLa l iJnlversity.
It is also certified
that the above work has ~ot previously formed the basis
for the award of any Degree, Diploma, Associateship,
Fellowship or other similar titles to the candidate.
This independent research work of the candidate is an
origin~l contribution touards the study o~ the structure
of Wolof.•
~/~~. ~/ ----==~
"--'--"-TA:'-K;MA~~-~T HAN) '(~l'1 1ft.--.
r.
5upervisor.
L . - '

---

ACK NlJlJ1 LL DGE.ME J~T
1 would like to express my sincere thanks to aIl those
who have helped me in sorne way or other in the course of the
preparation of this dissertation,
"Tr a ns f or rna t i.o na L Generative
Grarnmar of ,Wolof".
1 am deeply indebted to Professor Dr.S.Agesthialingom,
M.A.,Ph.D.(Kerala),Ph.D.(Indiana,
U.~.i-\\.), Head of the Depart-
ment of Liriguistics and Director of the Centre of Advanced
Study in Linguistics, 8nnamalai University.
1 would like to express my gratitude to Dr.A.Kamatchinathan,
M.A.,Ph.D., Reader in Linguistics, Centre of Advanced Study
in Linguistics, Anmamalai University, shall 1 calI him Super-
vi eo l' or brother, u ho s e constant effort, immense encouragement,
personal care, patient guidance and supervision enabled me to
complete this work.
Grateful acknowledgements are due to the Government of
India and the Government of Senegambia, under whose fellowship
aid, this work has been accomplished.
1 owe much to the authorities of the Annamalai University
for having provided me with the necessary facilities during
my stay in India.
l
am also grateful to rr~~~\\~~~
for th ei!'
constant encouragement.
Finally, I t ha nk MI'. C.S. Balasubramanian, B.A., Department
of Linguistics, Annamalai University for accomplishing the
laborious task of typing this thesis.
Jean Léopold DiouF
.
d
c~~~-·.
*****
)
.~.

---

cor: T E fj T S
. . . . _
•• _ .
0 _ _ 0 • • • ~_"~_
' 4 '
" _
P?9'-'
CERTIFIC,HE
,Q, CI< [; OL! L EDG Ei'l Ef·jT
ABr.:R cv lAT IONS
1
INTR ODU CT l ŒJ
'?
PAron
l
A sketch of TrallsfOl'li1.qtion,?l Th o or y
19
PAR T I l
Syntax
l 1. 1 •
~H_B..E.!~~_.A:
Phr 3S e S tr u ct ure Ru l 2S
I1.1.A.1
Dl:finiti.on
·..
Z?
II.1.A.2
Sentence
~7
11.1.A.3
f'lodé11i t.i_ DS
·..
t;ZC3
II.î.A.c'.:
In-cor jccU. Dn
31
11.1.A.5
PT e d i c» t r - [J h r aS 2
S~
IIi1.A.6
VEr b - Phr ? s 8
34-
II,i ..!\\.7
VGrbé11
~b
I1.1.:~.8
38
11.1 . ,L 9
39
Ir.1.,~.1IJ
Prepo~itional
phrase
41
I1.1.A.11
ML xil ::,31 y-group
4~
IL1.A.1;:
Ad vl?rbiéJ l-claus 1':
4t:=>
11.:1
CHAPTER
8 :
45
11.1 • R • 1
Verbs
41:>
IL 1 • [3. 2
V. inh+
NP ::-,çj
·..
4b
l 1. Î • S • 3
V . i nt...+
r,IPag
+ Ôai:ivE
·..
4tJ
11.1 .8 . /.:-
\\1. i nt r
+ Er + dative
47
•
•
"1'1

---

,
i i )
II.1.8.5
V.tr.c'i.r + r,lPa9 (obj)
••.
47
11.1~O.G
V • t r
+ (0 b j ) + d Cl fi v ~Ù + NPa 9
48
11.1 .8.7
V.. tr + Er + (obj)
48
11.1.[1.8
V.in. + Er
49
II .• 1.8.9
V"t r .+ Er
+ d
J2
Cl t i \\1
)
49
11.1.8.11]
V.tr + Er + dative
49
.
.
(2 1
'. I I . 1 • [; . 1 i
V.tr + datlve
+ NPag
SD
1L1.D,12
V.tr + Er + Ag + (obj)
5"0
1I.1.C.13
V.tr + Er + A~ + obj
S-I
11.1.0.11j
V.tr + ~ative + ~Pag + obj.
5"1
II . 1 • [) . 1 :1
T en S 8 - mClr k e r
a n d A5 Pe c t .- ma r k 2 r 5
'56
11.1.0.16
Te ns e-jnar k e r s
57
1101.3.17
ASPect-markC'rs
bD
11.'1.18.18
Aspcctual-verbs,
Co~ula-ûerbs
b~
Cl nd
Mai n
v 8 r b S
1J,1.u.1fJ
Pi
b:>
S P CC tua l.
v c rb s
· ..
l 1. 1 • [l, • 20
Co pu La-c v e r bs
71
1L1.[;.f 1
Cldjr=ctiv:-:s
74
11.1.:J.22
DescriptivE adjectives
74
1I.1.8.~3
Demon8t~ativ~ adjecti~Es••.
,
~5
IL 1 • C • f4
Possessive adjectivEs
78
11.1.8.25
t"Jg
Numeral adjectives
11.1.8.2 6
Indefinite adjectives
80
IL1.F) .27-
Int2rro']2ti vs: a dje ctivGs •••
8D
II • 1 . Ii • 28
Advcrbs
·..
Si
1l.'I.~L29
Conjojnin[~ ptJrtid e s
·..
. -
~
I l • 1 • B • 3CJ
PreP 0 p i 2 i t i cm
· ..
88
I l • 1 • G • ~31
ri 0 un El
· .'.
11.'1. 'J. 32
Pr oriouns
·..
11.1.0.33
Psrso,'lé]l Pr oriou ns

---

( iii )
11.1.0.34
Demonstrative pronouns
fil
I1.1.B.35
Interrogative pronouns
Hi
11.1 • B• .3 0
Possessive pronouns
·..
II~
11.1.8.37
Reflexive pronou ns
·...
, J4-
II.1.l:J.38
Relative pr oo ouns
Il S-
IL 1 • B. 39
1ndefinits pronouns
119
11.1.8.40
SuprasE'C]mental phonemes • ••
\\19
1 1 .1 •
CHAPTER C:
Le xi c o n
I~D
r 1. 2.
CHAPTER 0:
Transformational rules
17g;
Notion
11.2.0.1
of transformation •••
Itt4
11.2.0.2
Negation transformation •••
1t7S-
11.2.0.3
Question transformation '"
IB9
I1.2.D.4
Predicatc:~subject agreGmont
~17
Person-AfFix-S8Qment
II.2.0.5
trans-
formation
...
11.2.0.6
P 8 r son - Aff ix - S il i f t t r ans -
formation
...
II.
Flip-Flop-rule
2.0 .7
transformation
11.2.0.8
FI i p- Flop - r u1ie; Env a d v- pla c 8
or in Env of pronominalized
r~p.Obj8ct
...
11.2.D.9
Nl-J-Subject de1etion
t r a ris f
...
0 TIn a t iron
11.2.D.11]
NP-Subject d81stion transfor-
mation: ambiguity in
surface structure
11.2.0.11
NP.Object placement trans-
formation
•••
Nominalization tran3formation

---

(
i v )
II. 2.0 • "1-3
Pronominalization transformation
353
11.2.0.~14
~81ative Clause
•••
3b~
II.2.0.1,5
Reflexivization
•.•
.374-
II.2.0.16
Imperative transformation ••
377
IL :' • D• ,1 7
Noun-phrase complement
3~/7
11.2.0.18
Co o r rt i n at.Lon
S9g
II.2.0.19
Comparative clauses
•..
40 B
11.2.0.20
Su~ordination and adverbial
claUSes
4Z7
11.2.0.21
Passivization
...
4'32.-
11.2.0.22
NP-twinning-transformation
43g
II.2.0.23
Elliptical sentences
444-
PAR T III
Phonology
44B
111.1.
CHA PTER E:
Phonolorical system
449
IIb-O
III.1.E.a
VOWE Is
1.
111.1.E.b
Consonants
...
4S-B
111.2.
CHAPTER F:
Phonological Rules
490
Morph[iT1B Structure Rules .•.
491
III.2.F.b
Readjustment Rules
49B
II1.2.F.c
Plor pho phcn om Lc Rules
~o5
PAR
. . .
T IV
Sample SGntences
53;?;
o
..
lB LlO CR APHY
. '
'557
1
1
**~***
***-lH(-
**',i-
*

---

1
ABBR tv lAT l m,lS
A
·..
anill1ate
Abs.
ahstr8ct
ACClJs.
o c cus a t i vc
Ac1eJ1t.
• ••
a rJ i:li t i v 8 / /
/
·.. (J cl '
J' p
/
!/l: i Il e
(
_'./'
'~Cl j • P
·.. 2dj~ctive phraSE
·... adverb
Aidv.c:'.
·.. advr2rbia~ clause
3dvE'rb 0 f place
A, r , 1 a f.
• ••
A9./ a <J '
Aig. s
·..
~Qentive subject
·..
·.. aSpect
·..
,01 S pee t
in a r k C:l'
Asp.,).
aspectual
verb
·..
assertivE
p, ,1 • J IJ ;( •
?SPEct-tense auxiliary
,ll,u x.
au x i Li.a r y
/0..uxltaf.
auxili3ry affix
;'ux.C.
·..
auxil.iary grouD
au xi Li a r y \\Jerb
beric f a c t.i V8
DC'fl- I
Inner benefactive.

---

2
De n ,0
·,.
Outer b8nefactiv8.
Cardo
Cardinal
C• F • P • '~ • C•
·.,
Context Free Phrase structure
CrafTtrnal'
(
-:
f"
~ .
l .
·..
L
D c:) '\\ C\\. \\ \\[\\ l::'\\ '; 1 r' \\.-,
Collect ivs
Corr.
Common
Camo.'
ComlTland
Comp.
Cor.: par Ls on
Comp.p
·..
Comparison Particle
Cane.
Coner E t
Corirt ,
·..
ConcJitional
Ccm j .
Conjoinr::d
li
• . •
=onj.Co.
Con junc ti vs c oo r d i na t i (!]n
Conj.P.
·.,
Conjoininç partiels
Conj .s.n..
·..
Conjunctiv8 Subordinetion
Cop.
·.
Copula
CorEL
Co r c f o r entd a l
Count.
·.. CountablG
Qef.
Defi::i te
Dea.
· ..
D egr SE
DeL
Deletion
DEm.
·.. Demonstrative
Descriptive
DeL
·.
Determiner
,
oil'.
·.. Direct
n/erQ.
·..
Er qa t i v e

---

3
::.: III pil.
·.
Empb as is
I~. S
E:r~b edd cd 5 ent srrc G
Eth.
·.. Ethnies
Excl.
·..
·..
FemininE
c:pnit.
.. ..
QcnitivE
C:,. C •
·..
H/hum
·.
Habo
• ••
T
·..
Ina n i. rn a t e
1.
Imp.
·.
• •
Irir' ir oct
·..
Inclefinite
Ln d i v .
·..
Injunct
InjL!nctio n
•
}
0
Incot.
·..
Lne t r urre nt a l
l nt ~.
·.,
Interrogativc
I d .i-
·.
In t r •
Intransitive
i<
·.
Kinship
L
·..
Li vi n q
r1 an
·..
r'lan n er
f"las c ,
·..
rlasculin8
·.. r"i 0 da lit Y
nod.
ri. V.
·..
nain
\\Jerb
:...

---

~1. v.
·.
·..
~JatJ n
·..
Il. /.\\9 • s.
NDn-8~elltivc subjcct
n·,tht.
·..
Nb.
·.
~J urnb 1'.'1'
f'Je.
·..
Cornmo n ~JoLJn
Ncg_
• ••
rJEQ.p
·.
NègatiJn Partic1e
Ncu t ,
i
• •
~JGuter
n , H.
NOIl-human
•
•
0
• •
r~ 0 n -1< i nshi p
Il. l .
·.. ~J0 n-i; \\/i n9
·..
i~om. Pl' EL: •
·..
~ominal predieatc
r~o un phr as 8
NP. «.ÇJ.
Aqentibe floun
phraSE
~! • p r •
Prop::;r noun
~! urr: •
·.
r:umeral
Obj.
·..
Ob jlJet
Orel •
.. Ordinal
Dr Lq ,
·.
Oric;ine
Prcdicatc phrase
P Er s. 8 f •
FErs On élfFix
PC;Ts.Pn.
·.
Pcr~;onal Pronoun
Pl. / f
Place
Plul'.
·.. Plurol

---

5
P. marker
·.. Phrase marker
PrOhoun
•
•
0
Ponet.
• ••
Ponctual
Po s•
POSS"SSiVE
P"Q
v. ", ('.. "'. \\. '-':"-
<, _\\ (' or,
~,' "c, '"
\\
'-- ,)
,
' ' \\
\\ '
..,"-" ,,-
JU:::J1lt
Cuantity
QUEst
·.
'?uE'stion
·..
Rel.
·.. Relative
·.. Remote EqLJc:l.Lly
Rem-lEssE'r··H
... , .
REmot6-18ss~r
to hcarsr
s.
Sent E' n CE'
5 r~ l f • P c. l'In ~. s •
·..
S€l
f
permissive.
Sinq./SQ.
Singüla r
Sociat.
·..
S oeia t iVe;
Spat-loc.
·..
lPotial loc~tion
Sq.Km
SquarE Kilometer
....
.
\\
,..
'.
'..'
~ ~ .; , ', .~-, ,';",
SuiJj.
Subject
/ ' 1
SU P c"t',i. " •
SuperlativE
T
·..
Art.iclE
TE'mp-l oc.
Tem~oral location
T.G.
Transformational
Gcncrntlv8 Grammar
"rr •
Transitiv~
TY~n.
Ts-m
·..
Temse marker
U.~,I.E.3.C.O
·..
lf n i t cd
~JaticJnS
Scientific and
Organization.

---

6
v
·.. Verb
VG
Verbal
VP
·.. Verb phrase
Vst.
·.. Verb stEm
***

---

7

---

8
1 ô o.
Summ;:HY:
Wolof,
a lJcst-,~rriC2n languaç;c lJithin the f r arn r; uork of
ChomskYGn TransfDrmation~l Thlory bEin~ popular for ths lost
Thsrc 2r~ fou~ parts in this thSS1S, lJhich
a r C as
follolJs:
1 • 1 •
Part-I~
A skEtch
of transfotmational ThEory
In this Part 13 prcsEntcd a sketch ~f TréJnsfor~ational
The 0 l' Y ~l S Pr [) pou n clcel b y Ch0 ms k y, a n cl d [ v col 0 PGd b Y h i man d hi s
f 0 11 0 lJ e r s
l i kr:: ,l. ,i • rD Li 0 r ; J. J . 1<::, t z ; J.O. r'ic Ca LJI l y;
ct c •
Thi~ Sk2tch as it stands ts only 2 broad outlin~ of Transfor-
ma t i on a I Theory 80 much 80 tint only s",lü,nt
fc=aturcs of the
th Bor y ;J r c cles cr i b ccl.
1 .2.
P~rt-II:
Syntactic ComponEnt
This part presents
various types of rulEs
intsndc=d
div i c:J :::d i Il C0
t \\.,/0 su:, PéJ r t s ,
vi;:.
P 2 r t - II. 1 a Il cl
P;:1 r t - Il. 2•
Part-II.1. 15 thE haSE subcomponcnt.
It cornp r i s s s thru
Chaptcr, lJhich arc QS
follolJs:-
Chaptsr A: PhrasE Structure
Ru.l c s ;
ChéJpbcr 8:
.SubcateçorisationaJ,: Rules;
Chapt!?r C: L8XicOi:.

---

9
In the lexicon is ~ivcn sid~ by side the se~antic reprcscnta-
tian of the lexical items.
Patt-II.2 16 the transfor~ation81
c ompnn rnt ,
It corresponds to Chapt3r O.
Part-III
:
Phonological Camponent
This p~rt d8scribcs thp phonological system of Wolof
and presEnts rulcs to generatc the so~nd pattern of Wolof.
This part includes tlJO ChaptErs: 1)
C/lapc2r E: Phonological
System; 2) Ctiap t r r
F:
Pho no Lo o i ca L Rules.
This Chapter
comprises the following thre8 subdivisions:
(a) Morpheme
s t r u ct urE r u l cs j
b) Rl: 3 d jus t rn en t
r ules il n d c ) Mor [l hop h0 n cm i c
r ules •
1 .1+
Part- IV
SêJ;nplc ScnteoncGs
In this
rart soms samplc sentences of Wolof arc
gcncrctcd by applying the rulcs
of thE present grammar.
This is intcndcd to show thE Qcnerativc capacity of the T.C.
qr amrn a r and, t h c r cb y to indicotc the t hs or a t i c a L Vé:llidity or
Transformational ThGory.
r
2.
Ur, ~o} .~.r; .~~.fl_(l~_~ÇL~__
2.0.
Wolof i8 incl~dcd in the West-Atlantic l2nguage Rroup.
lt is spoi<en ill Serl'~çéJl, tl/LJese-Africz1n country, sit~!(:/tec:
~pproxim~Jte.lY b~ttJee.n 1iJ· ::.:nLi 1 u· north La t i tLlé~:e, anéJ? tJ"ëtlJee'!
1 2·
a nd 18·
lJestern Loriq i t u dz ,
The. area of S er1eQ ~Jl is ~J 1 r-] • /!JJ ".~
~ 1
e qv kn: ,
The country is di \\JÜ;e r
Ln t u eiclht
,
r

---

10
r [' 9 ion s.
n a [Tl (0'1 y;
CCl p. VCl r t;
Th i es; Sin e - Saloum; 0 i 0 u r bel;
Lou CJ 3;
FIc: u v e ;
Cas n ma n c G iJ n cl S I? n 8 g a 1- 0 r i CJ n t al.
As
rGgard
1
the areB where
Wolof is
spokGn,
Sauvageot'says
thus
Djo1of
o~ ii est en contact marçinal ~vec le
le Cayor,
la
Presq0ile du
Cap. Vert.
I l Sc mEl€?
aU Serer ou le cotoie
dans
le Ndyander,
lc Ba o l,
dala
vo i« ferrÉr: i<aolack-Tambélcounda.en Pays
dyo12,
particuli~rcmcnt Jans la circonscription
d '
Ous s ou y r .
En
Cambie,
on l'y rencontre
sur la
rive:: nord du
f Lau v e. ainsi
qu'à
Bathurst
ct
dé3ns
lES
c n vi r oris
immcdiats
de
cette
villc '12
S ev c l' a 1. . l a n Qua g ES
arE
s po k l:: n in S ~ n ~ gal,
v iz •
Wo l (;) f ~ Se: r E : l';
TLJ k ul'Ër;
P'c'l;
r'l a : nd a.=' n ; Je: la;
r'l an j a : k ;
- -
.'
"'--0
So:ninkae.
Apart
From
thcsc,
WB
C6n
also mention
the
1 •
Cu r r G n t Tr c n cJ s i n Lin Cl LI i s tic s ,
Vol. 7,
1 9 7 1,
r:]0 LJ Je 0 ri, P • 57 •
2.
In SEflcgal,
it
i5
t r ac ro
ii)
Walo a n d
j o l o f
uh cr e i t is
û
in
mar~ina1 contact with toucouleur-Peul,
in
Candyol,
i'!,:yamhour,
Cayor,
Pr rqu ' île
du
Cap. Vert.
Tt mi n o l cs
with SErcr
Dr gogS by its side in Ndyandcr,
Baol,
Saloum.
Tt5
pr s s e n c s
is a tt ee t c d a l L (Jlon~J kaolFlck-
Tambacounda railway,
in
dy~la arCB particul~rly in
Oussouyc:: d i st rf ct..
In Cambia,
i t
is,tr~cecJ in the
n[lT'tI;Je...tlfl.. bank
of
the river
and alé"~ .trI G.a..thurst and in
the
lmiTlE'diatc
vicinity
of U-,i'5 city. '/";':'é.\\~4F,\\I,.",.
~~2~(~:~-"~<
(R. "--:" /i.;
!
.
1
\\ .
(',
1
r':'
, 1 . . . ;
i
\\
•
\\
"
1
- ' .
·i"..
\\
" / (-~,;"I
'.
""
..,'/ .:?-)
~ <',<, "--~
.. ~ j/
'rt
\\)\\ <./
, ;r..'';rsuP8~\\~-;9~'
·_'~:::.~~Y·

---

Il
following minority lanquaQ~5'
b a l an t ;
méJlJka:n
'-~
-
Accordin~ ta the rEccnt Ccnsus, out of 5 millions persons,
Wo lof i s s po ken b y LjO y.; , 5 e r c : r h y 1 9%; P'Ël 1 2%; tu k ul'e·r 9 %
'1S it Can bc: SGEn a/Jobs, Llolof Ls ,
i n Sen 6 c; al.
It i5 spoken not only by
its oun speakers but
also by other linguistic groups.
2. 1 •
As it i8 a weIl known fact, 5eneqal Was a
French
Colony and got its indGpcnd~ncc only in 1960.
Bef Ore it
e n t cr oo that nCIJ Er a , the nat i v c lanQu~ges wcre co n t rrnp t uous Ly
called Vernacular langu8çes and WGrG neQlectcd therEby.
50
not quitc optimistic oF th~ F~tc of thcir own lançuag~s.
2.2.
':'ftc'~ s r v c r o L r.o unt r-Lc s cb t a i n r r' Illdc;pcndencf
in
o f
the ln •
I n the b r r: i n ni nIJ, t il (-, éJ i m w<J s n 0t
wc; Il u ncl e-r s t 0 IJ ci •
As far ~s Scneçal is concorncd, it sccms that the objcctiv~
was to te8ch the people, gcncral1y villagcrs,
the latin
alphabet, :;0 th,:::t t hcy cou l d for examp Lc uri te: thcir n arn c s ,
rOde: adcircssc:s,
c:Jlculatc in French system, o rid , t h cr o f or e

---

12
cou l rJ
s c ~ l
the .i r
C] r .'" in s
w.i t i ._, LI 1: b CC' i n g exp l 0 j t cd. Sen cg Elles E'
have' s t i l l in mine!
"L'
Ecolr: 2 la RadiCJ.;;
But SOCJfl,
the
au t ho r Lt irs
rCé"lizr?cl
th2t i t
\\,laS
no t
the right
ua y ,
ThUS,
with the hclp of international
organization such as
U.N~E.S.C.O,
the probl(~r;; LJélS t a ck l.r d u it h more vision.
Yct,
latin s c r i pt s
lJere
ret,'lined f':lr
the tr'JnscriptiCJn
:::f Sene.gale.se l3ngu8Qes
1lJ1ith s orn - mo o i f ica t i ons h c r r and t.r.c r c dUE to t h c diffcrcnccs
bEtlJEEn the phonological s y s t crns
of
French and S(è(lEç;alcsG
langueQr?s.
To
revivr? and r~vitaliz8 our langu2QGS the apPGl-
u 1
La t i on
"lanQUGs
n:'ltilJnalcs
ua s substitutcd
for
the
pr c vi cus
~ctually, thlrc is n~ JifFcrcnKe, but for the
Psycho-:Jocio-linC'uistic asPect
t,/hich Fronch
colonizcrs
Evcn
thouç;h LJE
find a
rlûatively numerous
IJorks
dr?alinç LJith the languages sf Scnegal,
chicfly Wolof,
LJC have
to bG~r in mlnd the sim nf thcir authors.
'\\s Dr.
P a t h 5
DiaQr1c says
in
the introduction
of his IICrammaire de ~olof
1.
National
langu3~cs
3.
Cr am.o a i.r e' cJcWolof rlodo:n1c,
Pa t h o Oiagnc, Presence
Africciinc 1971,
P.
15.

---

13
'ID~ fait, 1\\
effort accompli a dac'antaqc été
oriente vers l~ traduction d~s rtalit~s du Wolof
ou du
lat in, selon la formation des auteurs,
qu 1 à
urie description du s ys tcm o lui-mÊme.
L•••• .")
En p1'atiq'.'G aucune
:~,tudC' pub Ld r « depuis lors
. ,
ct quctle que fut Sa qualité
.n a.
3 notre avis
cch:'pp~ .' à cette erreur de: m~thodo. li
This bcing the situation, onE can r8alisE thE type
of bu1'deh bcing cJ1'ricd on by the Ministry of Education on
the one hand y and ScncQ 31esc linQuists
on the other hand,
who h~vQ ta proviJc the nation with the systematically
ur Lt t cn and seientifically ol'Q2nizcd books on
tJoloF, 5c:re:1',
Pula:1'
EtC.
Of cou1'3e, wc could note many bocks such as:
- Grammair
Uo Lo f ,
ou m~thodo pour
~tudicr la
_~~.ngy.~_~, r S I\\J 0 i l' S •
Darc:. J.
Paris 1(]26.
-
La Det€rmination
~n Wolof
Ramb;]nci J.B.,
Paris 1838
- ~~.m.~~.i.r..c.~~~..~_§.. _~_?.n.E~g_ !J~.~~ VE
Boilat (2bbo); P3ris 1855
-
Principe de la langue voloFe
K0 b c s
['1 gr;
Par i s 1 8 5 8

---

14
-
Grammaire de le IHngu2 volofE
st J 0 5 c ph de
NGa~o~il 1869
~ Grammaire elcmentBipQ dE la l2ngUB ~~loff2
' ..•-
... _. .. ," -"-"'-'-"--"-' "...'. ~ -'--~- ...... ~-_.-._- """,-~-_.,,- ._-'.... --.--~ ._--"'~'- -,,-
3pcisSEr roL; St Joseph de Neasobil 1888
- La lanGuE Wolof
Rambaud,
J.8.
19~3
and st i Ll rnor r ,
Uu t
t hs valuE o f s u c h b Lb Li o qr a phy LJould b s
mostly
intcrcsting only From the historieal point of vicLJ.
The LJorks wcrc donc by Civil Officcrs and Missionaries most
of.LJhom tuoka
prûcustean attitude,
EVEn unLJillingly, ta
LJ l' i t Eth e f·
CJ l' a mrn (J~} a f
W0 lof •
Uc have come to rcalize that the dcstiny of our
lanQua~cs dcpcnds much on the lin~uists of the country than
on for ci ç'n s cho Ls r s.
Re Qal'i! i nc]
the rnod cr n b ib li 0 gr aphy of
LJ 0 l 1] f ,
i t rn 2 y b eth I n , but Il o t i n s i Qnif i c a Yl t •
L.J cha v i? t h s
t ion s :,i p bE, 7ld C c: n LJ 0 lof a nc: d l' a vi dia Il 1;:] nQua 0 C S 0 f C. T
__
0
_._.,
__ _
.~
~-_._ .._.~~._.- ----_
".-. " - ' - ' - "
._._ ~.
.._::.- .._::..-
NDiayc 1977; ~Jotc sur Il '(volution du svs ts mc \\.local iQue d'....'
---_.-~-_. __
__.~.- _ __ .-._. __. _.>-.~-~-~~~~..'..-..~--
- -~.- .'-_.-.-.._-_
_~-
-
W~.1..oL of r'Îadamc c.;.I'JOiayc (corrcard); and t h c LJorks of
Prof. Ca l vc t ,
Wc could also quotc othor 'LJorks sueh a C' •
-=> •
Uolof s t Scre:r. Er ud rs de Phonétique ct cie
or8mmairc descriotivc
~- '. "--"- _.-..~~~"-~,--'._-----' ----~---.-----..
Siib j::.' Dak,"Jro

---

15
.f?_~i?-~~.P_~_~_~!:_Sxnchro_n.i_qu_e __d.~__u.n. d.i.a_l_e_c_t.~_ LJolof: le
parler du
Dyolof.
Sauvéigeot,S
(1965) Dakar
:
I.~-.iJ,.,J.
_~'2.tr_(J_[}_~c::_~_o_r)'_ .C 0. L:J.fs.e in o.~.k.a.f .w 010 f '.
Steward, LJ; Ba b ou ,
C;
Pedtke,
Do
81~<Ji1. (1966)
LJashington,
D.C.
C.ILL.
Wa la f
flCl.-~_c::_~a2...s_i_f.i. c_a_tj_~_I]._ :__tb.e_ .s_'2..~L~}_.~e_~. t i ng 0 f
.~j._V_13_r...9.ê..'2t._c_~.?_ rlQe.
Judith T.
Irvine Br a nrie r s
Universit y
50, when u o came
to u or k ,
in the
field
of Li nqu i s t Lc s ,
it ua s
genuine, as i t wars,
that we
tried ta give o~r contribution.
We thought
of writing
f or our
Ph.D.
dissertation a
Transforma-
t Lo na l
Cenerative Crammar
of wolof to de s c r i.o e ~Jolof u i t h.i n a
new
theoretical
frame
namely Chomsky's Transformational Theory.
3.0.·
ûu t cornn
----"--_..
[ver since
the advent of the Chomskyan Transforma-
t i o na I
Theory ill the
field
of Li nqu i s t Lc s , many La riquaqo s ,
pr ariorn.i na nt â y Eu r op aan ,
have b e o n analysed u i t h i n the frame
W 0 r k
0 fT. G.
wi t!l
f d i r l y 13 U d 3 b 1 e r e sul t s •
Tho !-' t; h LJ url l i n
U. ::i • iJ, .,
the T. G.
h ëJS t r ans C[:J' n d e d the At l a nt i C S 8 a boa l' dan d
spread
av e r s e a s.
The
impact
of LG.
ha s
b o e n 50 deep that
i t has invaded institutions of highly
learning ~nd ros8~rch,
not only in Li.S.Ii. but a l s o in Europe.
The
imprint of its
influer,ce
can be seen in France through the
follOLJing observd-
tian made by
no
loss a
po r s on
t ha n Prof. Claude l-Iag8g8
:

---

16
iôLC5
a u t r r s
thé·"ci,C':,;;
curent ;:1USél IL
t o r t
de ne
Pas
FCJl'rrlir de i'r:p--::nsQ
à la Eicr:;andc d r s maitrcs j
d~ sorte qUE les aJaptations du
aux classEs de grammaire
françaisL
curent lE
ch", mp
Cl
peu
prè S
l i h r l~,
. . . "
3 • 1 •
nlthough all the dcvL10~cd languages have bcen
analyscc; in the
T.G.
péJttcrn,
hordly
a
handfLll
of ,;fric.:Jn
lançu2r;es
have
c vrr
profit,-,-j b y
this
acJvantaC]c.
SCJ~ whcn
wc thought
of writinQ QUr Ph.O.
dissertation
wc,
in our
j
t ur n , [Jantce! to test hOcJ féJr Chums kv ' s TransformatiCJn('Jl
The 0 r y
COL! l cJ b caU ri i v crs éJ l
li Il c: u i s t i c t h c: 0 r Ji s
b Y éJ P ply in Ç]
i t
t 0 Uo l 'J F wli i c h i s a d c v cl 0 pin c: le']rl Qua Q e h éJ vi ,1 c; (u, S Cil ti a 11 y )
a merc status of oral tradition.
This i5
the more
tc~pting
for us)
becausc thi,:
.i s
the
f i r st
time that
)JoloP,
an kfrican
lan~L'a!3e .i s ,-=]n3J.Y2::::: h c r c +-hr'~'LH~h an ultra modern Li nou i s t i c
thcory,
uith'J1...'t usin9 tra=Jiti::Jnal
Cr amrna r s
baSc2d on GrGc.::k
and L;Jl~jn.
The rl~ultD ~btain€d at the end of our analvsi~
shou t hat a c:;re.atel' riurnh er o f
(;frican lanQuage.")
~an p r o f i t ab Ly
m<l [< e lJ s e Clf the T. C. cl t a l' i ln e. lJ li en m0 s t
0 f
th eJ'i
:) r e. l i k cl Y
t 0 b E. h Cl i s t e.d t D th 12. 5 t a t LI S 0 f
0 f fic i a I l a Il g lJ a g ça i n
s u b s t i t lI-
tion of the Foreign langu 3ge.S
intrr]duced b y the t h en
Coloni~l Auth'Jrities.

---

17
c
ln
of t
a T. c.
tCJ
t
te..
T b
Q [ J f . 1 I l i c < ' : 1 U
h
W o l o f
h a p p
e n s
o
qui t e b l i 5 5 f u I ï and s Ci,
c a n f ,) i r l y con f i ri n t h l
U n i ver S <'1 l e I CI i [Tl
that the T.C. i5 0 m8st scientifie linguisti c approaeh.
.':;S
3
ma t trr
of filct,
the Li nqu i s t
f~anfred Bier~Jisch s ay s t hu s
"lJhat Chomsky h as
in mind [ •••J is a t h ro r y o f
langua9€
which attcmpts not merEly to d~scribe or
arrange observable linçuistic data according to
ccrtain systcmatic criteria, but rothcr cxplains
such d~t~ on the basis of sssential principlcs
undorlyinQ the cognitive e~pacity of man as it
mar,ifests itself irJ natural lanç)uagQ.,,1
3. / •
Now, on~ Can weIl imagine the bonefit, the developing
l a n9 ua 9 cs 0 f /4 f r 5_ Co C3 n ,ha ve b ;' ex [Jloi tin C) the T. l.~ •
142 far
as
Wolof is co nc cr n ed LJe: hOPe t hat this t h rs Ls , on the one hand,
may QO 0 lon~ way in the improv~mcnt ~f language tC3ehing On
all Le vc Ls on ecJueati~Jn, and CJn thc o thc r h arid , e cc e.l er e t e
thQ qrouth of lit~raey in SensQal.
Wc would bc the more
d c Lj qh t or: if tliis ,<)rk c ou Ld .i n s p.i r c other lincu.lsb3 l~
Scncgal ts undcrtakc further ~nalyscs within thE framcwork
of T.G.
The status oF our national languages
will surcly bc
Li f t so , uhrn e8ch a nrl [very 5cncga1;:)se Li n nu i st br i.riq s his
Nccdlcss to say that
what i6 s~iJ for
1. Ccncr:Jtivc r.r3n'r'~;1r in Europe cc , by
F.Kir.::fcr
and N.Ruwct 1
1973,
P.71.

---

18
Wc ar~ confident th2t
the r~2ults UL have arrivcJ et through
this neu linguistic approach u i Ll.
dCJ
th:::
needful.
DG facto,
i t is .i nt er es t i n c ,
for
.ins t anc c,
te notice t hr structllre of
Passive sentenCE'
in Wolof,
which has
led us t~ suçccst th~
introduction of ~ n~val notion likc strong versus wcak passi-
vizati8n.
Similorly intercsting
is
th~ fact rc~arding the
thin c1e2r-cut distinction bctuccn Relative Clause or Rela-
t i vc
p;::Œticiplc 2nd a mo j o r
c ot c o o r y c on s t i t u t r-d b y N + i\\dj.
p h r n om r n on
of îJP.SlI.hjcct-dc:lctLJIl;
El
r:;rc,]tcr l i s t of phon cmi c
Li s t i n q hc r c n cu .i s
the o c our r c nc c of an dd\\Jcrb-subcatcgory,
n~mcly, the su p cr La t Lvc ad\\Jcrb, uhich \\JC bclicvc tu b c
peculiar tu Wolof.
4.0
As a final word of apolOBy W~ would likc ta say
something ab8ut
our limitations
with regard
to
our
EnQlish
In this
thesis
translati:'Jn of our CCI'IJU5
!
.
f"!·Dr.~
lJ0 1;] f t [J
En Ci l i5 h ma y he r c and t h c r G pre 5 en t
s 0 rn c i mp cr f cc t La n6.
This
.i s b ccaus c LIe- h8VC b cin 811 a Loric cduc at r d in French
t:Jught
Ençlish only a s
a SccCJnd lenç:;uagc, if n o t
3
t h i r d
lanqu~Jgc, in an cnlJirollrncnt whcrc ori, h as Olle c:haflcc Qut o f
hun dr c d 1:8 cornmun i r-nt :
in
En o Li s h ,
So our c105:--':
farûli:::;I'ity
with French and
Wolof ~3Y scmctimcs bc inadvcrtcntly dctri-
mcn1:i:,l
te.:; UUI'
Erl!~l Lôh u s ane ,

---

19
********************-ll:-*********'k-x-*****
*
*
*
*
*
PART
l
*
*
*
*
A SKETCH UF
*
*
TR/-\\ I~S FORMA T l OI~A L
*
*
*
*
THEORY .
*
,
....:..
******~****************~********f~***
.\\
.\\
.'

---

20
OnG moy
wonder
why at
a
time when Tr8nsformational
Thpory is subjGct t~ controvcrsjc5, wc propose oursG1VGs to
ûr amma r
ur i t r: FI Tr nn sf cr mo t Loria I
CGncrativ~_;üf Wolof.
The question,
no cloubt,is ps r t Lru.n t ,
and coulel
commit us
to ,'1
v i n d i cz t o r y
comment.
Out,
instoad,
wc will
confine oursGlvcs in quotinQ
Nci l 3 mi t Il,, n cl 0 Pi r d r e
!Ji l son who arc s ,'") yin 9 t h tJ S :
"Tt u ou Ld be a mi6t?~C to t h i nk t ho t
the currcnt
statc of controvcrsy within gcncrativc grammAr mcans
th~t the
uo r k of
the Las t
twenty y e-ar s
is
beinç; ahandonnccJ
wholeeals.
The classical mJdel of
ttansform8ti~nal gramŒdr (And its
various
cxtcnsi~ns) uncovc~ed a qrcFlt wcalth Gf facts and
r r La t i cn s h i p;
o n c' f o r
th::
f i r s t
t Lmc pr o v.i dr d an
cxplicit
OVlr{lU
t!lC~:JrY wi't1l1n LJhich 5uch filets r c c civcd not o r.Lv a
d
. t'
b
t
t'
'1
l
t , , 1
cscrlp l~n
u
8
por
la
exp ~n8-1Qn.
l • 2.
Turnin3 nClJ té!
our s ub j r c t ;
,,~ gencrativc grammar
as
c1cfincd by
Chomsky is lié] s ys t cn o f
rulcs
that
in s orn o
oxplicit ond wcll-Jefined w~y assions structurpl dcscripti~ns
~v..ICAïN1},:-~
If
,
-
t 0 sen t cne cs.
Suc h ~ gr 3 mm2 r w;l. Il ?e-~(i;J~ b-l-o--u s l'I;{'O e 8 p t LIr e
,f'~(
<, >~\\\\
,
'
.
I;~
\\
;-~'\\
"
r cÇjulat)..~.€s 0 f the l: l ven lan ç; u a9 t ,9;qnldct~.h,çls,c r çr:,w,lar l t J_cS for
I~~';:':
)"'1]
~:.. \\
' r - ' _ .
1
~N
many
pE::TSonS are hidL:en by the surfa'cy phcnomic,Q2 of ne tuai
.\\...............
/<...~:
S pcc c h "'~ •
no s (J. y, p c 0 fJ l c h a V ::: 0 n l y ;]n~,t'~'i~tive k n 0 wl cd Cl c
of
thcir langua(]Q..
1.
'2D~~rn~~_~ÇjuJ:'~~,~c:~_ (The ~csults of Chomsky's Rcvo~uti~n)
NL l
S ml th a n c~ 0 G'l r d r ~ lJ11 s::Jn,' 1 9 79,
P. 1 2 3 .

---

21
Writing 8 grammar.
thcn is nothing but p~inting out
the rat.i'~ln:,l c o unt rr pr.r t of t h i s intuitive knoLJlcdgc.
LlhGthcr
we ref~r ta thE grammar of Cl language as b~ing the intuitive
knowlc:dQ€
or t hc raticlnéJl knowlcdQc!? thet a pcr~::on po s s cs s cs
rcqardin~ his language, it i8 obvi~us thot the autonomous
u s ao r: th:jt li;. rn ak rs of t ho t LlnguaQc i5 not ;=JIlJays the
standard one.
Unlcss wc ste placcd undcr some c~nstraints,
lJe rarcly submit oursclvcs tG the rigours of our lpnguagc.
The common attitude of speakers tow~rds their languages could
be qualthect as ~"'êlrchic,'Jl b c ha vi ou r ,
The speaker, 50 t o S.3Y,
b r i no s
the L,ngllClQe. to his o i.rn c~)nveniE'nce and rn:JY dCl SO 3S
far il 5
il ü; lin gui s 1: i c co mrnu nit Y p r.r rn i t s i t •
T h us, :J n 3 c tu al
linQuistic communicatiDn i8 hQterogcncous since it is a body
of individual 0sa~c:s of the same standard language.
The
particular usoQe o r every speaker in El Ld n çu i s t i c community
is t.r.r rnorl performance.
HiC
p r r f ur ma nc r, of a speaker,
as
it
Ca n be ~xpcctcd, i3 n~t th~n th2 countcrpart of the standard
langu8Qc that he kn~ws intuitivcly and lJhich wc. call compctc n c 2 .
Considcring th~, a judieious description of a languHQc
s hou l o bring in e ymb Los i a , n ot n tro
aspects, competence élnd
performRnce, the lottcr one b~ing dePendant ~
the former
fol'
the natural reason that i t is the by-product of the other.
NepdL~5s t o SC:Jy t ho t if, o es pi t e the Ld ios yn cr nt Lc aspect of
actual 6peeches the sPQakers bf a çiven linçuistic cDmmunity

---

22
undsrstand quit~ well each othor, it i8 cort3inly becausc
while talking and listening to each other thcY synchronically
have the support of a common lin0,uistic structure, eve n thDu~h
theY are uneware of the facto
This linguistic structura thcy
possess in cGmmon is a set of rules which gives the basic
e t r uc t ur r
of aIl thé' correct sentences o f
the o i vc n La no uao c ,
This ap parx t us , n s vr r t h oLr s s , c oc s not pr ov.i d e rcac1y-madc
sentences.
It sh~uld bc conccived 35 an abstract or a formaI
body~
The speaker thcn, in order to make use of this internaI
d s vi.c e , urro on ec i.ou s Ly Le nes himsel f t 0
a "manu factu:Iring ac t Iv i ty\\l.
Pc:rforming s':J\\":1e cpc r a t i ons or
transformations on the basic
structures, hl: QQneratcs more elab:Jrate f'o r rn s ,
It s e erns té] us,
then,
that a Crammar of a ~ivcn language which purports to bc
an adequatg descriptisn of that language should Qiv~
an
ac ccun t
of this phen om c non ,
Lakatos (1978) c on s Ld or s that Il a
grammar is a mod~l of morpho-syntactic k nou.l cdq c ac qu i r cd by
na t ive s PG 3 lo er s. "
Th i 5 l r, êl d 5 U s t ' . cl i s tin gui s h t w0 lev o l8 i nIa n 0,ua 9es,
namely, D~~p structure lev21 and SurfaCE structure level.
At
the Ocep structure lcv~l aIl informati~ns rcq~frGd for the
int[rprctation of the sentence &rc given, yct in mor[ Or le55
abstract form.
This constitufas the raW material of th~
spEech or the input.
This input undergoGs difforcnt tr2nsf~r-

---

23
mati8ns, and as an output VlI2. 9ct surface s t.ruc t ur c level.
This output constitutGs tha actual spocch, physically rGalized
as an int~rpr~tabIG chain of saunds.
Thus a Grammar requir~s not only ta bc gcnerativc
but, aIs a Transf~rmational.
A Transformational QencrativE
Grammar i8 one ~hich, givcn that the distineti~n bct~ccn DGGp
structure levei and Surface g+~ucturc level is acc~ptcd,
giv9S a 8Qt of rulcs that r~18tEs thesB t~o levels.
The sEntenC&s of the O~ep struct~re level arc gencra-
tod by a set of Phrase structure ruics.
Theorctically the set
of Phrase structure: r u I cs
c ompr Ls os
two sub s e t.a ,
viz. a set
of catcQorial rulcs and a set of 5ubcatogoriiational rulcs.
On the other hand the sentences of ~ c Surfacc structure level
arc Qcncratcd by a set of Transformaticnal rules applisd on
the input rcsultinq f r urn the. Phrase s t r uc t.ur c r ul c s ,
1.4.
The combination of thcsc threE sots of rules is the
syntoctic co~ponent of th~ Crammar.
1t i3 a wcll kno~n fact
t h a t
for e orn c linr::;uists,
thQ t cr rn Crammar is .rest:..-icted ~6
Syntax.
To our mind,
~e do think with Chomsky ~hose mcthod
1
~Πfollow in OUr work,
that Synfax is only one of the thrGd
compon en t s
of a Crof1lmar, the o t h cr tuo b o.i nq t h c SGmantic
componcnt and the Phonological componcnt.
The Syntactic com-
ponc;nLis the crE3tivc love! Of the Cr arnmar ; Phon o Laqy and
----_..--_ _----_.__ _--_ ---------_
•...
.•-_._--_
-•.. _----
1. Ex t c no crl Stancl8rd Thcory,
1972.

---

Scmantics arc the Lrrt r-r pr ct Lv r Lc vc Ls ,
Un the cr o o t Lvc
level are ~ivEn aIl the nCCGssary informations rcquireu
for the Ln t c r pr c t l vc lcvcl.
The phon r t i o r cpr es c nt.a t i on of
a sentence
.i s gi~cn by the phc no Lo oi cn l
componcnt.
The
..semantic c ornpcn r-nt is thGn r r s p o ris i.b Lu for
the s ornarrt Lc
interpretatian CJf Q sentence.

---

25

---

26
**
l 1. 1
CHAPTER A
*
*
"*
P HR AS E S TR LI CTLI RER LI L ES
*

---

Phrase-Structure Rules
27
l I . 1 • ,~ • 1
Definition
The Phrase-Structure grammar
of ~ niven language,
for
E' XOJ npL,
Wa lof,
i s o, set 0 f
Ph r ns e- S t rue t ur ( r u l 8 S wil j cil
osn sr a t e s oJ.l the possible sentences of UoI o f ,
A Phr2se-Structure rulE (PS rule) has the form
x ---.;> y 1- Z.
Th5s means
X is to bc reuritten as Y + Z.
II.1.A.2
Sentence
A 5 en t E n c (' i 5
h ,el' t: a 5 su me d
t 0
b E a n y u t t [ l' éI rl C 8
\\J il i c h
grCtfTlma...ticolly constitutes e-.- well-formeel Ineaninqful
unit.
Exx.
=1 •
xQ..c
bi
,~..
\\J
b·"··
'C-W
.
J. n n a
JOQ
+
the + bœrk
Pcx.s t
+ 3 P. S lJ •
( t ilc do Q b ,0)l' k 13 d.)
2.
xal(J3
bi
d'::ILlul:n.
child + the + run-not-3 P.Sg.P~st
(the child did
not ~un.)
3.
XGl.C
bi
b~t,J~):nn(l.,
xC'lœ
bi
dClJ.,Jul::n.
(the dog brked,
the child did not l'Ln.)
T h G ct.lJ 0 \\J e 8 x arn pIE S
f' il 0 w
t il aJ a S [' nt e n c e ma y b e E i the l'
simple or non-f'implc.
A simple s e n t e ric r
is
a sentence which
has
only one
main
verb and has
no
embedded clause.
For
examplc
1
is a.. sir.l-
pIc s8ntEnc~; 50 is 2.
On th c other
hand,
3,
tilough LJil'cn l.I.b
oris sEni:encp,
.i s
neverthelcss
f o r-rnarl by 1 + 2.
Cons equently
i t is
not e, simple; sentence.
EVen t hou oh
i t
h as
no
arub e dd s d
sentenc2,
i t has
two main
verbs.
~ctually 3 is consider0d
ta be cm:" s s rit s n or b r c a u s c i t
C'onstitutes one s i mp lrs unit of

---

28
u t t nr z nc s ,
1 CLnd 2,
if consi.dered s e prr ect e l y , are simple
sentenc2f}
independent of elLch o t h ar ,
and mO~eover h.'Jve no
relotionship.
But in 3,
tbe two clauses,
though indePendent
of e;~ch other, Gntert,3in Cl- r c I rt Lon of opposition.
This.1.s
better
exemplified in 38.
xet.C
bi
b·8tJ~,:nnC'-- LJa:nt:B
x....,L:.€
bi
d:'Jwul, : n ,
•••... J
d 0 g + t il e + b a:.r k ~ .p ;c: s Li"3 P • S g ." + but + c il i l d +
the + r un. n ob'3P S g'o"Pa..st"
0
(the dOg b~rked but the child did not run.)
Here the insertion of the conjuncti~n wé-l:nta::- determinE's the
rel~tionship existing between the two clauses.
Thu s 3Q .i s a.
non-simple sentence.
It i5 obtained by
the coordin~tion of
tuo simple s2ntenccs.
~lutatis mutandis y 3 ctls o .i s CLnon-
simple sentence cb t n.i n r d by juxt~posing 1 CUld :~.
This imp1ics
tll;1.t in 3 there is no f21ling intow·tion a:.fter
bOëw'..' :n:l;"
but
0- mere s] ight P(WSe.
The obove an:',lysis c an nOI", be presented in t h e
form of the following rule schem~t?
s
PI
b as i c senten'ce consists of a
~lodality (r~d), ~
Noljn-PhrQse (NP)a..nd Cl.. Predictl.T8. Phré'lse(Pd,P).
Illustrated
through ~ tree-di~gram this corresponds to :
....__' S,.,
~ .----
_....-'
~ld
Pd.P
Consider the sentences
4 And 5 gi00n below.
* ~hG i~to~~tion p~tt2;~7-"~ / is not an21yzed 'i-;-~~;;P18tc dct 8 5_1s
ln t hi s wor~ •.
LJ~t wc c oris Ldr-r her r: Ls rn er c Ly uhz.t c or r s s p onr's
to the
t r a o.I tlonaf folloWlniJ punc:tua..tions/ 01 ~ 1 ? /1 /
~ /0

---

29
xi: f .ï{;L.
5.
xi: f ul ,
()m'r is not hungry)
A l'epreselltation of these sentences in tree-dia.gréHils
will giVLl r o sp cc t.Lvo.l y 4ût- ~nd 5a.
4ë
9 _.._
5~
s
.
~ 1
- - - - - - - - -
.
_________ "'i
.~--'-
M~
~p
Pd.P
1f"id'-
NP
Pd.P
1
,.
l
,
,
1
1
1
:
1
1
,
l
,
1
1
~
,
1
1
1
1
\\
'
l
,
:
1
,
.1
1
<-". P 0 s i t »>
~I'T\\X.I'
xi: f
«~J'eg~.
xi:f
The above two di~grams can be present~j ~s under:
5
- - - . . ; 0
rld + NP + Pd. P
r10dalities
WB will
now discuss one by
one the other compononts
of S such ctS r~odalities 1 Noun-PhrasB,
Pr o d.i c a t e-Pbr-o.s e ,
etc.
~ may be an assEI:.tive sentence or CL non-Q9sertive
sentence.
,;n œs s er t i vr, sentence is any s an t e ric e in ,,;f-:ich
the s p or.k er gives (XJl Ln f or mrt i nn ,
It dOt=s not much m:r...tter
whether
thE inform~tion 1s positive aS
fOr instance in 6,
or
ne 9 a t i v c' a...s in 7.

---

.
'(\\j
J:~ H) 9 j: n;;:
te :te
bi ,
3D
' - '
(1 read the bookJ
7.
j:'1: r)gum~w j:n
t e t r e
bi •
' . J
(1 did not re~ the book.)
Non-Msertive sentences etre those in uhâ ch the s pa ak er wants
te Qat An inform~tion,
or ~es a com~nd.
[xx e
8.
te :re
b ' ?
1.
(didyou read the book?)
9.
Ja:f)ga 1
te:re
bi •
• ..J
r ead'e'imp~<QP .5g~" + book + the
(read the b cok , )
It mu~t bementionsd here that more than one of these
moo.aldt ies mayb 6 present in CL sentence.
Consider CL9ain the obove sentences 6-9 on the one
hand,
3nd the following -s errt en c e s 10 end 11 on the other hand.
10.
ndax
te :re
bi?
J
(did not l rBad the ~ook7)
11.
bul
d7J : lJ 9
te:re
bi .
~
~<i_mp»nob'2P .5g.. + read + book + the
{dO not read thebookJ

---

31
In 6, the sentence is
'~Posib', in 7 it is (d~8g), , . lin 8
i t
i s "d n tg,) •
In 9 it is <;Jmp., , whereas W8 have cooccurrence
of mod.rLd t Les in 10 and 11.
In 10, the s er.t enc e is <dntgn
<.<.N e g'..., and
in 1~ the s an t an cc i s ~J mp ~>, Ne g;) •
These ?nalyses lead us ta conclude th~t
.
Md
--~
A s t
,
9
nAst '~
i..
Ast
_ . _ . _ ~
i Pos it e/ Neg
(b xc l )
n , Ast
. - ~
5 Intg' Imp ';
(tExcl , l'J eg ] )
l
- ,
J
g m~y nlso be preceded by utteranCeS which
gramm~tically have no function but should be 2cc ounted for 9
because QheY con vey meaning.
We bring these utterances undEr
the label Interjection.
Interjections ers of diff8rent
v~lucs, ~s seen in sentences 12 and 13 given below:
m): l
dnmay
wa:ru?
-(·.Intj.>.+',QUGst>;, + mE + bei1P.Sg'....Pres.Frol3 .....
+ ~ûzzle
(hey! Qm l
getting puzzled?)
1 3.
C8Y~
du
now?
<·Intj~J+«Quest»+,m?r + b8.N6g.'Pres~ + come
(.:',las! won't .rnor com a? )
In 14 the word m~: denotes astonishment, whereas in 15;cey
denotes disaPpointment.
We Can now complete the previous statement «B undor:
s
.- .. ~
(Intj) + Md + NP + Pd,P.

---

32
AlI thes e .~nal ys 85 can now b8 pr CS ent Gd in the
form of the following ru les:
Rule 1
S
...---->
( Irrt j ) + r~d + NP + Pd.P.
.
Rule 2
nd
----->
LAst
n.Ast (
,
J
~Posit;
1
Ru I a 3
;;st ----)
N('g J + ( Excl)
Rule 4
n • (\\s t
--:;>
tInt q ; l rnp' + ( ;, Excl; Neg )
)
Rule 5
Posi t
- - ' >
/ • /* + (~} )**
-
Rule 6
~I eg ~
/ ~ / +
C\\
-.
,
Rule 7
Exci --;...
/
/ + ( l\\ )
Rüle 8
[ntg ---"7
/ • /; 1'-.'--'
II .1.:;.5
Predic~tc-Phr(1..88
Now let us consider th8 fo~lowing sentences:
1 4.
muon:
bu t r Lc,
(musa: is a King.)
15.
musa:
183 :kk
___ J
,:nna
•
mus a: + ea t Jo' Pa.s t-", ;3 P •5 9 ...
(musa:
a.tc.)
1 b.
mu s :.1:
Ir'C :kkn:
lE:gi
._--'
•
mus.a r + eat~·PrGsYP8rf'ii',;3P.S9>;> + now
(musa:
has GAten now.)
1.
In (;;t. P.S ru16'~ 1c~ 81ër'tièFits ïri 'b'rac~s \\l';VG precede n c e .OV8r
those in p6t.r.e.nthesGs,
Elements
in pC\\Jsnthesris C4'C option~l.
* / i / stands for suprasegmental phoneme.
**
1)"
stands for lexical item.

---

33
17.
musa:
dafa
bn:x
1):1 •
musa: + be~3P.Sg~ + good~Prest + too much
musa: is tao much good.)
18.
mus o, :
def6a-
sQ..wer
( mus a: i s etLQ cr t 0 s tu d y • )
1 C) •
musa:
musa: + go,,·Prcs";;Perf.,.3P.Sg. + ~~t + de:tlJn
(musa: ha s gone ;.)t the dlUJ n.)
20.
mbir
mi
1
ai·. r ne
bl.·
go:r
9 i
d ik k :':;8 :
rna t t cr + the + c18.Jr ...(Pres~3P.Sg.
+ when +
ml1f1 + the + c o mG i-Pœ.s t • PlU' t "
(the m~tter is clear now that the man has come.)
In
14
Pd.P
is ;ln NP (bu:r)
In
15
Pd.P
is o, VP (L:e:kk)
._~"
In
16
Pd.P
is a VP + ,'\\dv (lœ r kk + l e;~j.
--
In
17
Pd. P
is cun Aux. +~j. + Adv •
(da.f~ + b;:x + 1):1)
In
18
Pd.P
is O"'::'ux. + "d·
!
J. P (defa + S(;UJ~ + JtL= f)Q)
~_ .J
In 19
Pd.P
is Cl VP + PP (d 33 mn» + Cil nfêl)
In 20
Pd.P
is GUn Adj + .o.dv.cl ( L'E :rna + br
go:r gi di k k œ : )
-~
Now we Can present Pd.P in the form of the fo11owing rule:
( [\\IP
pp
1
j
RuJ,e 9
Pd .f
(iiux.
) + ) VP
(+
~dv
\\
1
(
(
1
, Ad j
\\
\\
1
'rdv. Cl)
\\ Ad . p)
\\
\\_
J. /

---

34
11.1.,11.6
Verb-Phras8
A VP ~y consist of morE than on~ constituant.
This Can b c ox ornpLi f Led by
t h«
f o.l Lo u i nn s en t onc es Qnd
their rEspective tr['e-di~grams:
21 •
musa:
1;'8 : k k n a
bi
•
.
• J
musa:
+
euL"PreS'I'Perf.3P.Sg + r i c e-» the
(musa:
has c a t e n the r i c c , )
22.
musa:
gisna..
X~)L::e biy
je1
te:re
b i .
mus~ + sGe.-Pres,;,--Perh3P.Sg. + chi1d +
the,.-fil r a c 8 s Si, + t ak B • Pr G s • +b a 0 k + t h 8
(musa:
has seen the child takin~ the baak~
23 •
mu sa:
d :-e mn"
ca
xa.r ES
b o,. ,
musa: + gorPres~·Perf~3P.S§. + ta + W}r + the
(musa:
has gonc to the war.)
24.
X2C
bi
b"ê1.J.:>:nn.--,
bi
s~-:cç
bi
nOW.:::8
th i 8 f + th co + cam e ."Pa;.s t >,
(the do q had t:oJ.rkcd
lJhen the thief camei)
213
s
--'
-'-
---- ----
...~--~--.
-.
NP
r d . P
,
1
,
,
1
1
VP
,
1
,
1
,
1
,
1
,
,
1
,
,
,
VS
1
,
------- ..->
-~,
::: ,--------,---~~>
mus a:
'la:;: zkkria, cœ.p
bi
• . J

---

Sir
35
22~
5
.-----------_..---_.-
f\\1 P
Pd.P
1
1
1
,
1
1
,
1
,
,
1
\\J P.,
1
,
1
,
--------.......---...
"---"'---'5
1
va
1
f
;\\
1
//'"
1
1
- ;
1
,,
/
(
musa:
gisna
xr Lœ biy .je I t8:rE bi
232
,
1
,
1
1
1
1
1
r
1
,,
,,
\\JO
1
/
1
r,
.1
rt
musa:
d::e mnc
C~· x .:-.Œ a8 b 'l.
24;::
S'"
.-._-----------
----------------.
NP -'-
Pcl. p
,
'.,t
1
!I '\\
,
"
\\
1
,1 f
\\
I)P
i'
.--",.... -
, 1
» >
.>:
--....
11\\
.---
1 1
va
l
,
.,
"
\\.
1
\\
\\
J
1
\\
.>
»>:
~~-
I
-
._ .. _
\\
.-é~-_.
_
.,.'
" . --.. ~_..---
- -;---------.--~---_.
-,
xac
bi
b·ew:;: nnCl
b i
sa 0C:.S: b i
nowi.,'€:

---

36
The abovc Gxemplification enablss us to pr6~ent VP in the
form of thE fpllowing rulE:
s
Rule 10
VP
_.~
va +
) pp
.
\\ i,Adv.cl:
II • 1 • A• 7
Ver bal
Now let us considcr thG following sentences and
t hrd r resp%ivE tree-diagrams:
25.
musa:
l.:e:kk1na
.•
.....J
musa: + GattPrcs~~8rfv3P.S9.
(musa: has 82te n.)
26.
mUSa:
la:: r k k vi rina
ca::P bi.
,-'
(musa:
had cat cn the r Lc o , )
27.
musa:
L~8 : kkul .
~.
(musa: has not satan.)
28.
rnu s a t
d a f a y Lzo :kk
•
musa: + b e , 3P.Sg'o'·Pres··."Proc., + eat
(musa: is c:ating.)
__ .··5 ._- -
.__
---_._----
NP'
··_-Pq.P
,
1
1
1
1
,
1
VP
1
1
,
1
,
,
,
1
VS
1
1
1
1
1
,
1
1
t
"V,
....--
1
..........
t
-":':':._-_. --- ---
..
rnus a t
133 :kkna
.......

---

37
LE"
-----~ ---.--- Pd. P
1
1
1
\\1P
1
,
\\
__ \\18
---~~
-_ _----
..
..
---
-
NP
,/ \\\\
\\1
.
/
\\\\
._0 0_.---"
i
__
.
- _ ,
.._--_ ..::0..
c33:P bi
1'8 :kk):nntJ..
mUS 8:
___________~------- 5 .
_
276
Pd.?
----------.........~.
-~----~
NP
\\
1
1
1
\\
\\
,
\\18
\\,
,
\\
1
1
,
1
\\
\\
\\
\\
\\,,,
\\
1
1
,
1
\\
musa:
musa:

---

38
,m r;n.:'"!lysis of the ~bovC' sentences ena.blcs us to present
,-
VS in the form of the fpllo~ing rul~:
Rule 11
VEl
-----it.
V + (NP)
An Adj.P consists of an Adj. and one morc constituent
at loast.
Consider the follo~ing sEntencES and their respcc-
tive tree-diagrams:
29
musa:
d a f a
ba.:x
ci
musc: + be.-Pres'.·3P.Sg. + good + to + )m:-:r
(musa: is niCg
to )mer.)
30.
musa:
dafa
sawar
ja:ng
Ij:l •
.........../
musa: + berPres~3P.Sg. + eager + studY +
too mu ch
(musa: is tao much eager ta study.)
•
29a
S
.-----
.------
---
NP
Pd.P
-------
Aux:é
Ad j. P
-- .-
........... "'-"
'-
,l~d j ,
pp
1
,
1
/1
1
1
,
,
,
/
,
/
,
/
1
,
/
1
mus a:
ba:x
ci »rnar

---

39
30a
NP
1
t
1
,
f
1
Aux.C
r,,,
i\\
1
,
l '
S
1
/ \\
1
1
,
,
l
':
1
1
,,
1
,
1 \\
1
1
,
1
\\
1
: _ - - - - ' ,
musa:
dafet-
sa lJar
jO:119
1") ::1
An ana1ysis of the above sentences enables us
to prEsent
Adj.P in the form of th0 follolJing rule:
Rule 12
Adj.P
Adj.
II.1.A.9
Nouri-Phr es e
Consider th~ follolJing sentences:
31 •
x:=!1::'!8
bi
(lowu1 •
chi Id + the + c om C. nota 3P • 59 ~Pr E s,.'P er f;-'
(thE child has not come.)
32.
bi
)mar
jump + the +)m,~r + jump
(the jump lJhich )m~r madE-~)
33.
ap
ca= ku
buy
gajj,38
bGt:xul.
' - '
a + parrot + lJhich * scratch + good.not.3P.s~
(2 p~frot lJhich scratches is not gOod.)
34.
mUsa:
nowna
•
(musa: has c orn c , )

---

40
35.
musa:
nownanu •
musa:
+ and + .:>mïr + comf:'~'Prrl5~c'Pcr h3P.Plur
(musa:
and ')~ma..r havo comE'.)
36.
bu:r
u
d'ëk~
bi
nowna
•
king + of + country + thE + com8<~PrE:s"'·P8rf,.3P.5g.
(the King of the country has come.)
37.
fnggandiku
war nCÂ-
_ '
_.,J
ta b c c au t i ous
+ must':'Pres>,,~3P.Sg + owner + huus o
(Cautiousness is
a must to a
family man.)
38.
ku
who + comE~"Pa:.st»
(who did come?)
If wc analyse the structure of the NPs of the ribOV8
s cnt onc o s ,
WB
noticE that an NP m8Y consist ôf:
fil
+
T
+ rt,b
~
+
T
+ Nib
+
S
NP
+
S
1\\1
+
PP
N
+
N ...
+
Con j • P
5
Pm
The ~bOV8 ~nalysis Can bc prEsented in tho fOrm of
t h [' f 0 Il 0 win 9 r u l i~:
RulE 13
NP
(j\\J(n) \\+ (T) + (Nb)
+ (S) + (pp) + (Conj.P)
)pn(n)(
] NP
1
ls

---

41
II.1.A.10 Pr ep os Lt i on a Lc-Phr as r,
Consider the following sentoncGs:
39.
Aas
u
musa:
dafa
horsb + of + musa: + bG~Pres~3P.Sg + tall
(musa~'s horSE is tal l.)
40.
g') n ,~e
y
s ai née q a r I
youngsterCs)
+ of + s a; n œ qa eI
+ b r ,
( y 0 u n 9 ste r s i n s é13 nze gal are b l a ck • )
41 •
jendna
ganQ:r
u
tu g'êl .
-~
)mar + buyrPrcs~Per~~3P.Sg" + chi~Ucn +
of + France
()mar
has b oucb t
a chick en of
F'r an c c , )
In
39, thE NP is formcd by
N (f.:'}s
= hor s c) +- pp (u mu sec; = of musa..:)
In
40, the NP is formcd by
N (g::n:-e= y ouriqs t er t s ] + pp
(y sra nœ oa t I
= of
s ~ naeg:.:::l)
In
41, the NP is
formed by
N (g ana....: r
= chi c k Gn )
+- Pr
(u t u 9'e"l = 0 f Fra n ce)
As
it c an bo SGen
From the Qt.bove sentences,
o-PP c on s i.s t s of
Pr ep + NP.
u + mus 8 :
---~
Prcp + NP
y + s ~ n T gal '--.;..
Prep + NP
u +
tug'(?'l
---~
gr ep + NP
Th e @OV8 ~~lysis can be presentEd in the furm of the follow-
ing rule:
Rule 14
pp
----"'>
Prep + NP

---

- - - .
42
II.1.A.11 nuxi1iory-group
Aux.G includcs d i f f cr c nt types
of f o r-ma.t.Lv e s ,
Consider the fo11owing s8ntencos:
42.
J mcœ
Le : kk.
--'
(;ma..r i s 8 nt i n C] • )
43.
~mtu'
1;-:2 :kk •
"<, ---
()mctr uas
8ël.t i n g . )
.lnw + l:)().3P.Sgi'Pr05ol,Proc ... + prGplUO + 1o.wgh
(,)(nQ!'
is
prcPCiJing ta lcwgh.)
da.faY,~r)gid'):n and da f ay wo...:jCl.., r es p e c t Lve Ly in 42, 43 end
' - '
44 are functioning ~ Aux.G.
TheY can be dn~ys8d ~s under:
da + fé'] + X
---~
a Il 9 i
+ d i
+::>: n
':.-J
cop. v + Asp +'-'PlALsb,
d" fay
W'-: j:
----~
d~ + fa + Y + ~:<il-
cap. v + Pn.,lf + Asp + ct3p.v
~G Can distinguish two types of Auxs,
n3mely
Au xi Li CU' Y Ver b s
(~ IJ X- V), an d; u xi I i ::r y - a f fi x 0 s (A-ux. ?; f s) •
Aux.Vs ore dividod into two
6ubgroups,
nome1y
Copul~
Vsrbs (Cap. V), ~nd AspsctuoJ- Vorbs (Asp. V).
Aux.Gt.fs are
1
d i v.i d r d into t uo ' subgroups,
viz.
PronC1min,ü-o/lt.-ffixes
(Pn-etf)
.
- -", -'-".- -,------- - - - - - - - , .
1. We us c indiffcrently Pn.Ot.f,
Pcrs.c::Lf orid Por s s m,

---

etnd A.sP6ct-Tense-,'ffixes (~.T.·-f.).
A.T.of is f ur t har
~3
divide~ into Te ns c and ModlÙ- ·/X..spect (~.sP~.
AlI these ~~lyscs can now be presentGd in the
fOrm Of the fol1owing rules:
Rule 15
Poux.C
------/
Aux.oJ's + (Au x. Vs)
Rule 16
f4'.ux.CAfs
----?'
(Pn-~f) + A. T~llfs
Rule 17
A. 1. a..-fs
- - >
(F\\sp) + Tense
Rule 18
Aux.Vs
_._----:>
Cop.V + (Asp.V)
II.1.A.12 AdvGrbi~l-clause
Rule 13 indicates that
~ 5
can be embedded in ~
rr.ahix· S.
This lS knoun EA..S prOCQSS of r nc ur s i von es s ,
We shall
deall with the pr cc os s of amb e drt.i n q sont8nc8s la.tc;r in the
p~rt of tr~sform&tiDnal rulcs.
Let us consider the
fo1lowing sentences:
45.
m,Eir
mi
l"c :rnQ
bi
gi
di kk.re :
---'
matter + the + clcnr~Pres~3P.Sg + when +
(the mdttcr is cleBr now thAt the man has come)
46.
jcndul
.. _.
IIdax
IJgo:r
dikkul.
--..J
ndae w + buy.not. 3P.Sg~'·Pres·..·.perf,> + chicken +
bccausc + 8g 0 : r + come.nfut.3P.Sg~PrGswp.
~
(nd,"'0I.J has not bought CL cn ck r n because
î
lJgo: l' h a s n 0 t
c Dm o, )
~ -"

---

In 45 the clause go:r
gi d i k k.o } 18 s ub or d.i nn t o d to the
~ .......
c13usc ~b~r mi 1 08 :rne by thf conjunction bi
Th c f....llaus8 bi
9 o r r
g i
cl i k k ,'0:
fun ct ion s tt.S an o.d vG r bof t i me in the Pcl • P
-c.>
1?8 :rn(t. bi go:r Qi d Lkk œ j ,
This Lc ad s us to say that bi q o t r
' , _ /
gi dikk~e: is an o;.dvGrbi;:~l c Lau s c (;~dv.Cl).
.:»
The SamE rclotionship of Adverb-Predicote exists betW88n the
Wc can st~te then, that the ~dverbi71-clausG is
f or rn cd by
0.. sentence,
~nd ~ conjunction which c oriver t s th,~,.t
sentenCE into cOnstituent of ~ m~trix sentence.
The ~ovc o--nalysis Can be p r os o n t cd in the f o rrn
of the following rule:
R ul e 19
Ad v. Cl
Conj.sub + S

---

*
*
*
IL 1
CHA PTER 0
*
*
*
*
*
SUBCATECŒIZATI(Jr\\j RLJLES
*
-*
*
*
~'f
*

---

46
our· 2ttempt o.t this stage is to L.Jorkout Q c Los si f i>
cj;l.tion of vcr bs ,
Tho c La.s s i f i c a t d on given b ol ou is donc: on
thE basis of thE folloL.Jing critcri~
vcrb-objBct re1œtionship
vcrb-refErent rclationsh~p
verb-recipicnt relationshi~
verb-instrumcnt relationship
II.1.0.2
V.int + NP ag
This class is formed by verbs whieh arc intransitive
an d h2 ve an a..g en t ive s ub j cc t.
The L a b c I
1\\1 P a..g i n die t:tes t ha t
the; NP subjoct is oJso the agent.
[xx.
1 •
angiy
f c: y.
,,-"
~m~r + be.Pres.Proe + sL.Jim
()mar is swimming)
2.
Yo:-:
ngiy
child(rcn) + the + b~.PrGs.Proc + run
(the childrcn 8rQ running)
3.
Pi cf;
bo:.:
rJ9 i~_
n:l:L.J .
-'
bir d + the + b c s Pr cs Pr oc + Fly
i
(the bird is fl ~i ng.)
4.
2lmQ.r
Qngiy
d,x
..... .../
•
1JmtU' + be.Pres.Proe + LJalk
( Jrna..r is L.JGlking.)

---

47
II.1.8.3
V.i~t + NP ag + dativo
This c lo s s is
f or mco by vcrbs un i cn arc intransitive:
ond h~vG œn NP ~g œnd ~ dative.
Ex x.
5.
angiy
fo:y,-'l
musa:
•
'._'
lm.a.r + b r vPr es s Pr c c + S'lJim.for + musa:
(-jTla,.r is swimming for musa:
.)
aJJgi Y
b·c'r.:-e : l
mus t):
•
'"-"
)ma.r
+ o c s Pr s s vPr oc + lJrestle.for + mUS8:
(:.mœ.-r
is
ur os tl i n 9 for mUsa:
.)
)mctr
a~iy
dai8 mal
mus a:
•
"jma.r + b c , Pre s • PrO c + go. for + mus a :
( )ma.T i s 9 0 in 9 0 n b c h.al f
a f
mus a:
.)
II.1.8.4
V.int + Er + dative
This class is
formcJ by
vorbs lJhich imply an
e r q a t i v e subject œ nd ~ d o t i v c ,
Ex .•
8 •
)ma..r
fc:ylul
musa:
•
xnœ r
+ be.Pres.Proc + s u im s o.ius e , for + rnus a e
(-::.fT1a.r is ma.king (somebodY)
s u irn for mus a ;
.)
II.1.8.5
V.tr.dir + NF ag + (obj)
This
clQss is
formcd
by
verbs
lJhich takc
an
option~l direct abject ~d hovc an NP ~.
Exx.
9.
rlUSa:
b eyria
(t>:l bi).
musa: + plough.Pres.Perf.3P.Sg + (field + the)
(musa:
has
ploughed (the field).

---

48
10.
l~ :kk
( c ::G : P ) •
- - '
)mar + be.Pres.ptoc + eltt + (rice)
(,meu- is cElting (ricc).)
This class is
formed
by
verbs which require one d~tive
o~ly, ~long with ~ NP œg and ~n option01 direct object.
Ex· •
11 •
C\\I)giy
bey (;lI
musa:
( t J: l am) •
...-.'
)ma..r + be.Pres.Froc + p l ouqhv f o r + musa: + (field-his)
(1mQ5 is
ploughin@ musa:'s
fiel~ on his behalf.
11.1.8.7
v.t r + Er + (0 b j )
This clctss is
formed by
verbs
which take: an o p t i onn.I
di r cc t
0 o je c t
n...n d 0.... cau sa l
su b j 8 ct;
th C't
i s t
t h c 1\\\\ Psu b j cc t
r e qui r es oJl o..g En t
who
QC t son
h i s
b ch 0..1 f •
Th i s
t r u r age n t
do es
not stand as Q se9ment in the sentence.
At
the b c s t
it Can
be r e f e r r e d ta ~
co vc r t
agent.
Ex x.
1 2 •
..Jma.r
a..~.~iy
beylu
t~;:l(,l.m •
Jmox + be.Pres.Proc + plough.makG + fiEld.his
(yno..r is q s t t Lrio his field being ploughed
(uns p cc i t Loo a..gEnt)
).
13.
x ll.d i
flawluna
( y cr e) •
x~di + stitch.make.3P.Sg.Pres.Pcrf. + (garment)
( x ()Jl i
ha.s
9 ot
a, q ar mc n t
s t i t ch cd
(u n s pcc i fic: d ,":"j 9 en t ))•
_-----_
_.__ __
.
.....•-
..
.._------
* numbers writtcn within p=:renthcses ~Q r xp onm t s ,

---

1 I • 1 .8 . 8
V. in t r
+ Er
, . . ._-'---
Ex '•.
14.
go:r
gu
gi
do...f ay
dz:tWlu •
man + who + old + the + be.3r.Sg.Pres.Proc +
r u n s ccu s r ,
(thE old man
is
making
(someone)
run
on his beha..lf
1
CqVl.
This class is
formed
by
verbs
which
take two
L
datives,
narns Ly
o nr Gen.D and one Dptional Ben.!.
r~orcOver
they take an
ergative subject.
Ex;
1 5.
)mQf
d af ay
yoplul
musa:
Qana:r gi
x: di.
-.l mnr
+ b E • 3 P• 52 • Fr es. Pro c + sen d • cau S E +
musa: + chicken + thE + xaDi
(jmd.-r is
getting the c h i ck ar b e e n sent
(t o XCldi)
on bchalf of musa:
.
(~)
11.1.8.1 O V.tr + Er + d at Lv e
This
class is
formcd by
verbs which
takc one
dQ..t ive: 0 n l y,
and r c qÙ .i r c c:;Jl
e r 9 a t ive su b j EC t •
Ex.
1 6.
)ma.r
d;;fa,y
yoplu
xa.-di
ga na: r
g i .
x~di + chitKcn + the
(',jma..r is q c t t Lnu t n o chicken b c cri
sent to
xa.di
(unspecified ~gent o..cting on behtÙf of
-::,mar).
)

---

50
- - - - - - _ . - --,._-.__._-~-
Th i s e l aS s i s
far m8). b Y ver b s
wh i ch c G n ta k e t w0
dQtives,
nQjll(?ly one 8en.D and one op t i oria I
Ben.I.
On the other h:A.;.nd
they r e qu i r e C\\.n NP Cl.Q.
@~Il"[ C\\.-nd fJP obj can s i muLt an e ous Ly be
deleted.
When
bath benefactives ere named)the NP abj cannat
b e
d el et c d ,
Ex
•
1 7.
)mct.r
dq..faY
y obbu I
rnu s a ;
(ganar gi)
(x'~di)_
)mo..r + be.3P.Sg.Pres.Pr oc + t ak s ta.
for +
musa: + (chicke n + the)
+ (x2di)
(Jm~ is takin~ the chicken ta xadi on beha1f
of mu Sa:
.)
11.1.8.12 V.tr + Er + ,';9 + (obj)
This c1~ss is
formed
by
verbs which take an aptional
NP abject and require an ergative subject ~nd an NP aQ.
Exx.
18.
mUSa:
cee : p
b i
•
musa:
+ eat.. cause.3P.Sg.Pres.Perf + ~mlV' +
rice + the
(musa:
has cau s ad
)mliI
ta
eat the rice.)
1s.
;ma.r
J i> : y l'. : n,.,
rn us a t
mb c: :m
mi •
"~mOJ + sell.cause.3P.Sg.Pres.Perf + mUSa: +
dankey + the
L,mar has ca us r d rnus a ; ta sell the d onk oy .)

---

51
II.1.8.13 V.tr + Er + Ag + Obj
This class is formed by verbs \\'/hie..h require an
ergativ8 subject, an NP ~ and an obligatory NP obj.
safara
si~'
Ex '.
20.
musa:
f ,:9 yi": : nlI.-
fJ 9 a : r
' - ,. .t
musa: + extinguish.ceuse.3P.Sg,Pres.Per-f ;.
ng o: r + fire + the
(musa: caused ~go~r ta extinguish the fire.)
II.1.8.14 V.tr + dative + NP ~g + Dbj
This class is formed by \\Jerbs which require a, do.iiv
an NP ag, and an obligatpry NP abject.
Ex •
21 •
af)giy
yop
flgo :r
gan'l:r
g i .
Chicken + the
()m~ r is taking the chicken tci flga:r.)
.-'
The abav8 analyses can be presented in the form
of the follawing fuies:
+ Er
1
Rule 1
v
c...
----~
Er
[xx.
'ta cause to plough'
bey
'ta plauçh'
\\ -E~-AgS 1
;
Rule 2
)
>
\\,-Er + AgS )
1
AgS
has the S8me meaning aS NP age
~g
is used to refer ta a dosr different From NP subject.

---

52
Exx.
)):ppiku
'ta cha ng
' .
8'
'....~, -: "\\ (' v-, ~ ~ "~'. \\. "\\ r;.
bey
'ta
plaugh '
1
Rule 3
+Er
- ---'---?
+Er
+ Ag
1
:
!
;
+"Er
-
Ag
\\1
Exx.
b 8 yI ..J:
' ta c aus e to plough'
b eylu
1 ta
or der to plough'
Rul e 4
-Er.. AgS
-----~
-Er - AgS - Ag
Ex.
s :.: pp Lk u
'ta change'
+Er
+ Ag + tr
Rule 5
+Er + il, g
----._-~
+Er
+ Ag + intr
. Ex x ,
beyl ::>:
'to CaUS e ta plough
fe:yl J:
'to caUse ta S u i.m '
i
+Er
- Ag + tr
)
1
Rule 6
+Er - Ag
----"'?
i\\
+Er
,CJ,g + .
t
1
-
ln i ]
fi
Exx.
b eylu
' t a
arder
ta plaugh'
fe:Yi o:
'to
caUS e ta S LJim'
- Er
- Ag5 - Ag + tr
Rul e 7
- Er
- AgS - A9 _.__.__,>
- Er'
- AqS - Ag + intr
Exx.
se :n
'to perceive'
nEl3 l aLJ
'ta sleep'

---

53
-Er + AgS + tr
,
(
Rule 8
- Er + /1, qS
- Er + AgS + intI' i!
Ex x •
u, : k )~5't u
'ta :é;cratclr cn ns 01 F 1
f c :y
'to
•
1
S [.)1 ID
, +Er + :.\\ Ç) + tr + deI
R ul e 9
Il +Er
+ A~~ + tr - del
1'[0
E~x.
beyl):
caus e to plou[1h'
1
y 0 pl):
ta cause to tak s (to samsons) 1
.
': +Er
Ag + tr + del
)
Rule 10
+Er - Ag + tr ------>
',+Er - ,q ç; + tr - d e l-
Ex x ,
beylu
y op l u
-Er - AgS - Ag + tr + del
Rule 11
-Er - AgS - Ag + tr
"
-------;>
-Er - AgS - Ag + tr - del
Exx.
xae mEB m
se:n
1 -Er
+ :~Ç)S + t r + del-;
Rule 12
-Er + AgS + tr
--·--7 )!, _Er + AgS + t r - del /
Ex x ,
bey
se: nu
+ Er
+ ,CI, 9 + t r
+ deI
----..:,.
+Er + AQ + tr + deI - dat
Ex.
beyl'):

---

54
( +tr+;'~ g+tr-d e!-tctltt
.
\\ .
.
Ru I e 14
+ Er
+ Ag + tr -
dei -~'
~
! +Er+Ag+tr-del-dat
-,
.>
Ex x ,
yopl j'
y eg 1:)8 l ':
R ul e 15
+ Er
+ Ag +
intr
--~.
+Er+.'~Ç]+intr-dlt
',: +Er-~g+tr+del+d2t
-;
Rule 16
+ Er -
qg + tr + dei
-->~
J'
l+Er-Ag+tr+del-da t
,
Exx.
bEylul
beylu
!
+Er-Ag+tr-del+da t ')
Rule 17
+ Er
-
!tg + tr -
dei
.0.;';--+::
'r
.
; + Er - ~ 9 + t r - de: l - d:l t )
Ex x.
yoplul
yoplu
(
+Er-~g+intr+dat 1
Rule 18
+ Er -
~g + intr
- - - - - 7
)L +Er-~g+intr-d~t ~
Exx.
fe
:ylul
fe
:ylu
" - Er- ~ gS-~ g+t r+d El +cI "t i
Rule 19
-
Er -
AgS -
Ag + tr
r
dei - 7 )
.
l-Er-AgS-Ag+tr+dEl~jat
Ex x ,
gis,d
xre m::e m

---

-Er-~gS-!~~+tr-del+d2tl
Ru l e 20
- Er-(lgS-Ag+tr-del ----?
-Er-jgS-Ag+tr-d8~-dat)
Ex x ,
se:ntJ.
se:n
-Er+AgS+tr+del+d",t ')
Rule 21
- Er+l) gS +t r+d el
~--~)
~.
i, -Er+AgS+tr+d81-d~t j
Ex x •
beyaJ
bey
-,
1
-Er+AgS+tr-del+dat ('
Rul e 22
-Er+AgS+tr-del
- - - : 0 , .
-1
.
l - Er+~gS+tr- d el- dat j
Exx.
s e r nu l
S 8: nu
(;
-Er+AgS+intr+dat
R ul e 23
-Er+AgS+intr
./
l -Er+Ags~intr-dat
Ex x •
f e : Yet.l
fe:y
Rule 24-
+Er+rig+tr-del+dat --~
+Er+~+tr-del+dat(1)
Ex- .
y 0 p 1-:>.
Rule 25
( 1 )
+Er-Ag+tr+del+d0t --~
+Er-Ag+tr+del+dat
Ex.
bsylul
( 1 )
r, +Er-Ag+tr-del+dat
Rule 26
+Er-Ag+tr-del+dat ~
)
l +Er-A g+tr- del +d at (2)
Ex x ,
yoplu
yoplul

---

56
Rule 27
+Er-Ag+intr+dat
---~ +Er-Ag+intr+d~t~)
Ex.
fe:ylul
( 1 )
-Er-IkS-rlg+tr-del+dat
l
-,
(
Rul e 28
-Er-AgS-Ag+tr-del+dat ---...../
- Er - AgS- :~ g+t r - deI +d a t ( 2) .
Ex~
SQ) nel
Rule 29
- Er+f\\ g5 +tr+d el +d "lt ---~
- Er +,C~ 9S +tr+d el --d et (1 )
( 1 )
- Er+A g5 +tr- d el+d : : : t ;
Rule 30
-Er+,:"gS+tr-dsl+d?:l.t. -~
(
( 2) i
-Er+~gS+tr-del+d3t
J
Ex,;.
se:nul
Ru l e 31
-Er+AgS+intr+dat ---~
Tense-m",rkers are qr arn rna t i c al, fUŒ:!ll,c;tives which ,?t the
syntactic levEl are ~ssumed ta represent the extra-linguistic
notion of time.
The notion of time as it results from our analysis
comprises two distinctions, no me l y P:=Jst time 2nd non-PQst time.
In these two domains, we make use of moods and
2SP8ctS to q i ve ta the events their reL:>tively exctct descriptions,
Given th~t ~n eVEnt is either Past or non-PDst, we
Can consider it from the 0spectuJl point of view.
An avent may be reported 2S Perfective or
Imparf~ctiv8;
it may ~lso be presented ~s unreRl.
These fe~tures are 81so syntactically represented by
the grammatical form~tiVes c311ed Qspect-markers (2sp.m).

---

57
NO~J let us r ct ur n (or 2 ~lh'i18 t o the Tense-më:rkers
(Ts-m).
Considcr the following sentEnCG~ 22"3?:
22
-::m(jt:'
~mGtr
.'.
bc.3P.Sg.Pres.Proc + run
~'rliC\\X
';0-
...L ,-'
r•_ unn
1_. "
1 i
~.- n o.)
~-;~f
23
'~:mar
':rnar
.'.
bc.3P.SQ.Proc.P~st + run
( '.lmar
I.Jé1 S
I" U ,1 ni n Çj')
2 L~
.me.r
:',mar
.'.
b~.3P.SQ.Pres.Perf + run
r
\\
m a:
h83
run.)
2 ~:
.rn a r
Cl,'" f ,C'
'ma'":'
-7-
P~lst.PE:ri""
.
=\\fTlar
\\
had r un . )
26
,r:ar
'0
.rn Q...:'
. -
~ '7 !} (' C'
t~~ ..... j.-"....}.::i • h
•
1 -
Q.PIh ~c~ po./. "S'
f.c..
.
+ r un
1
\\
:",mal'
r un s
(usual; y) •
2 7
~rilCl.r
:/"nQr
( -)m (3 l'
28
~:m ct:'
_,mG\\).-
- '
( )mar
:L r 1:. :? !; cl ~: t 1] ;:' 'J ~, )

---

58
79.
jm2r
Jmar
+
intend.3P.Sg.P3st + run
( .rnar
intended to run.)
31].
)mar
)m2r
+
be.3P.Sg.Future + run
( Jml&r
u i Ll nWl.)
.31 •
;maI
-~imar
+
run.cond.P0st.3P 5g.
)rnar
uo ul d have ra.n.)
32.
)mar
d ~): nnn
da~i.
oma r
+
be.P.'1st.3P.Sg.
+ r un. unr.ea I
( :,mar
ucul d have ra n.)
No~, let us ~ssume that the ~ords Sa~x 0 n d le:gi, and
v , • . . /
the pr cpos t i ono.I
phrase ci kanam are the representation of the
â
Supra-linguistic notion of time ~t the lexical level.
5 é' rjx
=
som et imê..
before
le: gi
=
no~
ci kôna m
=
som etirtl8
afte r
no~.
If u e .::,pply those lexical
forma...tives
one ctfter the
other
to
each of the sentences
22-32,
the
re.sult is as giVEn in the
follo~ing m~trix.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

---

59
We can notice from
the above m~trix th~t whenever a sentence i8
ma r k e d ( + ) in the environmr:nt of Sar;x, it is m,<>rkE'd ( - ) in
....__. ~.
thE' c:nvironment of le:Qi and ci ko nam ,
In the mean timE when
i t is m~-rked (
-
)
in
environment
of Snf)X,
i t is marked
( + )
in
,-,.'
environment of 18:gi rlnd
ci k,-,nam,
excEpt in 24,
for
which we
h:-ve (
-
)
in the
environment of ci k,JnOlJ1.
On the other
hand,
WE
notice
that whenever 18:9 i
is
applicable,
ci k c narn is
éJpplicC'blc too,
exc8pt
for
24 where
,~ third r srnar k I s that whenEver <.< + Past~",>occurs, it
coincides in the corresponding sentence with the occurrenCE of
):n;
,nd uhon cv ar « -P;::st ,>, o c ru r s ,
i t coincides
in
t h c correspond-
ing sentence with the non-occurrence
of
):n.
Wc conclude th?t
thefC
15 no gramm~tical difforence
between le:gi and
ci
kanam;
and therEfore they
st~nd for one
common S~pralinçuistic realily of time whic~ nt the grammntical
level We
calI
non-P"st
t cn s o ,
h o r o ctnc! t h s r e l::>.belecL !-'o,-Post ->.••
On t h e o t h s r
hand, ~(+Pctst/o., is m:'\\rkcd
):n
and
Th~ 8bove QnalysEs can be prcsented in the form of the
following rule:
Rule
32
T anse
«-Past 'c-'> 'r
.J

---

60
l\\Jow,
we turn to the :::lspect-mark8rs~ Let us r ec oris i d er
the sentence 24.
We h~ve seen that while 24s ls gramm~tical
1
24b is note
lo:gi
da f;~
daw
•
now
has
run
mar
daf~
da\\.J •
*s Om et im e
l i t y
The ungr~mm~.ticé'·/of 24b is due ta the fact that 24 denotes ôJ1
action CÙ-reo...dy finished.
Thus 24 Cannot st<:.>nd with the prepositional
phr~se ci kQnam \\.Jhich ~signs to the verb its full status of
potential ~tion.
On the contrary,
ci k3nam \\.Jould perfectly stand with
28,
bec?'use 28
expresses o.n a..ction uhich Ls to be p e r f or ra ed ,
that is an
l'...ction uh l c h has in e t o r a q o ;=lll it.spotentiality.
This implies th0t the action is
given as unreal,
comp2red ta 24.
but they present the o..ction
d":lJ
in different
ways.
By this -t i.rne
the re~der kno\\.Js that 24 presents
~ finished Qction.
Synt~cti-
cally i t differs
From 22bcC8US8 of the occurrenCe of the
m0 r p hem e / y :j
i n 2 2 • Th i s mCJ r p h e rn e /
y / eir-. /
di /
den 0 tes 0[1
2ction \\.Jhich is in prOcess.
If \\.Je a.na:Jyse the rcmaining sentences of the set 22.-32
\\.J e uo U Ide 0 n:e t 0
the con c lus ion t ha t
the y oJ,l car r yan yon e 0 f
the three types of ~pects ~lr8Qdy explaineŒ.

---

61
The Qbove a...noJ.ysis
con bs pr es e n t o d in the f or rn of the
f
Ll
o
c u i
n q
r
u
L c
:
Proccss\\
Rule 33
Asp
- - - - - )
PeT f e c t
UnI' 031
Yet uo could
hc vc do e po r
Q..:$1'J8cts c xpr es s c d by the verbe
For instance,
consider
the following sentences:
33.
)m~'r
do.f Cl.Y
d-a.w .
jm"r
l'uns
(is runn:f;ng)
34.
~)m~' r
da n 2Y
dew
]m,-. r
l'uns
u s un I Ly
33 ;:)nd 34 ~rC:' '.. -P,-'st)7'<<: -t.-(>rocessy,. but they present in
different m.mr.o r
the cc t i on de,w.
In 33 the ~ction is c:\\.. punctu~..l
pro ces s,
wh el' c ;" s i n 34 i t
i s ct. hab i t u al pro ces s •
On the other hand CompaIe the following sentences:
aS.
-:;mcu
rior n a
de
.
LJ
~)mQr
has
intended to
run
36.
-)mQr
d"n~
dlW
jmeu
will
l'un
35 a:.nd 36 Qre<-.-Pa...st"
o+unreQ1)7 ,but here again CI.. difference
of ~SP8ct is shoun in cither sentence& 35 presents the action
c s
Q..ml::rC .i nt r nt i on , uh i I.o
36
considers
t.h r
C\\.Çtion QS (.l... m.rt t e r
of
fect.
Wc uou l i:
ccVI
the lCLtter aspect QS
future: t,nd the
former Q.S Ln t on t.Lv s ,
Th~ oJJoVC ~n,=,l:!_sc:s c an bc p r os orrt zd in the f o r rn of
tho following rulcs:

---

62
(
Pun ct. Pr Oc ';'
Rule 34
Process
--~
)
H?b- Pr oc
1
)
1
lntentive
Rule 35
)
Unrc,Jl
1
Future
In
11.1.,4.11,
LJe implicitly s t a t e d thztt fV1Qin-Verbs qfE
difFerent
From ~P-V'), t h erns e l v es d i f f e r en t
From Cap-Vs.
This is
not a.-mere 02sumption but
is b n s o d on
certp,in s yn t ac t.I c c r i t ar L> •
.. )
,'j,
Difference betLJeen Cop~Vs ~nd Asp-Vs.
Con s ide r
s 8 n t 8 n c e 37 9 ive n b el 0 LJ :
37.
In8 : kk
=
\\ J
there e x.i s t s a... dioJ-ect LJhich uses sim ply the form37o.- e-
l:E : kk
=
_ ...
'--~
The dele~ion of
d3
Qffect2 the sentence n~ither syntacticaJly
n or- s ernont i cc Ll y ... da
stands as
Q. mcr c
ccpul o linking the
\\VF
ta the NP.
But On the other hand,
consider, sentence 38.
38.
)m,]r
dqfa.
b·dgg
..../
Jma...r
to
If LJ8 c ons i.o or the dia)ect
uh i c h \\,Je aLl ude t.o ,
LJe could
ha.ve
the
form
380.. bE=10LJ:
f~
be·~
LB: kk
unrit.s
to
eat

---

63
but not
3Gb
3Gb.
*')IDC\\.J'
fa
lélB:k~
38b
has ameaning which differs
from
38.
Tt would b e rn a rk ed QS
ungr,îmmCLticct1 if
c ons i d er cd to be the s ur f uc e structure of the
P-morker which underlies
38.
b·e·gg
c.s nno t
be d cl e t e d becQL:se i t co n v e ys
Qn Q..SPŒctual me?ning
----
which i3 necessafy
for the interpret0tion of
the
VP.
The ~ctual
meaning of the
VP is not
'to EClt'
but only
'desire to
eq.t l •
This differencE of beh~viour befween d~ ond bëgg seems to justify
the distinction b e t uae n Copu.la. and o.spectual-vcrb.
8
DifferencE
_ _ _ _ _ ,._". b o t uo en
Cop-Vs.
. _
o nd
'"h..:.
rla.in-Vs.
..
~
On the other
hand,
consider
39-42
39.
JmQr
;::Jf)gi
t j: k
"-..-.
-jm CLr
i5
s ent e d
4rJ.
)mQr
OJJgi
e.l
bi:r
) mu,r
is
ins id e
41-
") mqr
'3fJgiy
.t): k
", mQI'
is
scctting
(doing t hr~ Qcti on)
42.
* )mctr
QfJ~iy
e.t ·bi:r
",_.
Jm;:Œ
is
bGing
insicJe
In 39,
a..lJ 9 i
i 5
f 0110 wt: d b Y ~ Pq.r tic i pl e •
In
40 9
Q[")gi is
'-_-1
followed by nn a.dv-Plt.{cC'.
If Wc ad el Progrc:ssivc-é\\..spect to 39 and LW,
the op e r o t icn
will 9 e n Œr 2 tEr ('s p e C t ive l y 4 1 "Il d 4 2 9 iVE n éJ b 0 v e, r es u l tin gin CUl
ungrQmmo.j::ical s e rrt e nc c in the CQSG of
42.

---

64
In 40, orjq i
being
f o I Lco r-d by DJ1 adv.Pl.
shows
thti...t
i t is '1..
m:.~in-verb (~l-V), but in 39 +:h-e. p r ad i c a t c is the p.:-:-rticiple t):k.
Th or ef or r ,
we c an q s s o r t
th~.t oJJgi in 39 is an a.uxili~y which
links the prEdicatc:;nd
the Î~P.
Thus 1 àr:JQi
is
~ COpullt--verb h c r e ,
Actually a8gi
in 40 is ~ verb of existence.
This
1
s erna.nt i c status impliEs
0... non-possiblity of è\\PplicoJion
of
...
pr oq r r s s i v ,
2SpcCt.
This
e xp La i n s
the ungrarnma.-ticC\\Jlty of42.
C)
Difference betwcen Asp.Vs
;:Jnd ~l'":in-Vs
Now let us
analyse the
following sentences:
43.
IJQo:r
1:.::e: ~nQ.-
f}Qo:r
h ""'0
Go-±- on
1+ L~ •
noo:r
w~na
Lee :kk
t..:
-"--
ngo :r
must
cat
(has
to
ca t)
...
.~
45.
-1/of] go: r
warn.î
noo:r
must
.;
...J
46.
n q o cr
~l:!na
r)go:r
has run
...........
ln.
Ilr>o:r
_
..J
-Ci.c.t.r.n a da u
- .
r)co:r
has
I rrt r n dr-d
to run
48.
n q o i r
nQj:'_ nQ
rjoo:r
has .i nt e no ed
These Exemples show that
\\Jar
(45)
and
n~ (48) GtrE' Ov-tYPE of
verbs
which célnnot stand qJon8 q.§
Pr e d i c aj e ,
whereG\\l3
43 é')nd
46

---

65
TIlus,
s y n tac tic :_' 11 y,
e 0 p LJ 1 Q..- \\j c r b s,
a s p ee t u C\\J - \\j E r b s
and f'lwn-vcrbs
thou,dhthcY rray shctrc s orn o propcrtics,
C\\]'E'
n e vc.r t ho.l t s s
t o b",
C1CUiSificc 0J3
d i t r or ën t
categories.
II.1.b.19 Aspcctu,:,l-Vcrbs
lJ[' h Cl v C Q ive n Au x- Vs
- - ' - " 7
Cop. V. ('::.sp. \\1).
(C.f CQteCJOIio.l
rule 18).
Wc co n s i dr-r
nOLJ Asp-Vs
sC?p:)ratcly.
As i t
h Cls
al r C? :.'d y bec Il sai o , t h 8 Y c a n no': 0 CCLI r ,:l...S
From H,;:;?
p o in r
of
vieu,
!.Jolof r~Sp-V5 differ
f r orn
the Asp",Vs
o f some leX,.ngu,]ijOS, S2Y English.
FOr
cxct-mplc
in his "English AspcctuoJ-
Verbs ll
uhich
,~n;->lyses tho rn od a I a u x i Li ar Le s , Frcdcriek J. Ne\\JIT1e.1cr1 di s cus s r s
in their
epistcmic s cn s c s
four
mOdals,
namely;
may,
must,
can
?nd \\Jill,
~nd observes thus:
function
scmQnticr:A.lly ctCJ
pr r d.i na t a s
of en t i r e
proposi-
3.
It may ré2ill
tocl!y.
(Possibility)
4.
the
thcory must thEn
hold.
(truth by neccssity)
5.
How can
you
bc so dumb?
(Possibility)
6.
Tomor.ow \\Jill
bc Mond~y
(Future)
Considcr
th;-
fol:louinC]
Jolof s cr t o nccs :
4 c~- .
Cj ,C> n (1L: r
the
cc, .i ck en Ua 1" t s
t 0
la y
(co9 lj s ) . ;
1.
Fr e cl ~r i C h J.~. c wm c y cr;
En 9 lis h 4 s p C'c t u cJ- Ver b s , "l 0 U ton,
1 9 7 5 ,
Pi(\\ge 73,

---

66
50
:mOJ
d o f a
nf"I';,\\
caom
~)m:' l'
has Ln t cn de d to go
)
51
mÊtn nô
oJTI
mu
t)W
t28 y
1
it may l'ain tOday
\\
\\,
. j
..
rI
52
nC1..-kOll
[J 9 o;
men
mu: ml)..:
ni:
'_."
How ca n you bc SO dumb
1 )
.
HeI'E wC' have pur p o s s Ly taken two sentences (49-50)
containing
Asp-V~ in t hc i r r o o t s cn s c s , e rid tw O sentences (51,52) --rno nq
Neymcyel'1s.
In none of them wc could expcct the ~sp-Verbs GJone
as pr cd i c a t s s ,
evc:n ssmantically,
The OPerotion would have gGner~ted the following
49~
*nae n
la...
gi
b06g g
(laY is
c h.i ckon
the
wQnt ~
5Oct.
*d.ee m
l~
)llct.r
ner
( go
is
ma;:'
int~n~
510.-
m'sn nD-
( i t
rains
t O d :=1 Y may .. 3P.o.f ,S g)
52a.
*~§C\\
mu:ma:
ni:
nak :3
12
m'on
/
( You
dumb
sO
how
ii1
can) ?
Many lJolof s p e ak ar s
uuu Ld Qcccpt
49 a-52q.. ,"lS grCl!JlmC\\..tic21 till
their ~ttEntion is drawn ta the f~ct that thG gramm~tical
s e n t e nc r s o-ctuzJ-ly sho\\A-ld b e 49b-52b
iJ9b
n cs n
la
g"n2~r
gi
b" •
cgQ9
d as f
.
1"."..•••
lay
is
chick en the want
do
( ü;> lay GQ[)s is uha t the chicken wants to d01

---

67
50b
nara
cffEB f
•
'Cl 0
i s
jm a r
i n t 13 n d
d 0
,'-
(to go is
\\Jhat
';rilsr
Ln t c nc s
t o oo)
51b
mu
ta:: y
am •
i t
r a i n
t od ay
may.3P~Qr.Sg ha p p cn
( i t rains today may
hapPEn.)
52b
n ga
mu:ma:
ni :
naka
la
m·dha
amro
?
you
dumb
sO
hO\\J
is
can
happc n
(you bcing sO
dumb hO\\J Can i t bo7)
A pràof that 49a is ungfammatical but 4gb is grammatical is that
IJC
could replace naen by
CéB:p(= r Lc c ) in 49a but not in 4gb.
In" ~ a r::'2 f1 i s SUD '::" 0 S C' d t 0 b c a Ve..r b •
Th C'r G f 0 lL e i t
s hou l d n 0 t
be sub s t i t.ut eo by {) n ouri, r10rc clcarly n-o n and c,:co:P!arc not in
p~radigm~tic rel~tion.
T h us
soml.nt i c ~ll y as \\Jr Ll
0. S
s y nt" c tic:" 11 y i t
i s
correct
to statc that one
c3sential ch~raçteristic of the Âsp-Vs
i s
t h~ t
the y mus t
b C f 0110 \\Jc c.\\ b Y 0... l''h i n Ver b (rrl. V) i n lJo lof.
NOLJ let us turn to a no t h o r
-isp ec t
of As p , Vs.
Tret.di-
tionally t he y arc dofinC'd a..s hclping
vcrbs.
This
notion could
bo mislc6tcling b c c aus c Asp. ~!s unlike Cop. Vs do
not function aP
,lJ1erc s r c o nd ar y c ons t i t um t .
Hcrc it
is
p r o p or
ta quo t e tho
point of v i e u of rüchctcl
Cro.,dy
'Synt~x ctnd Somantics of the
Engli13h
Vcrb-PhrQsot
(1970
P,9).

---

68
An~lysing the fol10wing s~ntcnccs, he writos thus:
x1
x2
x3
x4
1. 01
l
moy
ha..vc
ta1king
SentenOE:
Nj
V
Nobj
V
N.ob j
V
N,comp
V
sentencc:
-
1.02
r
r
- i
r may
hQvC
bccn
talking 1 i
1
, j
.-.
' -
IUO consider X1
(may) ctS the sole truc vorb ct.S to
cxternal function,
with its object bcing the
nomin?lized set x
-
x
-
x
(h~vc bocn talking)'
2
3
4
Ue ~c not Gxtcnding our ~nalysis towQrds CraDyls
co nc cp t i on ,
Ncvertho1css w€'
do think that Asp-V.~ p1~y more than
0.. S Ge0n d a r y
r ol c , Q h el pin 9 r o I c i n t h C? Pr cd i c a.t c P hras c •
Uc h0VC noticed th~t the dclctiün of the Cop~V
di
in no u~
1
<a..-ffocts the: s cn t e n c e .
So [,je have con c l ud c d tha.t
dc
simply
r c i n f c r c s s NP and
VP r e l at.Lons hi p ,
Tha.t is why the Lao c I
CopulQ.-Vorb is used.
But on the othsr hand,
considcr thc fol1owing
54
jmz:tr
dafa
b'c'g Cl
1r:o :kk
..
( )mi\\F
wClnts
to
GELt
)
Ue sc0-d that if wc c on s Ldr-r tho dicù.cct which W8 have oJ.-lu d e..d
t 0, WG coLJ1d ha..vG tho sentenCE
540.. ÇJ i ven
bo1ow:
542
)mqr
fa.
b'êg g
183 !r.kk
wants to Gat
.)

---

69
but not 54b
S4b
fa
l cc : kk
Since t.r a ns f ur-mxt Lons arc not mr:::'ning châllgin9 ~cording to
54b
Chomsky,
;:;S
\\.JO
sha..ll sec i t lcüCI',/hRving ameaning
d.i f f or s n t
from
540-...,
uou l d b e ma.rked
as unç:]ramrnatical,
if
eonéoidercd ~s
the surface structure of the P.m~rkcr which undcrliGs
54.
ôë gg
cQnnot be dclcted bocausc i t convcys Qn
"----"
2Spcctu~ meaninq indispensable to the int8rprGt~tion of thc
vP •
The C\\.C t uo<-l mc a ni n 9 0 f
thE? PI' c d i c~.t 8 i SilO t
1 t o c a t!
but
Accordinc; to
this
fQct,
Asp. Vs
ca n be subccttcgori zcJ
on
the bcsis of thcir
inhercnt fceturos
\\.Jhich
dctcrmine thcir
rcl~tions with thE propositions which follow thcm.
T hi s ct.n .:Jlys i S
c? n b I? Pr C'sen t Gd i n the
for rn 0 f
the
followin g ru le:
Rule 36
+ V
+ V
,~sp.V
-~
+ rnod
+ mod
+ inc h o a-t i !1[
+ o..nnouncemcnt
+
v
+
v
)
+
V
+ \\f
+ mOc!
+ mod
1
+ aPtitude l
+ Permissivc
1
+
V
+
v
)

---

70
+ V
+ V
+ mod
+ mod
+ Possibility
+ obligation
v
+
v
rr--
+ V
i + V
+ mod
1 + mod
!
+ countcr-C?xpectcd:
+ intEntiVG
1
1
1
1
! +
v
1
+
V
1
1
1 -
i
L
~
-,
+ V
+ V
+ mod
+ mod
1
+ irrGv8rsibility
+
V
+
V
1
L
~
t-e-
!
+ V
1
i
,
+ V
+ mo d
+ mod
+ f inGLl a.ction
1
+ o cs i r c
j
+
V
+
V
i
,
1
1
1
,
~
L.
+ V
+ V
+ mod
+ mod
+ n8gat,i on
+ r C? pu 9 n C\\..n c G
V
+
V
i
_,

---

71
.-
-.
+ V
+
1
1
V
+ mcd
+ me' d
+ Probctb il i ty
1
+ miss ta
+
V
1
+
V
'-
r-
I
+ V
+ mod
+ dccided to
+
V
11.1.B.19 Copu I a-Vcr bs
Wc have resortcd to the del~tion of d~ in a
5~ntencc likc 55.
55
dufay
1?C : kk
CAts
to show that thc role of the
CopuL--,
is s oc on dar y ,
This is not
nc t un.Ll y convincing i f uc ctpply the s arn c dcvicc
to other
Copulas
s u c h e.s
angi,
nac :kk,
d ):n 1 di / '
Ncvcrthelcss,
for
~.
'-~
the present tim~ wc will uantc d l y by-p"'ss this question, end
concentrate on
the
oth~r side of the medal.
Copula-Vs.
a l s o can be subcatc~'O:"Jiz"d.Considcr
,"or EXct.mplc the t oLl cu i n q .» r-nt r-n c c s :
56
IJQo:r
d~ : nn :..'
"~... ,
ngo:r
_.-
has be("~mC' king

---

57
*n.g o: r
d.:>: nria
dau
72
f'JC)D :1'
hes bccomc l'un
58
*noo·Jj·
cJy.n ria.
LJ~r,
'_.\\..'
:x
. •:J
•
.
nçja t r
h ~r
:-.-:»
IJ CC om c lJhite
59
r;Çjo~1'
ci) ;nul
hu:1'
rJcJ ib :1'
i; n Dt king
60
*ng o: 1'
anci
bu~1'
~:o:1'
is king
61
r:gd:r
an,gi
di)LJ
'-~
noo:1'
has l'un
.J~
.~.
62
fJQo:r
a.r:2,~i
1..1 '_"0 : x
~_~o : r
is LJhit~
6~
*rj Cl CJ r r
Clngiwul
bu:r
.. ,
noo:r
is not k j,:-: Q
J -
, -'
64
~ qo t r
n~ : k ;~n()..-
bu~1'
~.9 o:r
/las
became king
65
~:'n go: r.
nœ ~:< k n D...
c12Ld
<>
--./
fJQCJa
ha::> bccDmc r un
, ~
6 b.
~~o~r
nae ;. kk n:~
LJ'::C 7 X
_ . . . . . i
-
nr;o:r
has bccomc LJhi-ce
67
IlQ a :1'
n~ :kkul
bu::r
~.
fJ go:r-
is n o t king
68
*ngo: r
dafd..
bu:l'
fJQo:1.'
15 king

---

73
69
IJ9 0 : r
d2fa
dd\\,J.
r)go:r
f\\Q,S
l'un
70
1]9 0 : 1'
dofa
W(jC : x
fl9 0: r
is white
.:.--
71
QQo:r
du
daw
----
1]90 :r
will
not l'un
'---
Wc have c omb i ns d da,
tUJ9i,
d):n, a n d rire :kk r os p c c t.Lvc l y , with a
..... _...
nominal prcdicate,
~ vcrb-phrasc, ~n ~djcctival-Prcdicate, Rnd ~
It cppc~rs from the SEt 9cncrated 0bave that somo of
thom do
not work with negation,
sOme take opti~naly negation,
some work
ob Li q a t o r-Ll y with nomincr..l_prcdic(Jto ~nd sDmc o t hcr s
only with eithcr o.-d,g:cctival
pr ed i c a t o or
vorb-phréJsc.
This o..nc0ys is c an bc pr"scntcd in
the
f o r m of
the
following rule:
.-
+ V
Rul c 37
+ Aux
Cop
+ Cop
+ _ _ (nc;g)
+ _ _ bd j • PI' L' d ;
+ V
+ Qux
+ Cop
- _ _ ncg
"'"
ad j • PI' Gd; VP

---

74
~
+ V
1
+ Aux
+ Cibp
+ _C N8g )
+
NP. Pr cd
L_
.50 far
we have uscd th~ tcrm ~djcctive in ~ g~nGral sense.
A c l.os c r
Ctno...1ysis
uou l d show a d Ls t Lnc t i on of <1.S many l't-S six t ypos
'of ad j s c t Lvr s
:. d ca cr Lp t
vo a..djEctioo,
dcmo ns t r a t Lve Qdjcctive;
î
p oa s ce s Lvc ~djcctive; numeral Q.djECtivEi indefinitc edjcctive: and
interrogative: ~djcctiv2.
This Can bc prEsented in the
form of the followihg rulc:
Rulc 38
Dcsc.Adj
\\
Dem.Adj
)
1
1
1
Poss.Adj
l,
Ad j.
-?>
-,.
Nurn , :\\dj
\\
I nd cr. Ad j
1
1
,
Intg.Adj
,J
11.1.8.21
DEscriptive Adjectives
---_ __._._.
This type of ~jEctive Can option011y bc modifi~d by
Ex.
f~
wi
da.fa
1):!
hors8+th~+be.3P.Sg.Pres+tired+i~9 much
(Th~ hor s r, is too much t.Lr co , )

---

75
The ctbove l:'JlqJ.ysis
c an be pr cs c n t.cd in the: form of the
followinç; r u I e t
Rulo 39
Adj
D~~(. Ad j /
+ (Mv)
TheY QJ'c o f
four typos
and have: t ho
fCélture((numben) •
Type 1:
This typo h a s the f ca t ur c L:.< + n car ».
It indicates
persons, ~imals or abjects that ~G proXim2tc in regard ta the
speaker
par t i cu l a rû y.
Exx.
73
Xttr
mi:
s h cep
this
( this s hoc p~
7 L~
~h: :g
b· •
l •
r o orn
this
(this room)
75
Ni t
k 1.:
p c r son
this
( this p or s on )
76
xnr
yi:
s h c cp
th8sC
( t hes G Sh8CP!
77
Nc:g
Yi ~
r o orn
thes6
(thGs8 r o oms )

---

76
78
i'Ji t
ni:
p cr s on
t ho s '?
(thesG pors ons)
Typc 2:
This second typo h as
the? f co t ur e «.» Rcmotc)).
It indi-
catcs persons,
~nimals or abjects that 4ffc: ncither in the
immediatc are~ of the speaker nor in that of the hearcr.
Exx.
79
xar
mctJ.&
shccp
that
( t ho•.t shec:p)
80
rJ c: 9
bv.ae
rDom
that
( thot room)
81
ndaw
(lal~ )
=
(tha t
child)
'--"
82
gjnrB
(ga 1 C1c )
=
( thot c h i Ld )
83
j,: rjgamo
(jalaJ)
=
( t hQt
1;'1 dy )
-::»
84
nit
(kala:; )
::=
(that persan)
79et
x~r
(yaL-.e )
=
( thos e s h ac p )
80n
ne:g
(ya 1 œ )
=
( th os c r ooms)
810-
nd;:>w
(yo.lê:J )
~
(those chi Ld r en)
82~
g~1 nac
(yoJ-~ )
=
(th'-)se. childrcn)
830.-
jY:nQZlm~ (yalac)
=
( th os ~ 1 a d i cs)
840-
nit
(ilo.Jœ )
::::
(thos e pers ons)
TYPe 3:
The third tYPG !tIsa indi ca.t es Persans, MimaIs or
abjects t he.t {)..r c r srno t e ,
but only
in regard to
the s peak cr and
not ta the hcltrer.

---

77
Exx.
79b
xor
m): mu
=:::
t ha.t. shcC'p(neÈ:lr t o the hcaro
80b
nc:g
b):bu
=:::
t ho..t r oom
81b
nciakJ
l):lu
:::
t hat c h.ild
'>J
82b
:::
that child
)
83b
j') :!2.9amC'.. jl'J :ju
=
thQ...t lady
84b
nit
k):ku
=
t hat
porson
79c
Xe,r
Y') :yu
=
t h cs c shccp
80c
nc:g
y~):yu
=:::
those rooms
81c
nd(:W
y-:;:yu
=
thosc childrcn
82 cg") n ac
y J: y u : : :
t hQ3 e chi l dr en
83c
j):~8ma
Yj:Yu
:::
thosc ladies
84c
nit
n):nu
= those pers ons
this third type is ~lso uscd wh~n the nOUn it .rGf8rS to Was
prcviously ~ topie botWGEn Spo2ker ond hearcr.
Exx.
th:'lt shoE'p (w€.
talkGd Clbout
:::
t hos e s b o c p
The fou~typc refers to an olement whieh is rcmotc
both From the speakEr and thE hearer a§ wcll, howGvcr,
Exx.
79d
XC\\I
m):m,ae:
=
th~t shccp ovcr (you) thcrc
80d
ne:g
wi:wae:
=
that hOUSG OVET (you) t.b or r
81d
that chi Ld over (ynu ) thEr
82d
th~t child ovcr (you) thcr
83d
j 'j : Dg a m~
Jj : j ee :::
that lady over (you) thcrc
'-'"
84d
nit
k"J : kee :
=
that person ovcr (you) the
•
798
. x oJ'
Y") : y$
:
thOSE s h oep o vcr (you) the:
=
80e
nc:g
Y-:,:Y$:
=
t hcs c hOUS8S
OVN
(you)
t her e

---

78
== t hcs Q childrcn o v cr (you)
t n cr c
,= thasc chil clI' t: n ovcr (you) there
830
jj:ngama y):yao:
= those l~iGS ovcr (you) therc
840
nit -nJ:n:;c:
= those parsons
o vo r
(you)
t hr-r o
this type refcrs qlso
to 0
topic involved in ~ previous contexte
Thesc ~nalyscs cen be prcscntod in tho form of the
folloLJing rulo:
Ru l G 40
Prox.Sp CH)
")1
(
Pr ox , o x c L, H
"
Dem.Adj
,
- 7
+ Nb
1
Rem. cq
\\
\\
)
\\ Rem.
les s cr. H )
The th5td sub-class of adjectives is LJh~t is knoLJn ~s
Po s s cs s Lvë nd j c c t i vcs ,
NormltJly
t hc Po s s v Ad ]
pr cc ec cc the n o un ,
But the third person singu12r Poss.AdJ is a1LJays suffixed to the
noun.
Moreovc:r Pus s sAd j
hœ vc
a d o c Lcris Lon LJhich s hou s Persan
rank,
say 1 s t ,
2nd
etc.
Ex x.
85
Sa: mo, l am
=
my bracelet
86
~ lam
= your (s inQ ul(j.T ) b r ac eI e t
57
lc;mam
= his (h or, its) b r e c e l et
_--------_
.
_.-----
--. - - - -_.-.._---.-
..--------
' .... __ .....
1
Prox.Sp( H) me a n s praximc:te ta
the sPeaker ~nd evcntun].ly tel the
hC<tre r•
Prox.cxcLH m~oJls proximC{tlt cxclusivcly ta the ht'2f1>.rE:-r;
Rc:m.cq mG2 ns
cquC(lly q~mot~ from the s p.eak e r
,~nd the he.a.rcr;
Rcm.1Qssor.H fficaF1s r e mo t e fram speaker :"Jncl hcarc-r but n~CU'-er
ta the l<t.tter~

---

79
88
sunu lam
=
our brac el œt
89
ê--~_:.'2. 18m
==
your
( plu r ," 1)
bracelC2t
90
§..~ : 1} lê'm
==
the ir bracelet
The Po s ses si v Q Adj cet i v~ b e.t., r spI u r a 1- mor k e r
i f
the
p 0 s S L' S ~, C cl n ou n h a s
the f c ,] t LI r e «( + Plu r » .
But
t hi s r u l c d Cl c s
not apply ta the third person sinQul~r Poss.Adj.
[xx.
85/J.
~_Q~_a,t Lr m
==
my b r r c ck o t s
86~
~ay
Lr m
= your (sing) b r a c c Le t.s
8700-
a.v, IG0Tl.§.~
= his ( her , i t s) br ac el ets
,-.,
88~
~ynuy
lam
b r rc r I c t s
==
our
890.-
s~ :ni
lam
==
your
(plural)
br~clets
' ..
90Q.
s~e:~llam
==
their bracelets
Possessive ndjbctivc n c vor
~pC'l\\r without the posscssed NP t n
which i t r c f c r s ,
Th r-s c analyses c an be r c pr e s c n t c d in the
fOrm of th~ following rulc:
Rule 41
Poss.Adj
--~
+ îJ
+ PQrs i
+ nb
II.1.8.24 Numeral ~djcetives
-_.- ------------------"---~
The
fourth subcl~ss is known AS numerical ~djcctives.
Lt
can bc subdividcL! into t.uo subcl~scs, t hat I s , o r d i n o I
ad j cet ive s
«n cl c œ.r Ci i na l
o.-d j cet i v ~ s •
Cord.Adj •
lUe
t ho s c u s c d for
c,rlumcrRtion
Exx.
91
==
one c h i Ld
92
==
two childrcn

---

80
Ord.Adj ~rE thase used ta indicate ~ rank.
Exx.
93
==
fourth z:lo..y
94
jiro:mce.l i
fan
==
fifth d.:JY
This C!lJ1cùysis C2n be presented
in the
form
of the f o Ll o u.i nq
rule:
R ul e 42
Num.Ad j
-~
fkJj
11.1.8.25 1ndefinite Adje.s:tiv~
T/j3
fifth cl?ss of adjectives is known QS
1ndofinite
adjectives.
Exx.
95
j 8~~ l:tl b e: pp jen b): fa gis = buy !Zn y fis h you cltn
_...-.-~-
s e e
th er e
96
no.lk y 8 : ~ ma ~9 in:] ilu == :::11 the cows h '': V e gon e on
----
t r ans hurns nc e
-,-
.,-
97
nit ne :pp nowntLnu
= G\\l-l t hs people ha vs com e
~-
98
nit k~ : 12!:' ): t:f8 wul = nabody has c r Ll e d
This ~nalysis C2n be presented in the
form of the fallowing rule:
Rule ,(+3
Indef.Adj
--~
In d e f • Ad j
+ <.<. Nb >;:.-
The six t h e las s
a f ltd j e c t ives i s k no wn Cl s
Interrogative adjectives.
Ex x.
99
= which chÎld
yan
xo..1:s
=
which children
This Can be presented in the fOrm of the following rule
Rule 44
---_..,.
I n tg. Ad j
+ <dV b "'il

---

81
l 1. 1 • B • 27
A.d v e:r_~_~
~J 0 w 1 et use 0 n s ide r t h 8 ca t 8 9 0 r y 0 f a.dver b s •
Consider
the following
sentences.
101
d ,'18 mal
faJ.5~_
=:
go there
102
-r; owal fi
=:
cOme
hnr 8
103
le:g i
la: 'now
==
l
h:=:;ve just
c cm e
104
d}x~ nd .:JlJk
==
w~lk slowly
'.-
"---"
105
r28 : urJg 8
1 "):1
==
you eue too much impolite.
......./
106
fJ go: r
l i 9 9 8 : yu l
~ : d i
f).
.
(rlQo:r
p Lay s
rather
t he,n uo r k i n q l
107
n dre y
dœ..fa
raf:J3 t
ni
b Ld ds t u ,
~J
_~
(nchey
is bec..Ptiful like a, star).
'-'
1'J8
wa:w
Dgo:r
dCUlIX.
dae m.
........--
( y es, 1Jgo;r
will
go) •
,-,'
109
)mos.
da fa..
'nu: l
kuk
.
-
(-jmo..r
i s (t i 0- t op
b l ac k.)
y ,
(Jm~r
has
Qone to
the meeting.)
1 1 1
de: cQ : t
rJ go: r
d u
d 28 m•
(no,
r:J~o:r
will
not
go.)
\\.Je note
thQt
O"dv~rtms C\\.re of different reL'3tional va Lues ,
In 101
the nd v e r b. introduces 'a.. notion
of Remo t e Plli...clé?_
,
In 102
-do-
Prox~~te Pli1
In 103
-do-
Timo
In 1 0 L~
-do-
r~Cl-.nner
In 105
-do-
Intensity

---

82
In 106
iile a..d ve rb introq...uced €\\ notion of o...d ver s (:t.t ive
In 107
-do-
corn pnr is a n
In 1 08
.. do-·
of fi rlll:1lo..t ion
In 109
-do-
s up er Lat i ve
In 110
-do-
Place
In 111
- do-
Negation
This ana,.lysis c a n be pr as o nt c o in the> form of the
following rule:
R ul e 45
P.dv
+ Adv
r-+ Adv
1
\\ -:- Place
\\
+ r emo t E"D e q
! + Rem.lesse r . H
1
i
+ V
.:e--_ _
: -:-
V -==~_
' -
1 -
- 1
+ Adv
.'id v
+ Pl/à.Cp
i: PIClCe
!
l+ PrOx.sp.(H)
.1.
V
1--
+ Adv
+
1
f-'.dv
1
!
+ t irr.2
+ time
... PQ...st
+ imminent
-
imminent
+ V
+ V
i _

---

83
+ Adv
1
+ ,4dv
--\\
1
!
+ time
+ time
1
1
\\
p(\\st
+ imminent
-
1
1
1
1
:
+ Punctual
+ V
1
-
1
+ V
I~
.J
.--,
:-
+ Adv
+ .1:\\ dv
1
+ time
+ time
+ Past
+ PetS t
+ late
- late
+ V
+ V- - -
+ AcJv
+ A dv
l 1
+ time
+ MctJln cr
+ Po....st
+ IJ
+ Punctual
V-_.-
+ Aciv
l
+ Adv
1
+ Quent
1
+ int ens i ty
1
+ V
+ V
i
1
,
"---.
1-
-
+ Adv
+ Adv
1
1
+ adversativel
+ c ornpar Ls on
V
NP
+ V. n e q___V !
+
'--..-.

---

1-
--;
~~ Adv
1
+ Adv
i
84
i + negation
1
1
1
+ affirmation
1
1
1
-:-
S
1
+
S
1
1
-..-J
i·--
i
+ Adv
i
+ Adv
1
1
+ superlativel
+ time
+ ad) _ _
+ Premature
+ V
II.1.8.28 Conjoining Particles
Conjunction may involve Phrasos or Clauses in a simple
coordination or On the other hand, with a relation of subordination
holding between the elements conjoined.
In the former Case,
coordinating conjunctions are involved, where8s
in the latter,
subordinating conjunctions are involved.
At this stage, we want
to give a subŒat~0orization of
these two different types of ~onjunctions.
Let us consider the coordinating conjunctions in the
analysis of the following sentences
112
y aa ma I
mba:
rJga
ge:nn •
(behave yourself or get ou~.)
113
r:Jg o r r
ba: xn a
uant.aa
da fa
s: p.
( fJ go: r i s nie e but (h 8 i s ) r 0 wd y. )
":_--,'
1 1 4
r:Jgo:r
d a f a
s ; : n n
n d a x
J a fa:). i 13 ;., t;tJ ~
l u 'e"P p '
(~Qo:r
is tired beca~~~ he wC~~ed cxcessively.)
_ J
1 1 5
a:ndna
ak
rakkam
.
,-.--'
(~Qo:r
has gOne along with his young brother.)
.........,.

---

85
'!!9a:, lJ2tr~tœ fJ..~ax and a k e s t ab Ld s h a relation of coordination
b e t uaen
the t uo rn emb nns of tr.4tir r as p ac ti Vs Sentencese'
But the
relation so established in
sach sentence varies
and depends
on
the inherent feature of the involved coo~dinating conjunction.
Thus mb a t d an o t e s
an a l t ar na t Lva ,
uh er cas l..Jél:r;ta..~
__
~.
.'
opposes t uo
slements.
On the c th e r füde, hdax denotes
an exp Li c a-
tive relation,
while ak
denotes
a
cJmb~natory or copulativs relati
Consider noW this other set of sentences 116-121
below:
11 6
n: 9 ~j ';'
dana
jend
x)r) m
bu
bitik
ba
tsjul.
( n)g:, y
will buy salt if the shop is not closed.)
---
.
117
n-::; 9 ')Y
dana
n arn p a L
d~1 : mam
bu
s o t a l ee .
li9..g e: y•
---
( n' 0'
J.J .1 y
will nur s E her bab:' when s he
f Lrid s nes
uor-k Ln q , )
11 8
s ai:l~t :i. L..! u l
at ta:
xamna
fi mu dal.
(~go:r did not calI on ~)x~r though he knew
119
Il')g')y
j-eI1CJu.'.
~ana:t
l"id,EtX
îmarnowul
e
has not
PLJ:i:'Ch2SCG
ch ic k s n because jmar
ha s n ot
\\
cornEJ~)
!
120
n)Q)Y
nampa~Q.a d.)~rlIfl;fi1lbi mu s)tala:;: li~e:y •
(n''-ig'JY
has nursed h.e.t, ceJ:y
ub cn she has
f Ln.i s no d working,)
121
fJgo:r
w')~na
n_g23 nil)
ï]Qir
c a i t
l i xumb
(rJgo:r
has
I n v i t ad
nclé:c.: n5.f) .?_~:..,.. ~.!2ê.i the
~ ,
u edd i n q c ou Lo
Ge Li.vr::lY.)

---

The relation of the
clauses
86
-bu
bitik
ba
tejul
if the shop is not c10sem.
-bu
S)talce:
liggo:y
when she finr.ishes
vtlt<ing
-at~a:
xarnna
fi
mu
dal
though he knew where he stayed
- ndax )mar
........,
~owu1
bscause Jmar has not came
-bi
mu
s)ta1éB:
1igge:y
when she has
finished
working
-~Qir
ce:t
li
xumb
so that the wedding cquld be animated
with the r crn a LnLn q Part of t he i r respective sentences depend, Dn
the nature of the subordinating conjunctions which we have made
us e 0 r ,
For e xarnp I.e , in 116, bu denotes a necessary condition
for n)g)y's salt purchasing.
In 117, bu denotes a notion of
time which c o i n c i d es with the end of the LD r k t ha t
n)g)y is
actually doing.
In 118, atta: I nt r cduc e s an adversative
relationship.
In 119, n_dax is a causal link.
In 120, bi,
like bu in 117,
denotes a relation of time but contrarily to
bu the time it denotes is~ast.» ..
In 121
finally,
nç i r ,
purposive 1ink, indicates what an action ls intended to.
Notice that there is no clear-cut distinction betwEen
Q9ax aS coordinating conjunction and ndax aS subordination con-
.-.-/
.juric t.Lcn ,
The syntactic test consisting of a pre-posing move-
ment transformation i5 hardly helpful.

---

87
This analysis can be presented in the form of the following
r ul es :
Rul e 46
SConj •Co j'
Conj.P
--..;>-
l Conj •Sub
Rule 47
+ conj.
Conj.co
~7
+ Co
+ alternative
+ NP
NP
+ S
S
+ Conj
t Conj
+ Co
+ Co
+ adVersative
+ Explicative
+ S
s
+ S
s
1-
+ Conj
-1
1
+ Co
+ Combinatory
+ NP
/IJP
+ S
s
1
L--
Rule 48
+ Conj
Conj.Sub
- 7
1
1
+ sub
1
+ Condit i on ij
+ V
S
j
1
- ;

---

88
+ Conj
+ Conj
+ Sub
+ Sub
+
temporal
+ adversative
+ aoristic
L+ v__ s
+
V
S
+
Conj
+ Conj
+ Sub
+ Sub
+ CaU s a I
- aOr is tic
+ V
S
+ V
s
' -
+
Conj
+ Sub
+ Purposive
+ V
S
While d~aling with PP, W8 have mentioned that pp
may have different functions.
This of course depEnds on the
nature of the Prep itsElf.
Consider the following sertence5~
122
jendn~
u
ED : nd.
( fJ 9.:) : r
ha s b 0 u g h t a b l a nk et f rOm I n d iGt
(= made in India)).
1 23
u
(ThE' Sea of India is not L~.rge.)

---

89
125
•Ef.l.:"e"l< •
126
d ~,'J nn,::
bn
nd ..H
~-'
f"J ç; ,.; ~ r
ha s b EJ B n u pt 0 r:~ 3 r .)
1 27
dZHJ mal
'81."0'1< •
(~p t il:.~. tom 0 rI'O w. )
128
ubbina
bunt
......
ca :b':'8:fïl
•
'
(~gD:r
has openned the door with his key).
1 29
nowna
ci
ng:::.:n
(~gCl~r
came in the 8vening.)
130
du
b J : l. ::J8
C::B r rs
: k
S'):lJ
•
(~ÇJn:r
do not rnix 1 c ra r ae
-with c ur d , )
'--'
1 31
•
J
k·e·,....
JOflJ n~
t
(r:Jgr;:r has pur c has ed e house ::nd C1 field.)
'_.
1 32
~ç<J~ l'
a~?n<9l-
~
n)g)y •
(nG(';~r
!las çjDn e al on 9 wit~ Nogoy .)
• • J
-~
133
nrr):r
oJlg i
ci
n e:k
bi:
<.:
( ne 0: r
is in this r oom)
..'"
in 122
the Pr ap
u
elEno'ces o..n or Lq in
in 123
Il
LI
"
Q
geni~ive relation
in 124
Il
Cc>-
"
a. sP~tiél.1 Lnc a t i.on + notion of remo'
in 125
r ,
b o.I 0...: ;;
Q
temporal lOCAtion
in 1 26
Il
bO-
"
sp~tial location
in 127
Il
ba.-
"
a temporal location
in 128
"
",-k
Il
dIl
instrument
in 129
II
ci
Ij
~ temporal loc~tion

---

90
in 130
the Pr sp
aV<
denotes
0- s oc i a t i ve
r eLèti on
in 131
Il
a k
"
?ln addition
in 132
"
oJ<
ri
companionship
in
"
133
"
ci
11
,çl\\ s p n..tia l
location + ~notion of near
Thus ue can distinguish 8S many as eight types of Prep.
This
analysis can be presented in the form of the follouing rule:
Rule 49
-1
.. Prep
+ Pr ap
+ Orig
[+ human; + neuter}
1
Prep--7
NP
Place.
+ Gsnitivs
1
!
+ I\\JP
NP
1
pos sess ed_
p os s es sor l ,
-~)
'-,
~
1 +
Pr ep
+ Pr ep
+ Spo..t-loc
+ R sm
PInce
+ V
timel
-,,-,
)
..--
-
1
1
+ Pr ep
, '.
+ Pr sp
+ inst
+ Sociat
+ V
inst
+ NP
NP
1-
)
)
:-
r-
-1
+ Pr ep
+ Pr ep
I
+ dddit
+ Camp
1
+ I\\JP
NP
+ V
-NP instrument
L.
:_-
)
. :. ~

---

91
+ Prep
i + Pr ep
i
-1-
Spat-loc
1
+ temp-loc
+ near
+ V
+ V
t im e
11.1.0.30 Nouns
N
Can be chQrQcterized ~ nouns which have no case-
contrQst, no persan distinction, 2nd da nat refeT to anather NP.
The class af N can be subdivided into two
groups;
nQmely Proper
nouns <;tnd
:::lmmon n ouris ,
Proper nouns Are those which cannot be determined by
~rticles, un I es s t h sy (Ue given pêlrtitive meaning.
Exx.
1 o~a
)ma..r
b
l"Oc\\. : l Q\\J
c
n jQ:r e:m
'~
d
rr a : m~_' ?~e : c
Comrncn
nouns ar 8 qnn e r.i c no uris .
They refer to persons,
:lnimals,
abjects,
etc.
un s p ac i f i c n Ll v ,
Common nouns can be
determined by ~rtic18s.
Exx.
135~
x,:"lce
=:
c.\\.. child
b
=:
Cl- horse
c
su:f
The C\\-b 0 v e CUl Dl ys i s c a n b e pre sen t 8 d i n the for m 0 f the
follawing rule:
,-, r~ pr
)
i
Rule 50
N
-~
l-
l
i
\\
N, C
1
\\ "
-1

---

92
N.pr
includes,
on
the one hari d ,
N.pr uh i c h r e f e r
ta
hum an
(Npr.H):
a..nd on
the o t h ar hoJlld,
includss NPT
t hat r e f ar
ta non-
huma n (Npr.nH).
Exx.
Npr • H: 1 36 ,3 )
)mClJ'
b)
r");xxi
' - '
c)
g?:ll?k
Npr , n H:
d)
9 uy- 9 e \\.J·e1
( name of q t r 8S)
s\\
nd2r
(n;3me of ~ t o un)
"<.........
f)
rnbo, tw
(nams of ~ villoge)
'-.-"
This â.n01ysis eon be p r es sn t e d in the form of ths
followin 9 rule:
5Npr • H ~
Rule 51
Npr
~
tl\\J pr . n H\\
The subgroup Npr. H c r n fur t her bs sub~vided into
t hr a n groups.
Th?t is
Npr.H uh i ch r e f ar
to
ethnies,
for
which
which
we use the l~bel 1\\]pr.H.eth~ I\\Jpr.H which r o f er s to or-i qi n , forl
we Use the l~el Npr.H.Orig; 2nd Npr.H whieh are known as person
names l~beled here aB Npr.H.
nam8.
Exx.
Npr.H.name:
137 oJ
b )
e)
xo..d i
Npr.H.eth:
f)
j):13:
g)
p·e".!.

---

93
Npr.
Hv o r Lq :
h)
si:nsi:n
L)
LJa:ljwa:l")
j )
j ) : r j"J : r
The €'...b OV8 tan be pr os orrt e d in the f o rrn of the F o Ll o u.Lnq rule:
( Npr.H name
)
_._-").
Rule 52
Npr.H
)
Npr • H eth
1
tNpr •H orig J
The subgroup Npr.nH isfurther divided into t~o groups.
ThE
first
group contains Npr.H LJhich haVE thefelÂture \\(wiml-\\.t8~' They ars
l i~ bel ed r~ pr • n H" A
The second l;lr01JP contains I\\Jpr.nH that
have: the
fe~ture~n~nim~~~(NPr.nHJ)
Ex x.
Hpr , n~.A 138 éJ)
iVla:l;:lLJ
=
0-
hors G
b)
m:;·.e Ll o x
=
ho r s e
=
'"
c)
rnb o t s œ
a... Le zar d
'--'
Npr.nHJ
d)
nqa r
=
tOLJn
8)
Quy-g eLJë'1
= a tre8
f)
gu y -S er) '): '1'
=
6.. t r e o
g)
m·2:mafjge:c
h)
f!l~O:Yo:
=
~ LJind From east in
Senegal
i)
si:n
=
~ region
j)
r dLJ
= la t 0 LJn

---

94
This an~lysis Can be presented in the fDtm of the following rule:
Rule -
5~
) ~ pt .. n ft. A (
~J pr , n H
\\ Npr • n H~ l j
Vet thE:
sub-group Npr.nH.I c a n f ur t har be subdivided into two
groups.
The first group con t a i ns
Npr.nH.I which r af nr :
ta
abjects which have the fenture concrete.
We designote this
group with thE label Npr.nHJ.
canc.
The second group contains
Npr.nHI th:~t r e f ar ta ob js c t ,
which h""vc the f8~ture/-c, ,3bstract;;.
We use the label Npr.nH) ~b for this group.
Exx.
NPr • Ii H) • con c : 1 39 oJ
town
b)
s I t n
=
r 8gi on
c )
mé~:m-;f")g8:c == L"c
' - ,
xummn
=
village
l)garide:m = qunr t e r
.
,
de:g-u-da:ya:n
= a. rlver s name
(f-p--om ta-l-e)
i)
nd umb ro La r n
=
town (from tale)
-_...
,--,'
j)
s af ar e
=
Hell
This analYsis Can be presented in the form of the following rule:
Rule -
54
(- Npr s n ll Iv c unc
Npr .nHJ
--
)l Npr.nHI.Glb

---

95
We have SBen previously in R.49 that N is rewritten thus:
(
Npr
N
- - - ? >
)
( Ne
Ne has been o i vs n ~s generic n oun, uh i c h r s f e r r uris pe c Lf L>
cally to human or to nonhuman.
In its turn Ne ean be subdivided into two groups.
The first group eontains 011 Ne
whieh refer to humani
The second
group contains Ne~ which refer to non-human.The former is
la..beled Nc.H and the second group is L",bel_~ Nc~nH.
Ex x.
NeH:
140 a)
xCl) ffi
=
ehild
b)
bct :y
=
fé'~ther
c)
rl2~g) =
student
d)
il j A..: t i g ,-:::8 =
p.rt.r on
"--
G)
je:k
= lady
f)
rtjo.ga mc=: :r
=
girl (young)
'--'
~J c , n,H.
g)
f ;~'!:l
=
hors 0
h)
e): f
=
a
va r i e t y of fish
i)
pitlitx
=
d ove
j)
g ar a p
=
tr8G
k)
j-e n
=
fis h
1)
X:,lC
=
d&Q
ote.
This ~nalysis e2 n be prcsented in the form of the following rule:
Ne. H
1
Rule 55
I\\J e
-~
1"
r,J c . n H j

---

96
The subçttup
Nc.H itsslf will be split into two subgr~up3
The firs: on c referring
to k Î.ns h.i p t e r-rns 15 L@eled .?s
Ne.H.K
The s o cund one referring
to non-kinship t er ms is laboled as
Ne. H.nK
Exx.
Nc.H.K:
1 41
,,)
ba:y
=::
father
b)
r::..9;B y
=::
mother
e)
d):m
=::
son
d)
g)r)
==
in-Iaw
e)
ma:m
=::
grand-parent
.~
f)
C,:; :mmln =::
ta refer
ta 2
woman1s
br o t ner
g)
ba: j J9Sn =::
father's
si st Gr
etc .
Ne.H.nK:
142 ::)
xa Loo
=::
child
b)
j i~ [)_~
=::
gi r I
e)
nit
=
pers on
d)
gjn:-e
==
ehild
ç;)
ma: gg."'8 t
=::
old p e r s on
~.'
f)
wa xarnb o : n ae =
young man
etC.
This an a.Ly s.i s cs n be pr o s eri t c d in the form of the following r u l o .
SNe. H. K {
Rule 56
NeH
>
l Ne. H.nK J
The Ne.H.K
c an in
i t s
t ur n be s p Lf. t
into t hr o c sub9rQUps.
ThE first
sub9ruuP
refers
to Nc.H.K wbieh have the
fC2tu rc
((collective~)). Tt is labsled l\\Jc.H.K. col.

---

97
The second subgroup rcfcrs to th~ Nc.H.K which indicqtc
an order or a rank.
This grou~ is lebolcd as Nc.H.K.Ord.
The third subgroup thon refcrs to Nc.H.K which may
rsfer to an individU?~.
~E Use the label Nc.H.K.lnd. for thi9
sUbgroup.
Exx.
Nc.H.K.Col:
143 2)
Wa:jur
==
b)
==
chi1drcn of tho fami1y
c)
lJa : k'èr
=
~,11 the' p c r s ons of '4... family
ct c ,
Ne • H• K • 0 rd:
d )
ta:w
:::
c;ldest son
8)
ca:t
=
youngest .r.:r,jld
f)
<2 : u.
=
f Lr s t
u i f « in polygamy s ys t cn
g)
t ; fu
==
younger brotheI'
h)
rnnk
=
c l d e r
br o t hn r'
i)
r akk
yo ung br o t h cr
_ J
etc.
~,~ c • H. K. 1n cl •
j)
j."b--:r
k)
"1<k'
JE __. •
er
==
husband
1)
b--,:y
father
m)
ma:m
==
11 )
~~t
==
ct c-

---

98
This ~nalysis can be proscntcd in the form of the follo~inj rulc:
" Nc.H.K.Col \\
~
)
Rule 57
Nc.H.K
-~
Nc.H.K.Ore:{ 1
i.
Nc.H.K.lnd
i
Mor e 0 vG r
i f L.I8 0\\.n oJ ys e t he f 0 11 0 ~ i n 9 sen t 8 ne 2 s
1 4t~ (:\\)
*'~/'I\\()':C
eun na.
j é'k~ 8'1' .
( .m PJ'
has lt. husb r nd~
.)m"r
emnc
j3b:;;r
( )mor
has
Ct wife.)
~Xadi
amna
.tabar
(Xadi
ha s a ~ife.)
Xadi
é1mn('1
j "c1-:1< br .
- '
(Xad i
has a hue b an d, )
Xadi
amna
dj: m
ju
tudd
U'i us a: •
(Xadi
has a son ~hos c namG is ru sa: • )
f)
Xadi
amna
d 'j: m
ju
tu~
r'):xxi
..-/
(Xadi
has
a son uho s c nam\\2 is J;):xxi .)
<:>
it appcars that 14~a and 144c arc ungr~mmatical due to ~ lack
of concord bct~8en )mar and
io'kker on the one hand and Xadi
...
-..,'
and
jabar on the other h~nd.
The matrimonial kinship t o r m J"8"kkÊ>"r has tho f c at ur e
' ...-'
«masculinc»and the matrimon~al kinship torm jabar has the fcature
,,,,fcmininC't ~hilc 'Jmar and Xadi r r s p: ctivoly have thc f8ature
«, mas cul i n c );<3 n d id cm i ni n oio
Th us J 6k k·sr c a n n 0 t
s tan d as I\\J P 0 b j e c t
in 144a, and similarly jabar cannot stand as NP object in 144c,
~hile 144b and d arc grammatical since hcrc jabar and jo~~~r
r e s p oc t i vs Ly arc I\\IP objects in 144b and 144d.
But in 1440 and

---

99
144f in spitc of the difference botwocn musa: and r):xxi which
"-J
used to r e f or to ~Usa: and r-):xxi •
..... _ oI~
The r osu l t 0 f th i san a lys i s i s Ne. H. K• I nd ; , will i n i t s
turn be d e vd d cd into thre8 s ubçr oups ,
The first one rofers to Nc.H.K.Ind. which have the
foature~masculine»,
thus labc1cd &5 Nc.H.K.Ind. Mas~.
Th 8 s B co n don erG f 8 r s t 0 /li c , H. K. In d , whi ch ha ve th c
thus labeled Nc.H.K.lnd.fem.
The third one rcfers to Nc.H.K.lnd. which have the
thus labclod Nc.H.K.lnd.neut.
Ex x.
Nc.H.K.lnd.masc:
145 a)
ba:y
=
father
b)
jëkk·o\\-
=
husband
<:»
c)
ca:mmin
=
womon 's br o t h or '
d)
nija:y
=
~n e.'è mot hcr 's brothol :
Ne. H• K• I n d • f am :
e)
ya:y
=
mothor
f)
jabar
=
wifo
g)
Jig c :n
=man's
s Ls t e r
h)
b a t j j ar n
=
on e t s fathGr's
s ds t cr
etc.
Ne. H. K. I nd • n e ut:
i)
d :;: m
:=
son
j)
ss·t
:=
grand-son
k)
ma:m
=
grand-pa~ent
1)
g-) r : (
:=
in-law
etc.

---

100
This analysis Can bc prGs~ntc:d in the form of the following rule:
(
Ne. H.K. IncL,msse. )
)
Rule 58
Ne.H.K.lnd.
-7
Ne.H.K.lnd.fcm.
\\
!
Ne. H. K. nd, neut. )
ï
Then Ne.H.nK a1so ean be subdividod into five subgroups.
Subgroup-I.
r af ar s to
Ne. H.nK uh i c h have the fcaturc<"eollGctivc'>,.
That is theY refer to human as a body.
This group is
labe10d (Ne.H.nK.Col.)
Subgroup II.
refers to Ne.H.nK which have the fcaturG«Individual~
They rcfcr to human aS an individua1.
They arc grouPGd under
the label (Nc.H.nK.Ind.).
Subgroup-III.
rcfers to Nc.H.nK. which have the feature
«professional».
That is, indicating the type of work.
WB use
the label (Ne.H.nK.Prof.) for this group.
Subgroup-IV.
ref8rs to Ne.H.nK whieh have: the faaturc«.Drigin~>
That i8 N whieh indieatc the geogTaphieal origin of somebody.
ThEY arc grouped undGr the: label (Nc.H.nK.Orig.).
Subgroup-V.
r o f o r s to
l\\Jc.H.nK which have tho fe:aturc'1.6thnics».
That is N which indicatc race.
This group is labcled
(Ne.H.nK.Eth.).
Exx.
Ne.H.nK.Col:
146 a)
group of pers ons
b)
je: k
( / - ji)
==
a Il th e: lad i e s
c)
lê'l
group of children fOr
initiation in traditional
s o c ie t y
rnb o t t a r y
=
association of pers ons

---

101
Nc.H.nK.lnd:
0)
nï's
=
po r s 0,1
f)
g)nœ
=
child
g)
Jig o tn
=
wOman
h)
go:r
=
man
etc.
Nc.H.nK.Prof:
i)
u: dm
=
c obb l or
j)
t·e·gg
=
smith,
jGw 8l1cr
'---'
k)
mbandkat
=
tr ouba do L:JT
~.~
v-, - .
1)
ta:xura:n;.c,at ±
troubadour
ote.
,,
Nc.H.nK.Orig:
m)
wa:l~)wa:l~j
=
From wa:lj
n)
si:nsi:n
=
From si:n
0)
b a w)l ba w'JI
=
From o a wal
p)
a j i : r
~
From k a jo i r
etc.
Nc.H.nK.Eth:
q)
s c sr c zr
r)
tukulo:r
s)
j."):la:
t)
n'):minka
"---'
G te.

---

-----
102
This analysis can be prescntcd in the form of tho following rulc:
' Ne . H. n K. COl.
-/\\
( Ne.H.nK.lnd.
Rul c 59
Nc , H.nK
) Ne.H.nK.Prof.
1
\\ Nc.H.nK.Orig. \\
~Ne.H.nK. Eth. )
Yot Ne.H.nK.Col. ean bc subdividcd into threc groups according
ta the gendor.
The first group includles N with the fcature <"masculine .,'; I~,.--
They arc lab81Gd Ne.H.nK.Col. Masc.
The second group eontains N with tht? featurc <dcminine Y:. :'
They arc labclcd Nc.H.nK.6al.fom.
ThE third group c on t a i ns N with the featurE:~<n8ut(;r>~\\".
They arê labG~ed Ne.H.nK.Col.nout.
Exx.
Nc.H.nK.Col.mase:
147 a)
Ne.H.nK.Col.fcm:
Je: k
( /_-'_- j i ) =
the ladios
the girls
etc.
l~c.H.nK.Col.Ncu:
-'
li )
group of persons
c)
=:
association of pers ons
ct c ,
This analysis can bu proscnted in the form of the following rulc:
( Ne. H. n K_. Ca la fil" sc. -,
Ne.H.nK.Col.
---:::v
1Nc.H.nK.Col.fem. J(
! Nc.H.nK.Col.neut.

---

103
Similar1y,
Nc.H.nK.lnd.
can bc subdivided into three
groups
on
the
b as z
of gQndor.
Tho first group is
constitutBd by
N which have tho foature
<'.. rn as cu.l Ln c s.,
They are labelcd
Ne. H.nK. Ind s rnas c .
Tho second group contains N which have; the foature <"_fefTlinino)~.
They arc labolGd Nc.H.nK.lnd.fcm.
Tho third group includes
N which
have tho f e a t ur e cn cut cr...
They ars labelod Ne.H.nK.lnd.neumt.
Exx.
Nc.H.nK.lnd.mase:
148 a)
go :r
=
man
b)
u a x arnb a :nac
=
young man
.~~ JI
~~ e • H. n K. In d • f 8 m:
c)
Jig o rn
=
woman
d)
j aQ2<.
=
girl
0)
"njagaméJ :r
=
young girl
'--'
f)
je:k
=
lady
ote.
Ne.H.nK.lnd.ncut:
g)
nit
=
pors on
h)
xa1œ
=
child
i)
g~ néO
=
child
j)
ndaw
=
young person
'-_.
et c ,
This analysis can bo p r e s r-ri t od in the
f'rrr rn of the followi ng rule:
Nc.H.nK.lnd.Mase.
Rule 61
Nr.H.nK.lnd.,
"--;---
r,J c • H. n K. In d • f cm•
Ne. H.nK. Ind s n oirt ,

---

104
Thon analysing Ne.nH., it appearS that it ean in its turn bc
dividcd In t o t uo s ub qr oups t
Su b9r 0 u p .- I
r C? fer s t 0
I\\J t ha t
arc <'. an i mat 0;.
Thus the y arc
graupod undor the labol Nc.nH.A.
Subgraup 11
rcfcrs to N whieh arc~inanimatc~
Thus they are
grouped under the labC?l Nc.nH.I
Exx.
Ne.nH.A:
149 a)
Xar
=
shocp
b)
nak
=
eOw
e)
Fas
=
hors e
d)
e): f
=
Cl
varioty of fis h
e)
jar"Jn
==
a varioty of fis h
ote.
Ne.IlH.1:
f)
guy
==
troc
g)
do:ba:li
=
'Jaricty CJf troc
h)
g3:1
==
dug-out eanoo
i)
tama
==
a drum
j)
da:ll
==
shoe
ete.
This analysis Can bc proscnted in the farm of the following rule:
'-"',
(Ne.nH.A
i
\\
(
Rule 62
Ne.nH
)
.
\\
/
~. Ne.nH. r )

---

105
Nc.nH.A
Can in its turn be subdividcd into twa groups.
The first
groUp contains Nc.nH.A
~hich rcfcr
to n.Human as a group.
Thus
thoy arc laboled Nc.nH.A.Col.
The second group contains Nc.nH.A which refer
to n.human as an
individual.
Thus they ara groupod under the label Nc.nH.A.lnd.
Exx.
Nc.nH.A.Col:
150 a)
jur
=
cattle
b)
gc:tt
==
'-.J
c)
c::;:ggal
=
a group of animaIs
t
,-,'
e c.
Nc.nH.A.lnd:
d)
fas
=
h or s o
d
ga :tt
==
any animal (but of 5mall
----
s tab :.':.)
f)
cJ:f
=
a va r i r t y of fish
g)
mb:·,:tt
=
a varicty of fish
h)
cac ku
=
parrot
etc.
This analysis
can bc proscntcd in the form of the following rulc:
\\
Nc.nH.A.col.
)
Rule 63
~Jc.nH.A
)l
l,
Ne. n H• A.1 nd , J
Again l'Jc.nH.A. In d , c an be split into t hr oc srna l Lc r s ub qr o up s
according ta the gonder.
Subgroup-I is Nc.nH.A.IncJ. which have the fcaturc'<'lmasculinc)".
Thoy arc Lab e l ad Nc.nH.A.lnd.masc.
Subgroup-II i5 Nc.nH.A.Ind. which have the fcaturc<fcmininc~.
They are qr oupo d u nd cr the label Nc.nH.A.Ind.fum.

---

106
5 u b 9 r 0 u p,.. 'I I l e 0 n t a i n s ~J e • n H•.0.. I n d , LJ hie h r c fer
toN LJ i t h f Gat ure
<''.neutcf':))..
They arc La b c l co Nc.nH.A.lnd.ndut.
Exx.
Nc.nH.A.lnd.mase:
1 51
a)
s 0: xx
==
:oek
b)
ku:y
==
r arn
c)
m.) ;1
==
stal1ion
d)
yb1<k
==
Bull
'-~
ot c ,
Nc.nH.A. Ind. fem:
c)
t·c·1') 9
==
hon
r)
==
marc
Ne.nH.A.Ind.ncut:
g)
Xar
==
s he cp
h)
b cy
==
Ç] cat
i)
gano.·.r
=
c hf ck e n
ctc.
This analysis
ean
bc
prcscnted in
the
form
of the following rule:
---~ ~ ~::::::::::::::~.
Rule 64
Nc.nH.A.lnd.
J;
\\ i\\le.nH.A~Ind.l\\Jcut.
Nc.nH.I.
can be split into two subgroups.
The first
s ub qr nup c ont e i o s
the Ne.nH.I which
have the f c a t ur c
«concrctc».
TheY ar o groupcd undor
thc
label Nc.nH
Lconc.
The s nc orid contains
tho
Nc.nH.I which have tho fcaturc
«abstract:;».
They arc Lab c l cd
Nc.nH.I.Abs.

---

107
Exx.
Ne.nH. 1. COne:
152 a)
su:?
=
3 anr'
b)
q ar ap
=
tr cc
e)
d;::;~ll
--
shoc;
d)
t[J~to~J:'
--
flowor
0)
~Jp
=
l c a f
ote.
Ne.nH. LAbs
f)
xx l
=
intellect
g)
0:.9·OOg 9 ao : l
=
love
...... ~~.
h)
c ~~::- f a; :1
=
love
.........
i)
fit
-.
courage
ote.
This analysfs Can be prcscntcd in the form of the following rulc:
r:
\\ Ne.nH.I.Coneo 1
1
~f
Rule 6S
f'Jr.nf-J.I.8bs . .
\\
Morco,)er Nc.nH. Leone. is in .i t s t ur n diviti':;:J into t uo s ub qr oups .
Ne.nl-!. 1. Cone. which rcfer
t o li\\!ing ob j cc t s eonstitute the: f' i r s t
groUp that wc label Nc.nH. I.Cone.L
Ne.nH.I.e~nc. that reFer ta non living ~bjcet3 e~nstitutc the
s o c :J n d 9 CJ U P t h :J t
LJC
l u bel Ne. n li. 1. e ~j ne. n L
Exxo
Ne. n H. 1. e) ne. L :
1 53 al
gal' ap
=
t r GC
b)
x; jJ
=
lcaf
e)
t :; : t .~ ~ r
.-

---

108
kawar
::::
hair
nax
::::
qr e cn-i qr as s
etc.
Nc.nH. 1. c:;nc.nL:
f)
d:;c
::::
s ton c
g)
su:f
=
sand
h)
xa[)!
=
Pl a nk
i)
p·G~..9
=
dust
j)
taxxandaJ :r
=
s hadow
v-;~
-.....,.'
This analysis can bc prcsentcd in the
f~rm Qf the f~llowing ru1c:
"
..
)' Ne. n , H. I. con c , L
)
R ul e 66
I\\J c • n H. 1. con c .
--~
'.
\\
( ~ c , n H. 1. con c • nL /
The subgroup Nc.nH.I.conc.L
can mc r co v« r
b e di v id cd
int:: tw~
smallcr subgroups which arc as fo~low~:
The
fi r s ton c c 'J nt a in s
rk. n H. I • c:] n '. L
whi ch h a v c t h 0
f 0 a tu r E
<~cjllectiv2;'>.
They aro qr cupn d undcr the labEl Nc.nH.I.ccne.L.Col.
The: s cc on o on c cCJntains f\\Jc.nH. Lc:;nc.L
which have tho
fcaturo
~".][ndividuéJl
They arc gr~upGd undor the label Nc.nH.I.c'Jnc.L.
Ind.
Ex x.
Nc.nH. Lc':Jnc.L.Col:
154 a)
a:11
::::
fc:;r cs t
b)
ganCaX
.
ver dur c
......,
=
c)
cagg
=
bu n ch,
cl ùs ter
-.....,.
d)
jiwu
=
s eeds
etc.

---

108
Nc.nH. Lccmc.L. Ind:
e)
garap
==
t r ee
f)
==
frui t
g)
tCJ:t::;:r
==
flc:Jwer
etc.
This analysis Can be prcsented in the f~rm ~f the following rule:
lk . n H. Lccmc.L.C:J1 •.)
Rule: 67
Nc.nH.I.c:Jnc.L
- - - ? -
{
r
l\\Jc.nH. 1. c on c s L, Ino , ]
Nc.nH.I.conc.nL
can in its turn bc split into t~~ subgr~ups.
That i s Nwhich have Cl me an.i n q clf c oLl cc t Lv o and N which have a
moaning Jf individual.
The first qr oup is Lab oLo d Nc.nH. 1. eonc.nLC::l.
Tho sccCJnd gruup is labolcd Nc.nH.I.csnc.nL.lnd.
Exx.
Nc.nH.I~cCJnc.nL.Col:
155 a)
takka:y
=
a set of jowcllerios
'--,
b)
lai ta:y
==
c)
ka :kao
=
luggago
ct c ,
rJc.nH. 1. o on c v nl, .Trui ;
cl)
mbax anas
=
head-dr css
G)
Iam
=
bracelet
f)
çobar
=
big knifè
g)
ilc:r
=
a type of instrument
fen
plClughing
etc.

---

110
This analysis can be prrscntcd in thG
f~rm ~f the fDll~wing rulc:
CNe • n f-' , I • c CJ nc • nL . CCll •
Rule éJG
Nc.nH.I.c:Jnc.nL
\\
1
J Nc.nH.1.conc.nL.Ind.
ll Nc.nH. Lvconc vnl..... c.iunt
11.1.8.31 Pr on oun s
-_._--
Pn
are aIl Ns which have cas~-contrast and Pcrson
distif.cti~n, or an NP referont.
Pns ara dividod into several
classes aS prcscntcd in the f~llowing rulc:
"'
Pcrs. (
(1
<,
Pers.
\\ 1
1
1
1
~
i
RU~Q 7/
1: Pers•. + sinn.Nom. --------} 2 Pors. \\. + sLnq.N:Jm.~ omph
1
-
.\\
r
P Brs. )
1 3 Pers, )
.1

---

111
II.1 .8.33- Dom:Jnstrcl'iü v~ _.~rcmouns
"
(
Pr:J X. 5 p( H)
)
Pr'Jx.c:xel.H
1
1
\\
Rule 72
Oom.
Pn.
\\
RC'm.oq.
(
R c:m . Les s or H
\\
1
Interrogative pronouns Can bo dividod int~ thrGe tyPes
which arc as f:Jllows:
type having tho fGaturo .;:' + huma n »
typo ha vin c tho fcaturc «+ noutcr <) >
tYPG ha ving the foa tur c ';:', + humam~+ seloctive '>;
Let us analyse the f~llouing sontonces:-
156 a)
kan
m-j:
waX
=
whn has spok en
b)
'* 'lan m":J:
wax
=
LJhat has spokcn
c)
*~-b Eln
m-; :
Wax
=
wh5 ch ha s spokon
Tho vcrb
Wax
rcquir5s a subject which has thC' fcature
«+ human~. kan is suitablQ whcreêls lan and ban makc sC'ntC'nccs
156b and 156c un~rammatical.
Thus kan is intGrr:JgiJtivo pr:Jnoun>«+ hum an 'w'>
IhE
use' :Jf lan s uç
ns t s an irJ?~ctcrminati:Jn as fen the
ç
fcaturc« + human ~)
Ex.
157
Ian
fi
jolm
mburu
mi
?
(what has r cm :Jvc;d the br c ad f'r orn hor c ?)

---

112
Tho speaker d~csnlt car0 whcthor the dacr
~f the action is a
po r s un ,
a n a n i mal
=' r
,s 0 met h'i n 9 (J 1808 •
As Wc have
just seen,
kan
would
have
implicated a
persan
as
docr
~f the acti~n necessarily.
Thus lan is Ln t c r r oç a t i vr
p r on oun "-+ n cu t c rec ,
I\\hw if wc cons .i d or
thcfollotJi ng sentences:
158 a)
ban
ci
xac
yi
m>:y
a12..d.
ak man; 7
(whi ch among
the do q s
will
come along u i th me ?)
b)
* ban ci x a l ac yi mJ: y arid
ak
man ?
'-....-'
(which amcn o the boys
will
COlTDO
al::mg with me??)
We n 0 tic e t h a t
the n 0 u n x al ëC
wh i e h ha s
the
f o a t ure .« + hum an "7';>
d o o s n ' t
aceept the
Intcrrsgativc Pr vn oun ban, whilc the n oun
xaC
(,,-human..,) w:Jrks
with ban.
The conclusion is
that ban is
the
pronoun whieh fulfils
the aQrcemont with a noun <<.- hurnan » ..
MareoveT the Interrogative pronoun ban has the
fcature
<<..... S cl cet i V iè.> )
t il a t
i s
t CJ say,
i t
r c: fer s
t c an
0 b j e c t
in
opposition
to anothcr abject.
Thus ban is
Intcrrc:gative pr on cun (<. -human »)e.+ s o Lcc t i v o s-, ,
Ex x.
159 a)
kan
m-): y
WélX
? = ( whc.J spcaks?)
.......
b)
nan
-ri -:;.: y
wax
?
= ( wh::-J s p c ak s )
kan
=
<<.. + sing ">
--v
né:ln
=
l..<. -
sing Y)

---

113
159 c)
lan
m~\\:y
YGfJQu
7
----.
What is stirring
?
Th i s
,J n ,::11 y ~,is
C ;Ci n
b c pré' sen t c: cl i n the
f '1 r m [;f
the
f 8118 \\.cJi n ÇJ qj l C' :
hume n
RcJ1e 72
l nt. Pn
-_. "-'';'
naub or
huma n + selective
PCJs.Pn.
is generaly.
pr c c c d c d by
Po s s v Ad j ,
Whcn the pJsscs~:Jr i3 namod,
the Adj.
docsn't
appear.
Exx.
}'=o
8)
s arn a
b:3s
=
mine
b)
82
b)s
=
your s (
+ s i rrq )
c)
b33 a r~
=
his
cl)
~
sunu
b)~
=
Clurs
e)
sa::- :n
b )c;
r:
YélL!rS
( - sing)
r)
sa: ~ n
b os
=
t hei r s
If
wc analyse t h r: f'Jll c;wi ng rihro
1
s
-....) c
L ' s
-
,
,
\\
1 61
éJ)
sarna
xar
-
( my shccp)
(
.
b"
b
\\
S oraa
1"):,
1
=
mi n c )
. 1'('
cari n o t ic c that
b')'"
bchallQs like a w~Jrci which replaces x ar .
Thu s ,
161
b s hou l d be
translatccj as:
"my minc'~
In
the s arn o
way wc have 161
c ,
161
c)
b )Su
)mar
h i s
0 f
~m a r
/t h a t 0 f "ima r == jm a r's
P 8 S S r:s s ive p r ,)...·F) U n <3
h3 V e t h e
f e;] t ure ,(,(. + sin Q /).
For instance.

---

114
1 b2- 3)
sama
b )3
=
min c
( + si ng)
b)
sama
y:>s
=
mine
(
sing)
c)
b )SU
.rnar
=
t ha t
Gf
»rna r
d)
y ~)s
U
»rna r
=
t h ~Js c CJf jmar,
This analysis
Can bc prcscntcd
in the f~rm ~f the f~llowing rulo:
"
( 1 Pors.
1
1
Rule 73
P()s,Pn
-->
)
Pcr s 0
!
i,', +
numb or »
Pos . Pn:2
1
\\3 Pers.
\\
J
II.1.8036 Reflexive Pr on oun s
Considcr the
follawing s~ntenccs:
.Î &3 a)
jma r
m·ènna
f ar t a I
= )mar can s h '-Jot
fm tal
b)
jmar
mèn najb '.):p pa m =
-:,)mar
Gan s h ~)Dt h ims e l f 0
--J
c)
'mar
m°tJnna
fa: talaI
b):ppam
::::
.J
.....
.Jma r
can
s h Cl ot
by ( f:Jr )
himsdf.
d)
=
musa:
f~ talaI
rnus a j
)mar
can shs~t
f~r mUSa:
In
Ib5a tbe. VS na s no Np c-mph.:men t 0
In 1 i.~b C1~,,,,;..j t" :l-:.fr_thc
vcrb
c~mpIrmcnt
Q:J
11 Cl
o.:n.;
\\ is
b::>~pëlm~'
v
In 16~d and 1Q~G. gi'Jcn ab:~vc the vcrb c.'f1Iplc mc n t
is
rnu s a :
Thus
in 1(,~d.. erid 1638 )mar c o n s hno t
s orn c nnc
c l s c cr
f r
sOmconc cIse.
But
in \\~~b and 163~,wc undcrstand Jrnar can

---

115
Sihoot JITlar, and~;mar can shCJ:-'t by (fCJr)
:;mar.
We shall analyse
in the Cllaptcr:.
CJn Transf:Jrrr-1tic.ms the pr~JcE'ss by uh dc h
b~PPDm is ~ubstitut;d f~r Jmar (NP complement).
This analysis Can bc presented in the f8rm ~f the fCJllowing rulc:
(1
Pers. ~\\
(
Rule 74
Re r, Pn
R
- - 7
-r , Pn~2 Pcrs. -, <-'.+ number "
!
(3
\\
Pers
1
Relative PrDnouns arc uscd tCJ introducc a clause
which functi8ns
as modifier of NP.
Exx.
aP
CéP ku
fi
a
Parrot has gone this way
b)
ClICku
buy
sap
j~:l na
fi
a p 3 r rot whic h cri cs
h .3S
c' ~:I n c:
t h .i s I.Ja y
1648 and 164b c an be prcsentcd in
the f or rn :'f the following
trec-di;jgraiT!s:
'64a
s
·P4.p
/
T
N
1
1
,
/
1
1
t
1
1
1
1
!
t
1
/
1
1
r
r
.
!
L
1
!
!
ap
c a; ku
j'a:rn:J
fi
Cl
parrot
has Qonc this way

---

116
16cltb
s
-----
.-------
----
NP
.:':
..... S
NP,
'~
N,
PcI.P
t
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
1
1
,
1
,
t,
1
1
1
1
ap
Ca:? ku
,:~ku
sap
fi
In
l~b the pr ov i uus sentence
1CAa ha s buc n c x t c nd c d by a
mOdifier
sf the
NP.
In 'ltl\\ a We ta l k a b Cl u t
a
par rot,
i n(t; li,b
wc specifv
that
the parrot crics.
cx. k u
p a r r o t
crics
:::
c ai ku
sap
In
o r d cr
té) aV:Jid the r cc ur r c nc e of cacku
in the
r c l a t i vc
clause i t
is substituVd by
the
p r cn oun
bu.
ThisPrDCaduH? of
substitution will
be analysed
with more dctails
latcr,
in
the
ct. h a pte r
éJ n
Tr CJ n s f Clrrn a t i :)n s •
ap
o(jeku
buy
Sé3P
Cl
pê:lrrot
which crics
b as ç;onc
this
way
C)
Ci P
CCL ku
biy
saP
a Parrot which crics has
gone this
uay
CéC ku
biy
sap
ja:r na
'"
I .
l
the
Parrot
uhich
crics
has
g~nc this uaY.

---

Il?
Wc no t i c c that
1 ~4b
a n cl c h a v :.:
\\\\J P d 2 t 0 r min e d b Y T. i n d . ,
LJ h i l e d i s
d etc r min c d b Y T.(l c f
(h e r c d e let e d ) •
band d
arc grammatically
c~rrcct sentences, LJhjlc
c
is
note
-In
b
the Rel.
Pro ri ,
is
bu
-ln
d
the Rc1.
Prün.
is
bi
The rcsult ::;f this
aria l y s i s
is
t ho t
LJhcn NP has Tj.ncl'
the use
j
of bi is ungrammatical,
but the use
~f bu is grammatical.
Thcsc s c Lcc t i un a I
r r s t r Lc t i cns
leael u s
t'J the
r oric Lus Lcn
that
ReL P r CJn.
méJ y b e cl c fin i te CJr
in cl e fin i te.
Furthermore if LJC c~nsidcr
the
folloLJing
NP j
165C'l
ap
c a: ku
buy
sap
a
parrot which
crics
b
CéD ku
yuy
sap
p2rrClt5 uh i c h cry
c
CEO ku
b i Y
saP
d
c('G ku
yiy
sap
the Parr~ts which cry
lJc
c an notice an o t b cr
fcaturc: R cl- Pr o :1 .
I s ,« + sing.-",
This analysis can be presented
in the
form of the
followinQ
rul:.:
( dcfini te
Ru l c 75
RcLPron.
_.~--~
Rc Lv Pr o n ,
)
<'-- +
n b •.
'1\\ indefinitc.'
.'.

---

118
II.1.8.38 1ndcfinite Pr8nouns
Lnd s Pr o n , may
have.. the
featurc ,~(+ human ».
E.xx._
ke:pp
ku
u a x
ja:E? 18J:n
"-_/
* whQcver whs spLaks catch ysu him.
( Ca t c h wh::J cv c r s p C él k s .)
b)
* kc:pp
ku
Sap
ja:çp
laJ:n
' - '
~ whoevcr who crics catch you him
(catch uho o v c r
cr i cs . )
166b
is not
grammatical bccausc the selecti::Jnal
r e s t r Ic t i on is suc h t na t
the verb sap which has
the feature «,- hume
roquires an NP subjc ct
uhich has
the fcaturc «.- huma n '»,
uhercas
'~ba
is
grammatical.
The c on r Lu s i cn
is
that k r. t pp
is
a
1nci.Pr';n. ~+ hUll1ila n ». ~lorcC)vcr if wc~ analyse
167-. and 1G7b.
'~7 a)
kac :nn
waxul
._......
Nob ':Jdy has s p ok en
b)
'* dara
waxul
Nothirlg k:u:;
spnkcn
!.Je realizc that fCJr the s arnr arç)l.jmonts
1ti7 b is n't accGptablc
whilG1(,? a i s .
Thus
kEC :nh
is
Ind v Pr on . <' + human >,
d ar a
is
1nc:i.Pr:::n.
/,«
-
hurnan »
SC) wc c an statc that
Ind.(:t'cfl.may a10
have the f o a t ur c <!·-humon .•

---

119
This analysis Can be pr~s[nted in the f~rm ~f the f~llowing rulè:
Rule 76
Ind.Pr8[1.
---->
Lnd s Pr on , <.-<. + huma n ';") 0
I I 0 1 • B• 39 ~~p.:?s ~?1~"~.n t a l-E.~_c:n e me
Rule 77
/
' /
-"'--~'7 VroihtOri. /.; / r:inton./ J

---

120
*
*
*
11.1
CHAPTER C
*
*
*
*
*
*
LEXICOr~
*
*
*
*
*

---

121
rI.1.c
LEX ICA LIrE MS
Enelosed in square braekets are the features
relevant
to the subeategorisati~n rules.
Side by s i.c o ,
W8
are giving in p a r nn t.h a s e s ,
whenever
we find
i t easy,
the elements
for s arnarit Lc interpretation.
1") go t r
'Jlbur i
'---,
+ N
l
+ N
+ N
+ Prop
.. Prop
+ Prop
+ H
+
H
+
H
+ Male
+ ~la le
L..
-1
/ P e r S On q an e r a l.Ly bslong-\\j
f p e r S On generally\\
/ p e r s o n QenerallY\\
ing to se:re:r
ethnies,
1
FrOm Pular
)
From W0Iof
)
(
rn os t
pr ob ab Ly
From
)
(
ethnies
J
ethnies
(
;
Si:n region
/
r.J·dae w
~.
1 +
N
\\
[: ..
+ Prop
.---.
+ H
H
-1
+ Female
Male!1
- '
p e r s o n QenerallY\\
te
an
/ Person ~.QJ1erally
)(Name given
)
fr om Se: r o : r
)
( b el 0 n gin 9 t 0
the
,a ni mal . b Y transfert/
(
, ethni cs
~ cas te 0 f uo 0 d eut ter

---

122
s.e:re:r
s':i:n-Si:n
_____ c 01- Nl~
r+ l'JJ-__
-
, -
--:=:-L
1
r
1
+
T
Com/T_i
L~ propl
Cdml
__J
1+ Prap
'+
t
1
l
---- ~
4> Ethnies
+ H
1
.,
i
t human 1
~
Ethniesl
r~ di310ct
+ Epicene
._-
+ Origiri
L
- '
, From Si On
\\ .Sp ok an mainly \\
!Community referring ta
!
( Sa :lum;
'\\1 in si rn , Peti te\\
persans originated from
.
A i "
1
\\
P8tite-c~teï Il Cate; rlont-
jl
Si:n region and belonging'
\\\\ Mon t-R 011 a nd I! Rolland aJrea;
ta Se:re:r-speaking
I l !
, are a •
)
\\~ a :l um
1
'. Community.
mbo:yo:
n da: f)9 a :'n
'--"
,_
-,.........
...
r: N
+ N
+
N
1
l1
1+ Prop
+ Pr o p
+
Prop
1
.. H
- An
-
living
+ living
+ Vlaee
+ .:Jing
i
+ Sing
+ Sing
1
---'
1-
wind blowing
/The caste of gewOeOl used
\\
/ name of \\~
! te p8rform ceremonies underjl (an ar ea )
(i~: : East in seneoJ).
FrOm (7 May to June)
the shadow of one parti-
cuiliar ~I Gt1y JI _,tr 88, hcnee
)
\\ n anied guy-gewe1..

---

123
de:g-u-da:ya:n
ndubae lar:,n
. ~:>:SéP -ku~~·e·- jige:n
-1
r-r-r:
1
1
+
-i-
N
1
1
N
+ N
1
1
1
i
\\+ PrClp
+ Prop
+ Prop
i
i
i
1
1
- H
- H
-
-
1
1
1
l~ H i1
An
An
living J
+ .0. bs
1
+ Abs
--'
. ~~ame given ta a riVer)
' n a me of an
area in)
! a lizard believed .\\
( ln a Seneç:alese tale.
( a SenQgalese tale
( t a be the pr ot cc t>
ing totem at
\\\\ Kaolack (Senegal)
~al
l
él3
Q)naB
ba:y
1
1
i -
i + N
-1
1
+ N
1
1
+ N
1
1
+ CCJm
!
+ Corn
+ Corn
1
+ H
+ H
+ An
1
+ !picene!
+ épicene
+ Male
/1
1
+ Sing ..
+ Sing
+ Sing
1
\\
1
+ Kinship
---..J
/
beloLJ age of pUbertY.'J
/ b e Lo u age of pub e r t.y i
(Male-Parent ')
~lay
\\
MaY refer
to the
r efer ta the
)
1
\\
young generation.
(
young 8eneratL::ri.
)
'.
1
!

---

n do :ng"J
--.
il j Cl : t i gao
Iljagama: r
.........
..:__."
+ I\\J
1-: r')
1
t:+ ~J
+ Com
+ Curn
1 +
Corn
+ H
+
H
+
H
? 6pice ne
+ Si nÇJ
+
F~e
+ Sing
+ Sing
,
1
/- Person d ev o t Ln q
\\
(employer)
h i rn s o Lf to
studies...
\\
\\
- t or rn u s e d s om e t Lrr es
!
\\
,
by
old men
to address
)
\\ a
younC!
Fellow L_
l i 1/
ja:~
je:k
1 + rJ
+ N
+
Cam
+ Co I,~
+ Corn
+
11
+ H
+
H
+ Fdmalei
+ Fernal c:
,
+ Sine;;
+ Sing
1
/- attained puberty \\
l- a dult \\\\
-
d i v or c ec 'Jr
\\
\\ Virgin
1
\\- no mcr E.'
not marriecJ acain
v.i r q i n
)
-
\\
not yet married ,)
lady d o i riq
1.
d e fin i t e art i c le
<~ + Sin ÇJ '-C',
.h'

---

125
l<uti
Xac
+ N
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ ~n
+ An
+ Sing
+ Sing
(given t~ unknown dogs)
Cnr n I vor ous qua dr ap e d of genus of\\
( many breeds wild and domesticated J
.Jen
garap
- 1-
+ N
+ N
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ An
+ An
• Human
...
+ Species
+ Sing
+ Li ving
+ sing
+ Generic
+ Genaric
n a me given ta a \\
VertebratecOldJblOoded\\ /-Perenmial plant
(\\ Variety of fish.)
animal having gills
i
tJ::.th a single self-
1
t hr-o u qhcu t
life and
li
s up p o r t Ln q t r unk
limbs (if any)
modi- )
of wood
fied I n t o fins.
(usuàlly) no bran-
ches
for s orn s dis-
tance above the
\\
g r ou n d .
\\
'
\\-remedy.

---

126
pitax
- '
+
N
+ Com
+ An
+ sing
++ g on er i-;;-I
, -
r : .
L+
.J
1+ Sing'-1
S ing
1 bird
0 f
famil Y)
(/ Feathered
vertebrate
( Smal1 hard -,
co l umb i d aa,
uith t uo wings
and
inflamed spot
(
,pigeon.
.
,tua feet.
\\ on skin.
aéB ku
ya:y
d ):m
~I
,--
,
- :
+ N
+ N
)+ N
+ Prop
+ Corn
+ Com
+ An
+ Fc:malc
+ living
..
L
+ S ing.
Sill9J
l~ Singe
kinship
+ ~picenG
.--J.
+ kinship
-'
(/::::.W~:h
1 -
Par ent •
'\\
Cl ffs pr in 9
0 f \\
o::::tP::::::i_
/ _ j i ,
any lady
(
\\
p e r s on,
animal \\
j
formes,
mainly tropical,
ha v i.n o more or
JI
\\
or
plant.•
1
t
of uhich rnany species hava?
Lr s s
o n s ' s
\\
beautiful plumage and
mother's
age.
J
/
' \\ s om o c an be taught ta
/
Ii e p e a t
uo r d s •

---

12'7
}ige:n
/
"-
1--
-,l:-
+ N
+ N
1
+ N
Adj
+ C
-1-
living
+ Cam
+ Com
+ H
-1-
Fema.Lc
+/-Living
+ H
1
,__
_ 1
+ Sing.
+ Court
+ r'l ale
--t- Fomale
+ sing
-1-
Sing.
+ Kinshipi
-1-
Concret
-1-
l<insllip
- J
/ -t erm by uh i c h a lad Y\\
1 -human
f erna lei idenote '\\ (/ Paun ,
in
' \\
r ef cr s ta ha br o t hs r
(_adult \\-)~""a" Ji (the sex)
gamss lib: J
f
or for HSp cet,
t o
femal Gt us ed
Z - \\
,'." -, <;hess.
/
any male persan haVin9jl
by a human male \\
\\, moro
or less h cr
ac;c./ 1
ta refer
ta his
s i s t cr
or b y rcs- \\
\\
p cc t
ta any
fema I G i
\\
- !
\\ oer s cn of rner c or /
\\1
h"
l,
1\\
"
E'SS
lS
agoe/~,,':l.(\\--\\_..__
\\!
wa x a '21.9 a : n êD
+ I\\J
i
+ Adj
-1-
N
1
+ Cem
-1-
living
+ C
1 +
H
1
+ ~1 al e
+ H
1 -1- r~a18
-1-
Male
-1-
Si n g.
+ Sing
-
adult male persan
\\ ( denotes
\\
(having attained
( - a br a ve (bath sexes)), male sexe)
~ matur ity

---

128
b a t j j as :n
nija: y
'---'
+ N
+ N
+ Com
+ Com
+ H
-+- H
+ Femal
+ Male
(?
+ Kinshi
+ Kinship
+ S ing
+ Sing
Us ed ta refc:r ta onc's\\
( fathEr's sister
)
,
Jabar
~
-,
-----r-
+ N
I
-
+ ~J
V
+ CDm
1
~JP
+ Corn
+ H
+ H
+ fEmale
+ Foma1e
+ Sinç;.
+ Kinship 1
---L
+ Singe --.J
ulorn en with l.JhorTI one ')
(t0 r cf er t0 a mal C')
(
is lawfully marriod.
\\
pcrsonfs l::Jve'
)
ta practiCR
traditional
medicine, uh i Lo
protonding ta base on c t s
knowledgc on occultism.

---

far
129
1
- - - - -
..----_.-- .'
!
-_.~-------
~- ...~-~ ~~ ..~,-
-,
l'J
'1 -l ~dj
+ Aux.
1
1 +
hlad
+ Com
! + - Living
j
obJc:ct
+
V
+ H
1
1
+ Des c!'iJl-
+ r1a 1 c
!
1+ Coun t r r
t i ori
1_ cxpcct Gd
+ Singl_1..
, "
/fema1c p ors on s)
/ den ates thi ck n cos \\ i Ln di c a tes t hab /t 0 belon';
(
\\to
\\lavsr.
1 spccl aUy cf
Ji an actl-'n has
one
\\liQUid elcments. If
fina11y
b c e n
!
grsup
1
i
1
d one a t t h
"l:
e
i
1
p La c e
of an
i
1
f1
LJas Expected.}
mag QéJ€ t
------=-...
~ . ' .-
'---.~---
1-;
-, ,--
r~
1
1
i + N
~dj
i
1
1
1
1
t : . .
1
+ r:Plccnc\\ 1 + Ccm
Epicene!
1
--'
--'
+ H
+ épicGnc
+ bpiccne
+ Sin g •
. _ .. 1
!
1
+ Kinship
1 -
_-1
Po r s on e1dcr to
\\
/ of ~\\;:rscms \\
somebodyand
'\\
f a.. nim a l s and \\,1
\\,1
r e La t cd to
him
t h i nqs
te]
,
\\
i
Ps1ite term to
\\
c ornpa r s
1
(
address
ta som 0-
i\\ their ago.
body oldor to you
but af Same genera-
\\
tiun.
\\
J
\\
N
\\, -
/
ni
the o l d
QGn or a t i on
)
\\-
Pers:m a du Lt

---

130
mak
wa :j-ur
~-
"-
,-
i + V
~
1
NP
1us cd fen human sh'Jwing
1
'
1 grcatn8ss' o f
c ha r a c t e r ;
' on th
' e proces s),
( of
i and for idcals and
rna t u r i t y .
1
bchaviour,
t~ dçn~tG
1
' _ o n C1s
parc:nts
\\
t hat thcY arc mo r a Ll y )
1. prais c-wCJrthy.
-~ll parents h3V-
(
J;:lg
oh i l dr e n ,
1
1
ua ; k'ér
ta:W
I-
+ N
+ N
I
+ C:Jm
+ ::;om
+ Com
1
1
+ H
+ H
+ An
1
+ Collect
Collcr::t
+ Kinship
+ Sing.
+ PluriJl
+ Sing.
L -;1;- Ki ris hip
+ ~pic en 6!
-,
- - '
( f i r s t born\\
(
û
f f s pr i n q ~f a familY)
/all
pcrsCJns
living
1
1
( undcr
the responsi~
bili ty 'Jf thE'
~
I ch.iLd of a
pcrs:Jn,
an
I
J
\\
family
hcad.
animal
/

---

131
ca:t
s G't
--1
+ N
1
+ COI~l
+ CDm
+ H
+ H
+ Kinship
+ FEm ale
+ épicEno
1
1
+ Sinru1ar
+ Kinship
+ Kinship
.~
1
-~
SinÇ]u1éJr
( l a s t born chi1d\\
1LJifc: LJhich hold th8î 'child bClrn frClm
1
( orre '
first rank in a
s
\\
of a p e r s on,
offspring
or )
\\
\\
an animal.
pCll)'Qamic family.
)
18°1
+ N
. . N
+ COm
+ Col
1
.
Curn
+ H
+ H
-1-
Male
1
·
;Piccne
+ Sing.
+ Kinship
+ Ki n s h i p
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
\\
- !
1
human m;:)lc L: uhcm a\\
/ any
p cr s on
r s La t ed
/Qroup 0 f pers ons
\\ 1
1
lady is 1ega11y
) i t DOn c '.s l.J i f c 'jr
( undcrgoing t hc
.
(
married.
"
\\
Clnc's huab and ,
rite of i~tiati~n
a f t nr a c o ur aq c -
\\ test
c on s i s t i nr;
'on circumcisiGn.

---

132
mb ::.,: 1'):
mb):ta:y
'-......
.----
_
-------.
..;
i + ~j
1
+ N
1
i
1
+ Col
+ Col
+ Col
1
1
+ H
!
+ H
-
livinc;
,
+ S Ln q ,
+ Sin g.
'-
---
1
- - !
(PcrséJns forml nq a\\ 1 ~Jr9anizcd bcdy
! s ct c;f . cIo t hcs
1
gathcring by
of pcrséJns
f~J r a)
\\ chance or not.
) (joint purpasc,
(LIScd te carry él
\\
baby
on
the
back
nda j-ae
.+-
Fl L ..
"---
.~-----
1"::::;'-_'
+ N
+ N
1 + N
+ H
+ Com
+ Corn
+ CQl
+ H
+ H
~
.J
Singe
+ Epicene
+ Epicene
+ Sing.
\\
.._.1
r\\
/ as sem b l Y o f
pc 0 pIe f 0
!l i l/i n g body
Of")
/ t o mc an that
(
( cntcrtainmcnt,
)
,human
bcing.
)
\\ 6D",.body .i s
\\diseussicn etc.
/
\\
ui s c ,

---

133
dvf
~---­
-------
+ N
+ Com
1
-----'
+ H
+ ~picenc
L_+ S inQ. ._.1
. Pcrs;n
uho
has lost
\\
' o f
p r r s un
who h a s Los t
his\\
(
(,
.
h i S
men t al
f a eu l tics. )
mental
faculties.
)
u t d a;
t'c'gg
9 ewoc1-
~ _ . ,
--..-,
+ N
+ 1\\1
+ ~
1
+ Com
+ Com
+ C
+ H
+
H
+ H
+ Prof.
+ Prof.
+ Epicene
+ Singe
+ Epiceno,
+ Singe
S ·
1
+
r n q. '.-J
( -Pers'.Jn wh"sc
originally
cpic roct
J
;' wh:Js C pr Cl f13SS ion\\
f
t
f\\\\ 1is ta makc goods gcnorally livin~ with
pr Cl cs si :.m lo' Sut :
mak r
r:;CJCèds
_,
the KinC and accompany-
\\
leathcH.
-caste". o f
people
ing
him durin~ wars in
-c
)
as te.o f
people
order
ta exhort him.
J
whose profession
j
Then
lyric poet
9
' \\ is SC

---

134
___ '- _ __ guy
-------
,
-
1 - - + N
1
!+ ~J
-+ Com
1+ CCJm
+ Cam
+ H
An
1- An
1+ living
+ l i vi nç
+ SinCJ.
+ Vi'lrioty
( arnp l oy oo )
(any b I q troc) /a v ar Lc t y cf tr8G\\
scicntific namc
( a d ans on i a di9itat8)\\
\\\\SGnêga "...cnSlS •
.3ur
Se': xx
~-----.-.----- -
--------
,
r--
+ N
r
+ r~
1
i
1
+ Coll
1
1
+ Com
!
\\
1
+ An
L , + AnJ
\\
1
living + Subjcct 1
+ ~1a l c
1
1
----( NP)
+ Singe
_ _ 1
/ a Ll
d um c s t Lca t o \\
l
-ta b r i n q t o li fe
f male of \\
i vortobrat~ fCUr-)
- to
pr c: du cc (0 f
a
\\
ch i ck on )
\\lOggOd
anlmél l
_
plant)
\\
action.

---

135
ga:tt
c):gga l
coOgg
,._~
+ r'1;
1'-+
~I
N
adJj
+
i
+ Î'J
1
J
+ Corn
+ Col
1
+ C:Jl
1
1
+ An
+ human
An
1
1
1
+ A
1
1
S'
1
1
+
+
1
lng~
+ Singo
1
S .i n q °
j
1
- !
...--'
/ spccially
group o f
ani-
! Clustcr:::f rr ui tz nCJt\\
1
j.
f
1
gJats and
mal\\of same
j rcmoved
From their
\\
l
1\\
s he: cp
s pcc Ïi:::s! ;
\\ s upp o r t ,
mb):tt
ku:y
yç~~
- , _-.,1
--,-
,-
,.-
- 1
+ N
1
+ N
1
+ N
i
1
1
1
+ Com
i + Corn
+ Corn
1
+ An
+ An
+ An
1
1
1
+ Sing .:
+ Male
+ 111a l c
1
1
1
_.
_1
\\
;
L+
1
1
Sing.\\
+ S ing.
_1
--1
;
. i
/t .il.l r s «
m' o t h
('
d
'
a
v, '" ,./
S
,],'
-s <l n ne \\
,/ r;1~: l .: ::J h C L' P t ha t \\ i mdlc ~f ~x havin~
1;
( lcapin~ amphibian of Ji l héJ~
r
attain,-,c; th;'~ 6ttain~d its full
I l
\\ orQ!G'I' Anur a
'
\\ full
1 \\
;
i
ç; r :J LJth.
/ \\ 'r~ r OI.Ù th °
1
!

---

t·c· ng
9 an a ::1'
136
I~ N i
I: N
\\
+ Com
+ Comi
1 +
Com
_-1
,---
----- ----------- '----, + An
+ An
+ Human
+ An
:
1
1
+ G-cncric
1+
+ F om a Le
E.piccnc
+ ~la18 11
+ Sinç::.
+ S ing.
+ PI'CJ f •
+ Sino.!
L _
:J
,
+ Epicene
+ Sinç::.
-bird
cspccially of\\
l e
(Malo
'
- P Gr s on
wh :J s 0 '\\
(Fema
CJf\\
1/
0
\\
9 cnus
ga l l u s
prGf8Ssi~m is
\\
\\ ho r s c , )
~ dom cs t Lc )
-its
flash as
food
!!
fis hi n q ,
)
\\
fDWl
1
1
-of a person whQ
-sc as t o of
1
\\
9 'jOS
t l
b cd
very
,pishcrmcn
/
carly at night.
\\
cu:c
waja n
xa r
1\\]
+ N
+ N
~+ V -------
---------
-,\\
I~
+ Com
+ Com
+-(NP)!
+ Com
' -
--
l1
+ ,l\\ n
+ An
+ An
1
+ Sing.
+ S inl.].
+ Sid~l
L
i
c ï cavc)
-dClmes t i c a t e
young birèl e s p o c i a-'
(fomalc ':,,'nflO_
'\\ (to
ruminant
lly Clf gcnus gallus
cquinc-,
)\\,
d om as t ic
f0~Jl.
o f
gonus o vi s
mal
c s p cc i a Ll y \\
- i t s flcsh
h o r s n (soc
fas~

---

nak
137
ï -
+-
1
JIJ
\\
+ N
+ Cam
Com
+ Com
+ An
+ An
+ An
+ Sinç.
+ l;pi CQn Q
+ Sin Q •
+ EPiccncJ
+ Sing.
+
Epicene
/domcstic s p cc i cs
fP r c par c and \\ / d Cl mes tic s p Gci GSJ
r
1
l
\\ 1
•
•
0 f
9 en use a pr 0
use
and
\\1 of b c c/Ln c a n.i maI
- i t S. flGsh
as
i
for
cr eps •
.I\\-::...i ts flos h as
1
'\\.
,
- (
/
\\ food.
- Produce cr o psv;
food.
/
)"
\\ by t-illage.
/
1
Sikka:t
~ .
-1
.,..-
+ r~
1
1
-1-
+ Cam
+ Col
Corn
1
1
+ An
+ An
+ An
+ Abs
1
+ Male
~
+ epiccno
+ Plur'
Singe
!
_J
L~ Sinç;. J( orgé)nisGd. bC'in~s \\\\
/ imaginary
\\
i - a d u l t
o f
dorn es -
\\
/ young)
(endOWCd wlth llfe
. creature ha v-
;
tic 9 e nu s
e a pr a
\\
\\ s h o cp
\\,
sensation and
J
(
ing
ei t hor
\\
-of male human
1
\\
voluntary motion ,1
\\
human or ani-
\\
mal shape,
\\
excessivcly 18v-
J
1i
\\ing the
fair sex.
1
pr o t oc t î n o
!
\\
pers ons
o r
\\\\yrcjudicial

---

138
Su:f
- - - - - - - - -
1
-_ _ _ _
- - - - - - - -
1
- -
1-+ N
-
1-: &dv.
1
+ Cam
+ PlaCE
-
H
- H
- eJunt
+ count
Cr cun d upper laYer :Jf
, -en the f Lo
(' landes) bC1CJnCJ-)'
~-r \\
/
\\
ing te somc:Jnc.
-undcr s orn c-
)\\
1 carth in which pl an ta
!
(
gr:Jw, cens .i s t Ln r; of
thing (?)
disintGgratcd r:Jck
{
usually with adrn.i xt u r e 1
of cnt;:anic r em a i ris ,
/
/
rn ou l d ,
da:ll
t::.::ta:r
'-'
1
+ N
----
+ N
+ V
+ Cem
+ Corn
-
An
l
<..:
b'
1
, j \\ . - \\ . ,
~,
:J -
l''P
+ C:Junt
J + living
+ Count
- An
An
-1
+
,_, living
(
fcot covcring made
Part of P+ant from
Ispccially P12nt~\\
out of lc:ather,
which fruit or SCGd
wh en b car i n 9
)
plastic or even
f Louar s ,
/
\\wood.

---

x )p
xa: l
ru:
139
r-
1
1
+ N
-1
- ]
--,
j -
+ I\\~
+ N
1
1
+ (CJm
1
+ Count
-
J
-t
C'=lm
+ Com
1
+ Abs
+ Ab s
1
1
- C:Junt ~I
- Ccun t J
1rclativcly brClad fl at _\\ (scat CJf consci ous-' 1 spiritual
i
1
CJrga n :Jf plant spring-
nc'~s
thClUght,
Lrnma t or La I ":art\\
1 ing fr CJm s ide :Jf stem
v ol Lt Lon
and
cf man,
hcld to
1
\\
#)
Or branch '=lr d i r ect
feeling.
survive d c a t h .
from r:JCJt
/
..
ne\\.J\\.Ju
b • •
,'1
f!l......- cggac
r-
- -
1
l:
I + N
.:Ubj__(
l
NP) 1
+ S Lriq ,
+ !~bs.
+ êcti:Jn
- e~unt
+ An
J
L
-1
,-
\\
t ak c air
into and\\
(the 0 -= t .i'. n 'Jfi
/sr-_ritual,
innCJccnt\\
c xo c I
it fr'Jm
th c )
\\brcathinc;;.
)
(affrction sh:Jwn
.
\\
(
Luriqs ,
/
\\csPcciallY by
human )
c')EED :1
k a ua r
r---
-----,
1
--~
1
+ N
+ l'~
+
N
1
\\
1
1
+ Abs
+ Abs
+ C:Jncrc:t
l e:JLint
[ - eount J
-
living
-
ëoun t
i n n o c e n t
af f oc t i an , \\ r:..s cxual a ffcctim\\
/fino filaments gr'JlJ-\\
spiritual Lo v r s houn '
Or
pa s s irn ,
i n 9 f r CJm ski n .
F':] r
( by sDmcnody ta sorne! l-rclation bctwccn
human,
c s p r c i x I Ly
(
\\onc.
/
\\swccthcarts.
the ones
growin~ on
\\thc
hcad.

---

140
nax
X a.!J X
p.o'~~
<:-:
r-
+ N
I
+ N
+ I\\J
+ C'-lm
+ Corn
+ CCJm
+ e~Jncr ct
-
euunt
+ Liv ing
-
living
1
1
i
..
A
living
1
1__ .
Plant
o f
LJhich the
' \\
(l,mg LJide PieCC\\,i Finally peu der .... d
/
f
stem is nct weedy
( of timbe r, a
.arth Or "th.r
o r
persistent
and
\\ l
feLJ inchcs
Il matter lying cm
uh i ch
dies
d"Ldn tel
\\\\\\, t hl' ck .
,/' r:l!
qr o un d CJr
on sur-
\\ ground after fl~wcr-
faces
or carricd
Ln q ,
TheY arc
e=.Jn-
\\
abClut b y u Ln d ,
\\
W~
\\
s id cr r:eJ
a s
t
ca t a b 10. )
- dus t
li ft c d b Y S CJ rn 0
bCJdy or sCJmcthing
rnCJving.
t a x xandao :r
-
km r
km:ppa :r
'--- ..~
.....
r--~
r-r:
I\\J
+ J\\J
1
+ [am
+ C:Jm
+ Corn
+ C~]unt
_ n:iving
-
Li \\Jinç;
-
eelunt
-1
-
Livi ng 1
- . 1
( dark figure projccted (rcgLJn nCJt\\
/ cCJCJl and s o f t
by body that intcrccpts
f wind at the s ha dr
1 r c ac h e d
bY)
liÇ.r.t J!"dYS, this
\\ l i 9 ht~·
1
1
CJf a t r e e ,
a
\\ rcgardccl aSpersCJn's
\\
LJall
etc.
CJr
t h i n o ' s
appGilda~;G' )

---

1~1
Q !\\ll
m:a: ndifJ
J'iwu
'---'
, " - _ . '
.
-
-,1
1
1+ N
+ N
i
+ ~J
1
+ Csm
+ Com
+ Cul
+ Co n c ,
+ Cnn o ,
,i,
e:Junt
- living
- â i v.i n q
1
"" e:Jncr ete.
_..
-
- li vinç;
(
-arCa n"t inhabitcd '
(naturéJl larc::c\\
/sGcds in any quantity\\
.
\\
by
pcrsons;
hencc
1 tract CD vr r od )
( cspccia 11y as co11cc- \\
uhcre animals
live.
\\. wi th trocs
J
\\ tcd
f or
sawing.
)
\\\\ -ar ca unkn:Jun tel us'
n du o o er
téJkka:y
ka :kac
~~-
-'
<:»:
+ N
+ I\\J
+ [\\J
+ CCJunt
+ C:Jl
+ Cou nt
- living
- Cou nt
+ Cc n cr ete
+ Co n cr etc
- living
-
l i ving
+ Singe
+ Cor cr ot«
.:. S.jj og •
L+ Plural
-!
-!
(Plant"s Clr trcc-1~ -OrnélmGnt cCJntéJining . '\\
ediblc p r o duc t
cf
pr c c.i ous
stCJnGS
or not
1
\\ sccd ('Jith Its
uClrn f:Jr
pcrselna l
cn v oI o p r .
adornmeF1t.
the SGt Of
,
the seO r n amen ts.
1
t i o d on the )
;bCldy. Set of talisman.

---

142
lalta:y
mb a x an œ
lam
--
r-
-'"1
1
+ N
l
I
+ N
1
C:::lm
+ ï.o m
+ Com
-:-
C~) n c
Li v ing
+ Caner Ete
-
living
+ C:J ncr ete
-
living
+ Count
+ SinQ.
+ Singe
+ Singe
+ C:Junt
L..--
i
Pieee :Jf tOLJelling
\\
lHead d r c s s
fCJr\\)
1 :~~~~G:::~ ~::d,
ote.
LJ::)I'n by
baby or) \\human male
.
(
plaeed on its bed to
. ur Ls b ::JI' arme
abs~-,rb CJr l'etai:":
oxcrcta.
)
\\ Set Cl f
t h cs c pi 0 ces .'
fc:y
daLJ
r :
,.-
1
----
+ V
1
+ V
-----
1
1
-
NP
NP
NP
-1-
1
- t"':'
-
Er
[.1'
1
1
Subj.
+ Anirnate Subj •.
+ Anirnatc Subj.
1
+ ,,\\ n im éJ te
1
1
NP
1
~jP ag•.;-__NP1
1-
- !
1- IIJ P éJ~ ,"0:-
il P 1
r\\1 P ag.-
-
---l
' - -
/ Pr o cr cs s at 'J:"~ b c I o u
(::Jr pers cJn) pr c qr e s s
( éJvoid
\\
\\ s
/
surface ()f LJatcor by
( at pace faster than
orn ot hing. )
1
LJorking legs,
arms,
1
ue Lk b y a dv an c i n q cac h
i
\\
t a i L;
u cb b cd
foet,
1
f o c t
al torna t cly ,
\\
f~ns, f Ld.p p r r e ,
Il n ovor having bath foet )
LJlngs,
bo~y ote.
)
on ground at once.
(of animal)
gO at qui-
1
'\\ekcr than its
LJalk:iJng
)
pace.
1
1

---

143
na:W
-_.
1
+ V
+ V
i
NP
- Er
~JP
+
1
- Er
NP
( - Er
1
+ wingc:d bcinC
+ Animal Subj.
1 +
Human Subj.
1
1
Subj.
1
1
i
1
l'JP ag-
NP
NP a g -
~JP+
Efëi"n-O
L
l'~ P +;
NP Bg +
1
pl' e p
i
_1
1 -Movc
t hr cu qh ai 1'\\
(Swim
~n bchalf af)
grapplc lJith and
\\
\\
(
u i t.h
lJings,
1
t r y
t o t hr ou adver- \\
\\
i
\\
1
\\
'- 9 li de"
,/
s a r y cs o, in spart-
ing contost undcr
/1
cade: 'JI' rulcs.
b'c'r ae : l
da:omal
b"c?r p
- - " 1
1--
+ V
+ V
1
+ ~~
i
1
r
1
1
- Er
1
~JP
+ ,Ac t i ~ln
1
1
L
i
Np
-
Er
1
1
1
i
1
1
+ H. Sub .i-
+H.
1
S ub j.
\\
l'JP 'Og-
NP J
1
NP ,]g-
NP + 1
\\
_J
1
1
j
Ben. l
Ben. 1
1
~
)
1-
(Wr es t le f en)
(g::1 an b chal f
CJf)
( lJI' cs tIc)

---

144
fc:ylul
bey
r -
i + V
+ V
+ V
1
+ Er
1
1
~JP
+
( r~ 'P)
-
EV
+ H Subj.
~ H Subj.
+
NP
1\\1 P Cl ç; +_ ( NP)
+ Animatc Subj
+
r18 v a bIc Ob j • \\
. Pr cP arc and USe
s~mebOdy)/-S~il f~r
\\
Np. a g • + _ _I\\J P
Vnakc swim
1
f or
crops.
1
-Pr~ducc crops by
\\ tillage.
/ t 0 r-aK.2 S~ mc b CJ d Y '\\
-~C/ll'J~C
1 ~)r s:Jmcthlng
)
\\
hcrb with/ \\ s cmcubcr c ,
/
'8çrarlan t08ls.
'
•
1
lac: k k
bcylu
" _ . /
-·1
r---
-(
+ V
1
+
V
1+ V
1
_
Er
- Er
1+
( NP)
1
- -
+
~JP
! +
1+ Er
1
+
An imat.c Subj.
+ Animatc Subj.
1
+
H.
Subj.
+ hiCJ\\/abl c ûb j ,
+ NP ag.
+
( r~p)
I~ NP a ç. + _( N~
- - -
1
1
- l .
NP ar ,
+
NP
+
Br.r.; I
(ta teke somcthinc: or)
/ Pu t i n the mout h 'j
(çct cultivatcd by)
\\somebndy t~ somcbCldy
\\ c hcu
o nd slJallow /

---

1~5
fe:ylu
yoplul
I -
1 -
r -
:+
V
I
i + V
+ V
i
1
i
!
+
..( NP)
NP
+
NP
1
+ Er
+
+
Er
Er
1
1
+ H Sub j .
+ H Subj.
+ il umi n S u b j .
1
1
1
NP nA Q +
( NP) 1
fliP
nA 9 -
NP
+ tnovable o b j , 1
\\_.
-
_1
NP nAg + _NPI
(get stitched by)
(haVe someone swim\\
+8en.I+
1
1
\\,
for
oneself
)
_1
1
get something or
/
/
/
somebody taken to
i
(
1
1
somebody
for s oma- !
\\ body by som8body. )
'.
yoplu
1 - -
+ V
i + V
+ Er
+
( NP)
+
NP
+ E:.'
+ Movable Obj.
+ hum Subj.
+ H Su IJ .i,
NP nAg +
(NP)
+
NP n,o,g +
flJP + Ben. ~
8
r'
en
.. ,J
\\
! get somebody or s orrie t h i nq v
/ gat sti tched for
somebc:d y ':
;
\\
(, by s orn sb o dy
! ta ken t 0 s om (; b0 dY bY
j
1
1
\\
\\somebody
/

---

1~6
y o rb bu l
dajéE
'..."
_.,
1-
---"';
1
+ V
1
1
i
Er
-
Er
1
+
NP
+
NP
+ Hum. Subj.
+ Animate Subj.
1
+ ~o\\:lable Ilb j ,
+ I-".n ima te Ob j .
1
NP ag.+
NP +
~J P a ÇJ +
Î
NP
BEn. D + (8 en. 1)
Conj.
_ J
t a k e s om at hi nq or somebOdY\\
-come face to
face with
( s orn auh ar a for somebody
)
-gO te place to be present
\\ (to s om ebo dy )
/
at somebodyts arrival.
-Feach One point of contact witt
opPose in contest
-
come by accident Into the
company of.
-
come into conformity with
on ers L,.liS hes
-coincide.
ta:gcJ.):
taggj:
v
»<
I
+ V
l
--'-j
1
/: V
1+ V
NP
NP
1
J+
I\\J P
1
1
+ Hum.
1
j
- Er
Sub j ,
1+ Hum. Sub j.
1
1
+ NP aQ -
NP
+ Human Obj.
+ Hum ~JP
i_
1 + r~p ag +
NP +
+ Hum. Dbj.
1
1
(
permission\\ L
1
,
~J P
- r equire
PrL p • P
+
Aç:;.
+
NP
- - - - '
to do an action.
.+ Pr cp.
f
announce that one
)
1-
-t 0 port
)
(to
\\
pr ai se one5t 1 f
\\-to di vOrc e
\\ is
leaving
\\.
for
•

---

147
xC):lantEC
x·écca nt ts;
L:e:kkœ
'-'
...----,~
..
I-=-
- - : .
v
+ V
l
'
1
1 +
IIIP
+
NP
+
[\\1 P
-
Er
Er
Er
+ An i rnat s Sub j ,
+ Animate Subj
•
+ ,Q,nimate NP
+ Ani
NP Ag.
+ __~J P +
[Tl, a t e
Ob j .
+ Animate Obj.
(Prep)
+ NP ag. +
NP +
+ NP ag.
+
NP +
Con j.
Conj.
+ Reciproca l
+R eciprocal
(look
Each other)
(to pull
each o t ho r ).
(each out of ••• )
d ae méB
léB :kkL):
ja:yl":):
1-
_....••
- - - - - . 1 1 -
+ V
+ V
1
+
NP
+
( r\\P
1 i
1 1
Er
+ Er
+ Er
1
i
+ Animat e Ag.'
+ Hum. 5 ub .i-
+ Î~P é1 ÇJ +
r~ p +
+- NP
( ~J p)
1
A
1-
~ - -
tNP erg + (NP)
er 9 +
+
1
+ A + ( b en)
1
Pr ep.
1
L
- - '
(go by . . . .)
/-Eause to
eat.
\\
( cause, mak c , \\
(
)
s ell )
l -make to eat.
\\
or der to
\\i',
/
-or der to eat. ,

---

148
d ae ma nd') :
dae m
g'6mmant u
'_0"
__ ~
._-,.
- - . -
[+-
1
v
i
i
-l
+ V
+ V
1
;
1
1
! +
NP
NP
NP
1
1
1
r
Er
Er
+ NP ag +
NP +
+ ~ovablc:: Sub j ,
+ Anirnate NP
Con i
L
+ eon~1J inatoM.J.
. :J
rJ p nA 9 - __._r~ 9
_--J
( fe el
s l eepy'i
(-go leavË together. \\
(-to leave.
\\
\\ -leave at sametime.J
\\-to gO~ee.8.'Je. )
gëmmgëmmlu
9 emg'èmlu
,_o'"
~
---j
+ V
I: v
+ V
1
1
+
NP
1
NP
+
( I~ p)
1
- Er
- Er
- Er
+ Hum [\\lP
+ Hum r,JP
+ Iium IIJP
+ I\\IP Ag +
UJP)
+ NP Ag + __.1NfJ)
+ NP Ag. +.
(NP)I
--.- _l
. ; sing u i t hcu t
paying\\ (/to cet c l os Ln o \\
/- pretend to \\
any attention to
it;
\\
1
)
1
1
one s
cy es
\\
b e Ld e v e ,
)
\\
lJ i t hou t a n y
con s i ci e r a-)
\\
t·
\\
10 n ,
'-
I~~dj.
-1
1
1
+ _ _(a d v.
0 f
t i fT'. e;
+
(adv.
d C? !~." t J'
' )
d 8 9 r e e; Pj mltn )
camp)
-
y
-
y
+ Ani mat e III P
1 -
( ta b e t r ans for me cl. )
(to be t J r a d )

---

1~9
damm
Xi:f
- 1
+
1
Adj.
+ ~dj.
i
+ __ U,dv.
Pl;
1
!
+
~dv-tirnE;
!
~ian;
d e q .
-
y
-y _._--
+ ~W(<.solid»
+ Ani m<3 t c ~J P
- - _ i
1 _ -
/
break,
os p cc La Ll y uoo d ,
Lr cn'
(
bane,
lot.her t h i n qs , when
)\\
\\
having slender
fOrme
s~: pp'e'lu
ra g;" l
!~ ~dj
1+ ~dj.
r
1
!
li
1
+
(~dv.time, d q,
e
c
o r n p
+ Ad v • t i m8, cam p , de 9i
1
-
y
i
- y _ ..._---
l+ A.f\\jP··· ..-
1
+ NPtconcr 8~*'
~I
(- t 0
b e a f rai d
(lo\\)abU:e)
\\- fearfut
r: Adj.
+ Adj.
1
i
+
(~d'v. time,
+
~ d v.
t i me, Pl. c ornp
l
1
-ojeg,
r ornp •
-y-
- y
_
,il,Oimate
(
'.
.,
\\
rostfui"~)
(to be accomplished. 1

---

150
d <W)-n a : m
__'
~xxl "ct':.
,--.'
r+ AJj
1
! + __ ~d
1
v, t im E',
1
1
\\
dEQ;camp
1
l:
+
l1dv. dr:g; t.i rn r, camp.!
~p
1
:
-:-mm
._-j
i
n
_._--!
(ta br-: gI'l?edy)
bi: /
mi t ,
lJi:,
U.:qi:,
Ji:
si :/
ki:
- ,
1 -
, -
Dl
!
1
+ v orn ,
adj.
+ 8Jem. adj,
1
,
1
+ Singe
+
~V\\'r\\"\\-
\\i + r'JP Si ng
+
Sing
i + f1r0 x ".s p ( H)
+ I\\JP Sing
L
_!
+
nit
+ pro. x •S p (H)
(thlS)
yi:
ni:
I -
1-'-
!
I
+ Ekm.adj.
,
t)em.adj.
+ Plur
1
+ Plur
+ NP Plur
1
+ ~JP Plut'.
/ - {n
0':1-1
~-o:r}j
I t ; j:~'~-: ~; q
ftnit; jige:o;
+ Prox .. Sp(H)
+ Prox.Sp (H)
.
.--J
(thesr-:)

---

151
b 88 :
1 ba1œ
mae • 1 malœ
ure : 1 lJalc:e
1,'1\\:: 1 1 31ae
gâ? : 1 galas
.
j-a;
1 .ta l E€'
,--
!
-1
s~ 1
+ Ekm. ::)dj.
Sal§3
+ Sin g.
1
+ NP Sing
+ S ing
ln it
1
+ l'JP Sing
1
+ Rem. eq
G
1
I~ . cm. r q
' -
---~
( that)
( t ha t)
Y~·. 1 Ya l œ
rl~ 1 'ri al éB
t -
- 1
+ Oem. Eld j •
1
+ eem.adj.
+ Plur
+ Plur
+ NP Plur
+ NP plur
1 - {nit; jiQE?:n; go :r·)_
)-{ni t;
jigc:n;
Qo::r---
+ Rem.eq.
+ Rem. eq
1
l -
---'
.-J
(those)
(t hos co)

---

152
-! + Ad j.
+ r\\Jp Sing.
+ Singe
+ Pro)(.
E x c I • H
+ Hum
- '
+ [\\IP Sing __.._
/
nit
(t ha t)
( t ha t )
+ Singe
+ Plur.
+ I\\IP Sing.
_
+ NP Plur.
/
nit
/ {nit,
)
1
jig(:':n,
go ;rJ__
1
~ Pr ~J><. e~cl~
Prox.excl.H
._-'
( t ha t)
y) :yu
sama
r; BEm.adj.
+ Ro~.adj.
+ Plu!'
+ Singe
+ NP Plu!'
+ I Pers,Sing.
/-~it; jigE:n; go:~ _
+
NP .5irg .
+ Prox.excl.H
( t ho s o )
(my)

---

153
S amay
Sa
Say
- - - ;
r-
- ]
1
l" POs oadj.
I
+ P Os . C' dj •
[Pos.adj.
1
\\
Plur
+ S ing
+ Plur
1
1+
1
+ I I Pers.Sing.
+ l
Pr r s .Sing. j
+ II PC:;Ts.Sing.
+
NP P~ur
+
NP Pluro_J
+
1\\1 P Singe
--
---
' - - -
----i
_1
(my)
(your)
-am
sunu
!'Jnuy
j -
+ Pos.adj.
+ Pos.adj.
Numb Gr
+ S ing.
+ Plur
+ III Pers.Sing.
+ l
Pers.
Plur.
+ I
Pers.
Plur
NP flur.
+fNP ':in g
+
I\\JP Singe
Gjp
J
Plur-
-
1
.~
( his)(
( our)
h er) ( i ts )
(our)
saB :n
SéE: ni
+ pos.adjo
"1
+ Pos.adj.
1
!
+
+ Sin g.
+ 12 Pers. Plur;l!
rPlur.
+ 2 PGr s . Plu r ;1
b Pers.PlurJ
'h Pers .PlurJI
+
f\\IP
Plur.
+ _
..NP Singe 1
1
._'
(your)
( yo ur )

---

be:pp
ycp
nep
.: 154
' ....
-,
I nc.l cf. adj.
+ Lrid o f v ad j ,
1-:;: 1nd e f • adj.
-~l
r: Sing.
+ Plur
1
+ Plur
1
l, +
i
1
+ ~JP Plur
1
+ NP Plur
1
1
-ln
/[nit;jige:n;Qo:~__
1 /
i t ; j i 9 e : n ;
1
-
__
1__
,
g Cl : r 3'-- .-" -.---J
(any)
(al1)
(all)
kaehn
maB : r:.n ,
b ai j nn ,
_.-
wce:n n,
gœ :nn,
-..........
'"---'
,~
jae :nn,
s ae :nn
- - '
-----
1
1 I nd e f • ad j •
+ I n d e f. adj.
+ Singe
+ Sing.
l
+ Hum
+ NP 5ing
1
i..;
1
+ NP Sîng
/
nit
_.J
( ev Er y)
(every)
ke:pp
KunéE {k'R /
Kuc Irias (k})/
+ IndEf. adj.
1
+ Indefoadj .. l
\\
+ Singe
of Sing ...
1
+ I\\IP Sin g.
+ ~J PSi n q ,
/
nit
1
/
nit
i
r
1
_ _i
'nun CE' (k ~ riuc I nae ( k~)
yu nœ (k~ y u c Lriœ
(k~
+ Indcf.adj.
+
Indef.adj.
+ Plur
+ Plur
1
~ I\\JP Plu!
+ NP Flur
:1i
nit
/_nit
_~.J
(every)

---

155
bu n cc ( k~ / bue i n ae ( k~ /
jan/gan/san/man/LJan/ban
mun éP ( k~ / mue in ae ( k ~ /
r - " ·
!
+ l.ntg. adj.
LJunEG (k~/l,lucinae (I<~/
+ Singe
Luri an (k~/lucina3 (k~/
+ NP Singe
gunae (k~/ çJucinae (k~/
l_ - _=-~
ni t
juneo (k~/ juciné2 (k~/
SU neo ( k!I) / suc i n SE: ( k\\l) /
(lJhich)
+ '1 n d C? f • Cl cl j ~-I
+ Sin 9 •
+
NP 5inQ__
/
- nit
(evcry)
Ian
kan
na n
,-
1
+ !ntq.acJj.
+ tntg.sdj.
f1:nt q .adj.
1
+ Sinq.
1
+ Sing
" +
Plur
0
+ NP Sing
+ NP Sing
+ 1\\1 P ~lvr
/
-
nit
/
-
nit
/[nit;jiQcn;
Qoj
'--~
( uh i c h
(LJhich)
(LJhich)
yan
'il œ~nt. ae : J,
--.J
- t
, -
-1
-1
+ Intg.adj. \\
+ Or cl • nu m• Cl d j •
+ Or d • nu m• a cl j • )
1
1
+ Plur
+
1\\1 P
+
NP
L
J
+ NP Plur
(LJhich)
( f oun t h)
(EIcvcnth)

---

156
'-
jut::J_~i
b a; :nn
na:r
'
../
i-
-::1
(-+ eard. adj.
'\\~
1+
eardoad j 1
\\ ++' e~ rd. ~ d j-~
e<îrd •.'Jd J o:
1+
NP
+
NP
,
L NP 1 +
NP!
1
_ .
1
L
---
!
-'
l _ .
~
-
(thous'ln d)
( one)
( t wo)
(three)
ji r 0: m
fukk
f anW8G : r
flao : nt
'---"
.. ../
e:lrdo<ld j ' l
\\+ eiJ rd. G d j-:I Fe'l
jl
rd. D d
\\1: ~Q rd. iJ dj~1 1+ ear d 0 éld ;1
r~p
1
\\+
~Ip
i i+
LI"
J
JI~
Jr
NP
NP
_Ji P
.J
(five)
(tcn)
(thirty)
(hundrcd)
ap/aw,ak,a m/
3S
ay
,--
_.-------
--
I~
-,
+ T
T
+ f.idj.
+ ï
1
1
•
i
+ Indcf
+ Indef.
0
/+ IncJef.
1
1+-+
+ P~ur
+ Plur
Sing
l: SinrJo0JP Sinq• + NP.PluT
+
NP Plur
l fJ,Sing.....J
---1
/3, o n
(s Dm e)
1 ïnvo l vcs ,']
\\
Pejorative or
\\ dimu~itivG
, mean1ng
bi/si, ui, li, gi,
[li
yi
. _ [
ki, mi,
j i/
+ T
1
+ T
+ Bef.
+ Def.
+ (lEf.
+ Plur
+ Plur
+ S ing.
+ NP Plur
+ I\\JP Plur
L+ NP Singe
/~it;jigG:n; go:
/
- ~it,jigG:n;Qo~31
( the)
(the)
(the)

---

157
+ T
+ T
+ Bef.
+ Bled
+ Plur
+ Plur
+ NP Plur
+ NP Plur
/~itïjig8:n;
/-Lnit;jiQc:n; go:rJ__ 1
\\__
----l
O,o:rJ _ _ ,
- - - !
(the:
( t h e
••••
that)
••••
that)
')
(thG ••••
that)
( whcn the rcforcnt waS
\\\\ once in c on t o x t
/
ci
u
, - -
1
<,
l '
----1--
--1
\\ + Pr e:: p •
1 + Pr EP.
r: Pr ----'
1
e p .
+ PrGP.
+ Tem p.loe.
er ig.
CEnitive::
+ Spat-lae.
1 +
1+
1
+ NE?ar
+ 1Nf:?ar
~ NP
Place::
+ NP Possessedl
+ NP
1
+ V
Place
+ V
Time
L..
posscssor-J
' -
(from)
(of)
(in,
o t ,
t o )
(in,
at,
ta)
ba
Ca
------
-1
Prcp.
1+ Prep.-------------+ Pr e p ,
Prcp
i ..
1
+
+
Spat.Loc.
l'cmp.loc
SpélLloc.
! +
Il
i cm ploc. i
+ Rem
V
V
til~~
Plac~ '.
+ V
Place
+ V
Time
- '
(~mJ
(in,
at, t o )

---

158
bala:
ak
1
_ . _ - _ . _ - - _....._ ..__...._.._.--- .. ~-.-
--
,
1-:;
r -
Pr cp
+ Pr cp
1
+ Cori j ,
+ lfemp.loc
+:Inst.
1 + Co
+ eomp.
i
+
T irn Q
+
V
inst
1
+ ~ombinatory
1
+ V
~.IP
!
1
1
--...l
L -
1(+ l'~p
NP)
:
1(+ S
s)
(bofore)
/ -l.Jith
)
( l.Ji th)
(, -by mcans of
(and)
Xa:t
fi :
--.
r - -
+--
- \\
+ ~dv.
+ Adv.
+ ~d v.
1
1
1 +
~dv.
l'
j
1
1+ Pl ace
+
Place
1
+ Place:
i
+ TimG
'
1
1
+ Prox.SF(H)i
+ Rem,.eq.
1
+ Pr omat ur e
8~
1 :
: r 0 x •
cl . H 1
+ V
+ V
_1
( h Gr e)
( t hcr l? )
(therd
(already)
lc:Oi
salJx
eUT
- 1
+ Adv.
+ Adv.
+ ~dv.
r ~dv.
l
+ lime
+ l'ime
+ SUPerlative
+ /je g •
1
+ 6unctu;:;1
+ Past
+ Su p e r l
+ V
+ la te?
+ /
1
+ V
_1
(sometîme
(red
)
( fa ir
)
before)

---

159
kuk
k li l"j ~ S
na :n n
gan n
-,
- ,
-,
+ éd v.
-1 i-: Adv.
!
+ ~dv.
i
1 +
Adv.
+ Beg,
,
1
.,. 8Gq.
+ D8Q.
+ 8eg •
+ Sup or L,
+ SupErl.
+ Superl.
+ SUPerl.
+ 1 l·e·nn·c···.m
+ 1 l ce:r
v
_:
(black
)
(dark
)
(illuminated
)
( h~;avy
)
Xa:tt
Sa:pp
bann
_ /
' - '
..........
,--
,: èdv.
+ ~dv.
+ Ad v.
!
+ "Ad v.
+ (}eg.
l
8
+ f)~g.
rQ..
+ Oog.
\\ +Supc:rl
+ Supcrl
+ SuPerl
+ Supol
1.: Ifn,.
+ ItJac:x
+ 1 saf__
( s a vo ur y
( ['mbolmin g_ J
( I:ilutinaus)
xunn
nar
' - '
1
1+~dv.
-1
r-
, + Adv.
l
!
\\ +
't' Beg.
EJeCj.
1
\\ + s
+
upcr I
Su o r r L
I~ lx 3S a tJ__.::..=-!
(slinkinC]
)
(ta 10y at
full
( harcJ_)
lcngth)
t a : l l i t
n ac : pp
me"rr
r: ~d
1-: Ad
1
v"
+ t1dv.
v.
1
1
+ I)r:::g.
+ [':an.
1
+ ['1.1 n ,
l,
!
1
1 +
Superl
+ rc:t'
+ 1 damm
1_:,: 1
v
n s :y-- ,
(soft_,J
(disaPPE~r suddr:::nly)
(br sak
)

---

160
n d af)k
1-:- : l
ni
'--- ~
-
1
1-;
-
: + Adv·
+ t\\dv·l
èdv.
1
\\
1
!+ ~1o n.
+ 8eç'"
1
+ Comp.
1
1
+ V
+ V
NP
i
I~ v
1
,
1
!
-
- -
(sloLJly)
(too mu ch)
(like)
+ N
+ Corn
+
NP
+
NP
+ m. v.
-
t-\\u m
+ Animate NP
+ GEcision
+ AnimFlte
+
V
l,
I~
\\+llum.NP
OPicenJ
cs p ,
for
food
(decidc t o )
/SOlid-hOOFed
\\
/to knot
\\'
1 h cr bLvo ro us
\\! GSp. for
more or Lc s s
,
1
1 Cl u a dru p p e ci LJ i th
t hr
liquid,
LJhcn
1 \\
88 d
flOlJing
Ilian" and',
r op o ,
Il
one Eats on
'1
,
\\ \\ !
tail u s r d as
:' string.,I
simply sLJal1ou-
\\
i
: bGast of burdcn
\\
ing by aspirdt-
\\
'
\\ a n cl dr a u C:-~ ht ,
ing the
food
Cl n d j
\\for riding on.
1
brought ta the
mouth out of
\\
1
\\ha nd s•
1
1
1
.----....- ~'.-._---- -- .... _-~ n n r --._-~
_
---.
!
-1
--Ir
+ Aux.
Aux.
- .fi. r
»v..
l
+ m.v.
,+ m.V.
l~ v 1
~JP
Hurnon
îJ P
1
+ !ntentivG
1 +
rn i s s
to
,
--'
V
+ --'
V
I f
+
L huma n ~JP_---=.:.-, "-
(spcak fa1sc1y)
( -ta b s likdy to) (ffOr action that\\
\\ -t 0 Lrrt cn d
to
uas
about ta
\\)
happEn
1
\\
/

---

161
lJar
I -
+ Au x
I + V
+ rno v.
1 +
NP
i
1 +
ab l i Qat ion
+ Animatcc: NP
1+
V
1-
__1
. _ t 0
ri d c an i mn:a l 0 r bic y .1
.
C'
. ; ta
\\
0 0
\\
-must.
(
-to sit on something as
0
on
<
horsc.)
)
o •
men
+ V
+ mo vo
+
NP
+
V
+ AnimatE NP
+~pt itudc:
\\
Probabili ty:
permission]
- - - J
- a bl e to
\\
(to bc in dominating
-competent in
)
p o s Lt i on
)
(
-may
\\ eallowed to
na:kk
-,~
~
+ Aux
, + V
+ m
+
NP
0
v 0
1
-~
+
V
( f~il
/ ta
ta
stand in n c cd of •.•
o ' .
")
\\mlss
to
o • •
( ta b E S h or t 0 f •.•

---

dC':cJc:t
162
- ,
1
+ êd v.
+
Adv.
1
i
+
S
(n 0)
( der-lotes
:J~3tonié',hmcn t )
x a l a :3
c:y
I-
1+ Intcrj-I
~ Inter jJ
L.
(dcnotcs
dis-
( e xpr cs s os
-to
calI somcbody
appointmc n t;
dis Cl pp 0 i nt--
surprise: ')
r r pr oti
-
admi~ration .)
men t /acimir a-
t i ori , )
c i m/' C om
c::lm
ua:u-go:r
i + Ln t r r j ]
+ lntcr~
-+ -l'
~
G= 1
- 1
ntcrJ!
n t C l'Ijl
1-
1
-.
~J
(
expresses
( C!:~llotcs
clcnot':~; appro-
rcr,lrOb2 t i o n ')
cl .i s ~;U st";
!J;~ti,'I; I]oy
could
b r
:lctj on
CJf
S OI~l ::iJ orl y
-,',1 \\ /
/
':1 111/
':l \\1
. J! '-.' ,!',
bu
1._.
)
1
, -
1 +
Inter .i..
+ Rdv-sè:ntc 11tio 1 11 Canj--P
Con j. P
R clF n
In,p-
._1
Il
+
(iJi=')
+ \\)r=
II+sUb
+Subord
+IncJcf.
[\\1 Cie; •
-
1
i
1 +
i':\\ f f i r I,J,3 t i 1 n
1
+T ÏiH:-
+ fon ci i t
+ :3 i ri 9
P él r t
II XéJl'I:J~
il+f\\oris-
+ \\./
s
1
:;
t.i c
_ _ _ ... 1 1,i + 'Ii S
__J
(
( cxprcs:'es
(
I i ,- cc )
I
L.
\\ u'hic:h;
\\...J
LJ h o :
pi ty

---

163
_ -
bi
yu
yi
--- -----
-:::-----
r -
--(
1:-
1-
'-,
1
!+ RC?l Pn
conj.r
i + RGl.Pn
+RC?l.Pnl
1
+ Sub
" + Ekf
1 + Ir'ldCf
1
1 + ra cf
,
1
1
1
+ sing
+ lime:
1 +
Plur
1 +
stng.
I_~- PluT
_ !
!
+ NP
4-
non
aoristic
+
V
S
( the;>
(lJhr n)
( which;lJJho
( whi ch; who
(which;who
.,
that
)
t ha t ')
that
.1
l C : RJ
ka: n
dara
~/
- :
,-
I-
-1
1
1+ Pn
1:
1+ Pn
\\+ Pn
1
Pn
1
Irld[f.\\
+
Indcf.
+ Ind c f,
~ Ln o c f",
I~
_,
~ Hum. ~
I-=- l'Ium.
+. Hum
i
(nothing'
\\
,
- '
--..l
\\ ,
(nobody)
somcthing)
.
. uho c vcr ')
( uha t c vc r
'
1
man
y J w
---,
, -
.-----
1
1+ Pn
+
Pn
+
Pn
+
Pn
1
1
+ Emph
+ Emph
+ E,:1 ph
+ Eili ph
+ 3 P cr s.
+
1 P crs.
+ 1 P rr s
+ 2 Pors.
1
1
+ Sing.
+ 5ing.
+ S Ln q , _1
1
+. S inq •
1
.---------,-
-
~. -:::::---.. - -
---------:'7
,+ [~om
l+ r' Dm in]
1+ Accus
I~M 0 mi~] 1-+ Acc" si
1 -
i.,
t. ,~cc uSJ
'------
(1)
(,~ c)
( yo u)
(y 0 u)

---

r v
164
nun
y c:n
n;,: m
-----==~_. -----
,..---
,
----.
- ,
Î
+ Pn
:
1+
Pn
+ ~
i + Pn
+ Emph
+ Emph
+ Corn
+ Emph
+ 1 Pers.:
+ 2. Pers
-
living
+ 3 Pers l
_~ p~ur_~I~~~1
+ Plur
1
1
. ' Plur
~- .::---. ...
l+Nomi~ L-!Accu~Ji~l'JominJ fA..ccu~J:~Concr(>t
\\~ N.omi~ ~Accu~J
(Wc)
(us)
(You)
(you)
(oye brow)
( th Cy)
( th cm )
ma
la
k)
nu
la:: : n
-
+ Pn
+ Pn
+ Pn
1
+ Pn
1
17 Pn -'i
+ 1
Pers
+ 2 Pers
+ 3 Pers
1
+ 1 Pers'
1+ Plur
+ S ing.
+ Si n o ,
+ Sing.
1 +
Plur
/+ftt,JCCUS!
+
ACCUS
+ Accus
+À,Ccus
L~ A.cc~..!
~_
[+2 PNsJi~3 ~'cr~
(you)
(him)
(us)
(you)
(them)
kan
nan
ban
- 1 .
[--- + Pn
- 1i + Pn
i j + P n
1
l '
!
+
!
lntg
.,. Intn
+ Tntg
+ Hum
ltum
-
hum
-
Hum
sing.
PluY
+ Sin~.
+ Plur
Pcrs.af+
+
+ ~ ).P: r ~ ~;; . + 1
( f'i)
+ (V r)
,.
(ri) + (V r)
-
-----"
(who)
(which one:)
(whlich one)
lan
k iJ. .•
1 1
+ Pn
+ Pn
i : ;~tQ
+ ~em
+ Dcrn
+ Hum
+ Hum
1- Hum
i
+ Si n g.
+ Plur
i
!+ ~_Pers.af +
+ Pr o x , ,SP(H)
+ Pro'Sp(H)
;
i _
:(N) + (VP)
(whad
(this
one)
( th es con e )

---

165
k8:/kal8J/
lc=:/lala::
bG:/baléD
r+ Pn
+ Pn
i:-
-1 1-
-1
Pn
+ Pn
1
1 +
Ocm
1+ Sem
1
+ Bcm
1
\\
+ Hum
1
+ Hum
-t
hum
Hum
i
+ Singe
1
+
I-llur
- nb
+ Sin 9
i
\\
+ R cm • e CI i
_ ,
:..-J.
I~ Rcm.oq~
+ REm.E:q
(that one)
( that
thinQ)
( that
one)
1
b .•
y e: /v alae
~ •
_ . t -
•
l
•
-1
- ,
I~'
!-+ Pn
+ Pn
+ Pn
1
!
i+ Pn
i
!
1
+ E)em
i
+ SGm
1+ B>om
+ oom
- hum
-
hum
-
hum
-
hum
+ Plur
.r.; - nb
+ Singe
+ Pr r x • S P ( H) 1
+ Pr 0 x •S p ( H)
---!.
_1
(t.hase one)
(this)
(this
one)
(those one)
l'):lu
r -
1
I + Pn
+ Pn
1
+ Pn
,
1
+ Bom
+ Born
- Hum
tHum
- Hum
Nb
+ Sinn.
i
+ Singe
pro:.oxcl.~
+ Pro;<.cxcl.H
+
+ Pr 0 x • 8 X cl. H
(that o n e )
(that one)

---

166
,,
1-:
-1
Pn
+ Pn
+ rI)
1
1
+ ()em
+ Bem
+ El em
-
hum
+ ~lu
-H~
[il
1
-
lQb
+ Singe
+ Sing.
1
+ R
+
em • l es
+
Rern.lesse r . H
5 sr • H
Rem.lesser. H
1
--+
-II
+ Pn
+ Pn
i r.: Pn
1+ Pn
+ Pos
1 +pos
.
II +Po:J3
}
Pos
+ 1 P er s • Sin
~
q ,
+ 1 P ers. S ln g
+ 2 P Gr s . Sin
1
:
Cl j i + 2 P ers. Sin q •i
+ sing.
_11~Plur J
- - J
• .
Pluy
__! l~ Sing.
(mine)
( ydlurs)
( vo ur s Ï
b)sa m
y")s am
--i
1 : -
1
+ Pl
+ Pn
11-+
1 ! +
Pn
Pn
1
i
+ Pas
1
+ Pos
+ Pos
1
1
+ Pos
1
1
1
1
+ 1 Pers.Plur
+ 1 Pers.Plur 1
+ 3 Pers.Sing.
1
+ 3 P8rs.Sin~.
+ Singe
i
+ Plur
1
\\_~~ Plur
_ ! -
_ _1
( hi s )
(hi:~)
(ours)
(ours)
,~:n:::~s
i + Pn
1
+ ~~s l
+ Pn
1
+ Pos
1
1
1
________
!+r~lurl
t - -
- _ . '
_ _
1 +
::Jlng
,
----~
1-+ 2 Pers. piJ E 3 -PE'rs .Pl-:
f+ 2 Pers. Plu~ l_+ 3 Per s. PI u_~_:
(yours)
(th8irs~J
(yours)
J(thei~

---

167
mba:
:=~ m
--..
..--'.
<,
- - I -
;+
+ Con
-1
1 -
Conj
+ V
Il
+ V
!
1
/+
+ Existence
Co
+ Co
+
~J P
1
i + ~lterna-
+ Alterna-
+ Possession
1
+ NP
na
!
t i \\/8
tive
+ ~JP
~J P
+ fJP
NP
na
1
1
-
1
-'
+ S
5 __i
1
- - '
( or )
(to have)
( -happened,
be
-ther 8
is
)
ua :ntaJ
ndax
<:»:
'---"
.'---.. "
i
+
Conj
~dv
1-:
1
i
+ êdversative 1
+ 3ub
1
1
+ eausal
+ \\J + neg-.---_~J
1------
1
+ V
s
- '
1-
(rather)
(but)
( for)
(because)
x ana:
> - -
- :
i+ Conj
+
1-:
Adv
1
i
Adv
1
+ Sub
+ lidversb t i v8
!+lnt g •
i
+ Adversative
\\ + V + ne 9
S:
1
'-----
i
1 +
V
S
1 -
(un18sc,)
(rather)
(perhaps)
mbae t œ
rjgir
<:»:
i . _ _
1---
---.,..
+ Conj
-~
+ Conj
!
+ Sub
il
+ Sub
1
+ Purp05ive
+ €lJdvErsativ8
1
1
1
-
V
S
1
+ V
s
L_.
( u njle
(30 thst)
S5 )

---

183 :kkc:e :
168
i + V
+
NP
-
Er
+
Animatc Subj '1
-
Animate
Dbj.
1
P,J
NP aQ +
P
1
\\~ Instrum ent:3 1_ \\
(to e e t
out of •. )
I~ V
i! +
r'JP
i,
1
-
Er
1
+ ,'~ n i rr: a t (3 S u b j
1
1
['JP
élQ
-
_ _ 11
!
+ tf\\ea ns
--- (00 by•• )
+ V
+
~JP
+ An i rnat e 5ubj.
+ l1'\\ovabl e ûb j ,
NP ClQ +
NP
+ Lrist r urnm tal
- - '
(to put

---

169
j,'] : y
.-.-.
+
V
1
+
( ~J p)
-
Er
+ hum • Subj.
i
l_rLP ag +
( rlJ p)
+ (r3 8 n • 1) 1
----i.
(tose U )
. j-a : ya l
+ V
-
Er
+
Hum Subj.
Î'J P
a Q +~( ~J p) + E3 e 0 . CJ + (G C'n • l )
(to sell
for)
-antae
-kat
-ce : f
+ Su f --\\
1
+ Suf
+ Suf
r.
l'
Suf
i,
+ RE:cipr 1
, + f)Jer
i + V
!
~ v
i
1
- l
1
1
+
'1
V
1 +
V
1
1
!
1
l + AbS.__.J
- :
~-
~
-angce
-a8 : l
-i:n
-3:Y
.: sUf-1
- ;
r-:' Suf-1
; + Su f
1
+ Suf
i
1
+ V
i ~. Mj
1 + Adj
\\ + V
,
1 + Abs
i + Ab s
+ ~bs
1
+ Abs
1
1
1 -
,_-
- '
1 -

---

170
-enta:n
- i t
-tan
-tef
.........
r-:-
--,
~I
! of. Suf
+ Suf
!
Suf
+ Suf
-l
!+
1
i
1
1
+ V
+ V
Adj
+ Adj
1
I~ -=J
--
1
1
,
+ Cone.
+ Cone.
-
1
+ Part of!
---.......
-ka:y
-adi
--- -------.
"+ Suf
+Su f 1
~Suf r+Suf
+ V
V
+ V
+ Plac~
1 ns t r ,
+ Pri vat i v..:J
,
-al
-tel
-téG
'::'a:n
i~
--r
----:
-1
1
) + Su f
i
.~
l
Suf
+ Su f
!
+ Suf
1
1
+ V
+
+ \\}
1
+ V
V~_ i
1
- - 1
.i:»
1
.,j-
L
&bs.
1
6Qtl~!
J
_a:lu
_anti
_antiku
- ta: n
1
-1
1-;
r----
,
1
+ sur
·
Suf
+ SUf
+-Suf
i
1
1
1
+ V
1
\\J
i
- - f
1+
+ t\\cJ j
+ V
1
_ _,
-=--1
1
L
J_
.-1
+ I\\cflexive
_ and
:
-andœ
r+
~-,
SUf
-ll-;-
l
+ Su f
Su f
+ V
1
+ V
+ adj
1
Il
- -
1
-
1
!
+ Simultanr:ous
~Simul taneo~
L-
l abs __!

---

171
F
+ Su f-l
+ Su f
Suf
+ V
+ v__
1
+ V
_i
+ 0ppo2i{e
+ Iterative
,~
-a:tu
- l
-i
_éD :ku
-
- ,
1-:;
---,1
+ Suf
-1
Su f
!+
~
SLJf
SuT
+ V
+ V
+ V
1
+ V
1
+ ~E'V er s i v t:
+ Mo:~cn~
+ i.\\eversivE
., .
_adi / _Os"di /
-
>.
-ka
-u
...-
- ,,
,--
+ Suf
. + Su f
------ -----
1: ~Uf l i-~ :Uf l
+ V
+ V
-
Il
!
+ Pr i v a t i ve
+ àbs
+ ~c:.flEXi~+ Instr~
l . - - .
, -
_ kan
ndax
xana:
ana
. - ,
1
+ ~dv
l + adv 1 G
+ Adv
"1
i
adv ]
+ lntg
+ Intg
"t'
Intg.
+ lntg·i
1
i
- -..
~
+ 1"imF
+ Place
!
-
( Wh en)
( '7 do)
(won! t
•• ?)
(where is)
(isn't •. ?)

---

172
noka
-u
--r
+ âdv
J + jJartic18
+
Intg
+ Intg
+ Manner
( \\"Ihich (sg/pl).,
who./
wh sr e .1
W hat
J

---

173
*
*
IL7
CH.':l.PTm
0
*
*
*
*
71-
m ,0, [\\:S F Œ r~AT l Dr·! AL RUL ES
*
*
*

---

]1.2.01
Notion of transformation
The notion of ttansformation con bc stated as the
operation(s) pcrformod on the P.
marker of a sentence in
order to gcnerate cnother P. marker.
Transformation may bc obligatory or optional.
Whe n a sentence underg08s only obligatory transforma-
tions i t is said to bc §
kernc:l sentence.
Ex.
1 •
)mar~ has injured Jmar~
In t hi s s orrt en c c the NP.object éJnd NP.subjc::ct arc correfercn-
tial.
This decp structure has
to be transformcd into lmar
ga:nna b):PPam
by a procedure of rcflexi(Jization.
Thus
'--
)ma r
9 a : n na b): pp ami s a k cr n c l
sen t e ncc.
f;j. transformation
Inay
d c Lc t r a c or.s t i t.u o nt ,
This
operation is callcd delction transformation.
f\\ transform3tion
may also substitutc a constituent.
This operation is callcd
substitution transformation.
A transformation may als o add a
constituant to a sentonee.
This operation is known as
a d jun ot on transformation.
ThGSC arc the t.hr o c ol cmrn tory
â
transformations that operate in aIl natural languages.
Rpart from thesc clcmentary transformetions
some
1
othor transformations arc 31s o applicable in sorne other
languages.

---

175
This soction consists of diffcrcnt ty~cs of rulos
applied in Wolof.
II.2.02
Negation transformation
Consider the following sentenco:
2 •
»nar
da fa
nj;: l
.~
:)m a r
lS
taII
3.
)mar
nj-.:>:lul
'--
)mar is not tall
Th~so two sentences arc differont in that 2 is positivo
assertion , wh~reas 3 is a nogative one.
This impli~s that
thoir dC8r:fstructurc must b o d i f'f or orrt éJS can b c s c cn bclow
in the tree-diagrams:
23
.i->:
.~--
~/
~- .-------------- »< /'
r~d
NP
Pd.P
1
1
r
,
1
r
,
f
---",.---'- ..,"
1
1
.is t
rI U X
!
.::r
.;di~Prcd
1
1
1
,
1
1
,
,
,
,
t
1
1
r
,
1
f
1
1
1
,
1
Pos it
r
1
1
f
1
1
!
1
1
1
1
r
f
1
1
f1
)mar
da fa
ri j -:,: l
-......::;,

---

176
3éJ
S
------"-
----
.
.,. ... F ....
---
r'l d
--
NP
Pd. P
Il
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
,
1
r
,
,
"s t.
1
,
1
adj.Prcd
,
1
,
,
r
1
,
r
!
,
1
1
,
,
,
,
1
!
!
i,
Neg.
1
,
1
,
,
1
,
i
1
,
1
,
1
1
f
,
!
1
,
1
1
!
1
1
Ul
:)ndJr
ri j'J: 1
'-
If ~e compare thesc t~o trcc-diagffams,
~c nGticc that the
n cnn t i v c sentcr1e,
contains
a
segment
that
stands
urid o r
tho
label i!eg ', uh c r c o s the positive s o n t cn c c do cs n o t ,
Thc n,
in c r d c r
ta gcncratc (3)
from
3a Cl transformation
l
is
n8ccss~ry ~hich mOVGS the fsgment
u l
un C' ~! r
th GIa b d
li d j .
Prcd.
This operation is
ca1lcd ncç;ation
_ Particlc rno vcrno rrt
trnnsformation,
or simply
nCQùtion transformation.
Thus i f L.JC apply
the nc:gation
trarlsformation
to 3:::,
the trce-dieo,r2m
of the ne~ dcrivcd sentence is
as
follo~s:
3b
[\\1 P,
Pd.P
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
,
....--ad J. Pr cd
,
-------------
.-"'-""
1
1
,
adj.
affix
,
r
1
,
1
f
,
i
,
,
Neg. P8rticlc
1
1
1
__,ma
1
r
-0j ):l
ul

---

177
Ta formalizo this proccss in some other uay,
let us
co ns Ld rr the structural description (S.D)
of 33.
50::
11 5
(r~e('. + I\\JP. + i:,dj) S tI:
1
+
2
+
3
Oncr: the nGgation transformation was applicd,
the follouin s
new structure 3b will be obtainod.
1
S
(NP + ,id j
+ ~JGg) 5 #
2 +
3
+ 1
The ab c vc structural change (SC)
may b o formulatcd
thus:
~-~ (NP + adj. + nEs.)
#=5
S #=
# s
s -#=
that is,
SC
= 1 + 2 + 3
---="
2 + 3 + 1
If wc consider so~~ other scntenc~s wc can notice
that the operation of nGQation transformation may vary.
Let us
analyse the ncgation transformation of the follouitlg
s on t o nr o s :
4.
.',ma r
dawul
Y:'éI r
has not run
,.1 •
:=-m é) r
l éf.' :kkul
CE[!
: p
bi
~\\rné1r
héls not ci3tcn the ricc.
,1
u.
~':: 3 r
b·ogc:;ul
x)r.)m
JmélI'
d 0 cs
not liko salt

---

178
,....,
7.
-) méJ r
du
1;]2 :kk
x Je'.Jm
~
---.-'
")mar
do cs not
;:: a t
salt
8.
bula::,"':n
1 éD': kk
cac : p
bi
-'"
----
-'"
don't
cat the ric c •
,issum,~ that t hc i r r os p o c t i vc d c c p s t r u o t.ur os rir « as fo11ows:-
4a
S ______
---------1
----------~------ _
--------,
--
Md
NP
Pd. P
,
f
1
,
1
1
,
1
1
!
1
1
As t
[\\1,
1
1
1
f
1
1
1
r
1
~cg
1
,
,
~
1
,
,
1
1
,
,
1
1
1
,
1
,
f
1
jmar
dé!lw
5a
_______________--,.,S --
_
-
..
/ /
------------
, /
rld
~p
Pd.P
1
1
1
1
r
1
1
f
,
,
1
,
f
f
1
1
vP
1
1
f
,
1
,
1
1
,
r
,
1
~st
~
va
l
,
f
,
-, '--'--------""--.
~-
1
!
,
1
Ncg
:
v
Î1IP
,
i
,
r
,
1
l
,
,
/ /
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
V
T
1
1
1
1
,
1
,
,
,
,
,
1
1
1
1
1
1
f
1
1
l
,
1
1
L':
Jmar
Las :kk
C éD
: P
bi

---

179
ua
,.---
f'~d
Pd.P
,
1
,
t
1
,
1
t
1
!
r
t
t
1
VP
1
,
,
!
1
1
1
,
f
r
!
r
1
N
VB,
"st
1
rr
1
.~~
1
<.
V
NP
t,,
,
1
,
r
1
t
1
t
1
i
r~ cg
V
~J
tr
!
1
t
u1
)rnar
b'ôg 9
70
._.S ".~
_.--..:-;-;;.-,;;-;
...-------
_ / '
~~~
--
--,
fi cl
r~ p
Pd. P
!
r
. i - >
t
!
r
1
,
t
-------------
1
,
Aux-
V
i
t
i
1
1
t
1
\\
1
hst
I~
;
1
1
j
VB
r
r
t
/ /
-.-,
i
t
V
NP
t
t
t
r
,
t
1
,
1
r
1
t
t
t
V
N
t
1
r
t
,
t
t
1
1
t
t
t
t
t
i
t
1
1
1
ul
'~rn a r
da
la:: :kk
xo r )m
' - - . - '

---

Ba
---
18U
-----._~- -
~-d
~Il=
l=d • P
1
!'
!
1\\
t
r
-,
f
1
1
1
\\
f
1
~1
t
\\
1
f
1
1
f
,
!
r'~ d
Md
ffn
1
r
f
,
1
1
,
1
1
~,~
1
1
1
,
N.Ast.
/{s t.
,
V
I\\JP
,
1
f
1
1
t
r
,
1
1
f
1
/ / ~"'.
..
,
1
1
1
Imp
N cg
1
1
V
~J
T
,
f
;
1 i
1
t
!
f
1
,
1
t
1
1
,
1
1
!
f
!
f
1
1
f
1
b
ul
1
lac kk
CéJ?
: p
bi
~
' - -
If I.Jc apply the nCCl;Jtion
transformation,
the nCl.Jly
dcrivcd
~;. markers lJill bc as f o Ll curs ;
4b
Pd.P
,
1
1
1
1
t
1
,
1
1
1
,
1
VB
1
,
1
,
t
t
1
1
V
,1
1
~-----/
1
1
,
t
V.s-C
;~ f
1
,
f
f
1
1
1
f
1
1
i
1
,
f
1\\1 t::CJ
1
,
1
f
t
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
)m~r
da LJ
ul

---

181
5b
s ______
Pd.P
1
VI='
iV8 ---...
-----------_.- .'-....<,
~_V_~~
\\J t' t A f
1
Nes
1
bi
u1
CéD :P
133 : k k
- - - /
Gb
NP
N
NF
N
u1

---

182
?b
Pel • P
NP
- - - - - - '
1
, ~
'~UX.LJ
VI
1
1
1\\
1
: \\
l
,
1
i
va
/ /
''',
.>:
"""-
\\./
NP
1
1
N
\\\\
,
1
!
\\
1
.
•• _.
~
)ma
cl:] + U
lco :kk
XjT Jm
T
Ob
s
~~i~-
Md
NP
Pd.P
//'
i
-----'''---
1
r
VP
i1d
af
;',d
Md
FM
i
!
(\\j. ,~st
Imp
b
ul
l ê0 : kk
cCC : p
bi
---'

---

183
For 4b Wc can not e that
S.O
is
I\\J c C;
+
f\\1 P
+
V
1
2
3
S.C
is
~JP
+
V
-1-
Nec::
2
:3
1
In
o t h r r
uo r-ds
S.C. '1 + 2 + 3
===)
2 + :3 + 1
For 5b
Wc can not8 that
s.o
NP(2)
is
r~ c r;
+
N~l) + V +
2
:3
(1
S.C
1\\~p(lJ
is
+
V
+
NelJ
+
I\\J~)
In
othcI'
wCJI' ds
S • C •
is
~
., + 2 + :3 + (1
==':::_'~~
2 + :3 + 1
+ L;
For Gb wc can note that
~j
5.0.
is
rI!
Jl)
cg
+
+
V
+
NpC-?-)
1
2.
3
4
s . c.
1
is
Nr
+
V
-r-
r~ cg
+ rJ p2
2
:3
1
I n 0 the r
Ll o r d s
S. [.
i :i
1 -1- :2 + ='] + (~
:=.:...-=;:;:;:)
2
+ :3 + 1 + 4
s. D.
is
f'.J c.:~;
+
l'J P
+
/4 li x •
+
Prcd.r
1
2
3
il
9. c.
is
i':P
+
,~lI )C I~
+
Ncg
+
PI' ad , P
2
3
1
4
In
ot il cr Liards S. C. is 1 + 2 + :3 + c'r ---''--,
- - - - /
2 +
rt
cJ
+ 1 + 4

---

18 fi
For 8b LJ [: Can note:: that
S .0.
i5
l'Je:: 9
+
ilj~1) + Il + IJP(2)
lmp.
1
3
4
.:..
(1)
s.e. i5
Ncg.lmp.
+
Pcrs.qf +
+
~J~2)
V
1
3
4
In othor @ords s.e. is NSQ.imp. + PErs.~f+ NP dc::letion + V + NP
3
4
t ha t is ", + 2 + 3 + LI
1 + rcrs.8f adjunction + ~+3+4
NOLJ let us consider tho ncgation transfOrmation in an
cxplanatory sentence which folloLJs:-
9.
'~mar
d a f a
la:: :kkul
---..-'
approximatcly translatcd thus:
It isbecause jmar has not catGn.
ThE O.S.
P.marker
of 9 ls as folloLJs:
._ /5
-------
.•.
---~
/ / '
-~----------
['1 d
1) P
Pr cd. P
1
i
1
J~ s t .
r~
fiu x. G
VP
1
1
Nec
v
1
!!
!
ul
dafa

---

185
When one apply the negation transformation to this undcrlyin~
s t rue t urE,
the cJ cri v ul P hras c ma r k 0 r i s à §
f011 Q ~~ : -
s_
-----_..---
...._--.
------~-
~-
I~P
rlux. C
VP
i
r
N
va
Af
NC~l
1
dn f a
lac :k k
ul
In thE Cas c
of expIa nat or y s Gnt er c .: IJe C,'3n note:: that
s. o.
is Ncg
+
liJ P
+
,'~ux.C;
+
V
1
2
3
If
S. t.,
ls
NP
+
i=\\U)<. C
+
V
+
~J og
2
3
4
1
Thus S.c. is
1
+ 2 + 7,J + 4 -,-,-.---,
-=- --:/~
2 + 3 + 4 + 1
HEreaftrr we can stQte that whcncver nCQation transformation is
app Li o d, it movc;s the node r(cfj.
From the Lr f t mos t
br an c n it
occupies in P.marker O.S.
RncJ attaches it to thevcrb-predicatG
or to the acJjcctiDc-prcdicate in case thcrc i8 nO auxiliary.
If
thcrc i5 an Auxiliary, the Ncg.
i8 thon attachcd ta the auxiliary,
cxccpt cases whcr~ the sentence is an cxplanat~ry
sentence,

---

186
in whieh case the Neg.
i5 attached
to
the verb-predicate or
to the adjective-predicatG.
NEvertheless,
wh n the neQation
Occurs in an imperative sentence,
the n8gation transfdrmation
cannot move the NeÇi. nOlJe.
In this
Case s on.s o t hsr transforma-
tions
ar~ rcquircd as seen in eb.
Mrreover when the predi-
cste i5 El nomina1-predicate,
the neQation transformation obliga-
torily attaches the negation-partiels to the Auxiliary.
Ex.
10.
du.
bu:r
)mar 15 net El kin~
The P-marker of the o e e p structure of this sentence is given
below:
------
----
---------
rl d
/~~/
1
As':
Aux.C
Nom.Pred.
N
ul
mar
da
bu:r
Whcn the negation
transformation is applied
to the above
P-marker,
it generates the new P-marker
glven b ol o u ;
s
-------------
------------_..~_.
NP
PcI.P
1
N
- - - - - - - - - -
~J orn, Pr e d ,
-
1
AUi. C
.>
.,-~
1
Cop
N 8Q
~J
1
1
ul
bu:r
c1a

---

187
Ano the r
cas e t 0
b e éJ na lys ecl i Sil! 8 q , 0 c CU r r i n gin a nomi n al i Z El cl
phrase.
For instance, let us analyse the
t o Ll o u i r q sentence
11.
déB m
ama:tna
•
for
jmar not to go is probable.
The P-marker of thi s sentence is as folloLJs:
S
1-------
NP
----------._- Pd.P
Sa
.>
NP
----------Pd.P
1
.>:
N
Aux. G
+ Neg
~ 1
Jmar
na:kk
cl éB m
This indicates that the sentenCE S.a i5 an NP.
This means that
S.a has beEn nominalizecl.
Here thE negation dOes not affect
the \\,Jhole s en t.e nc s , r,3ther it a f f ec t s only the pr s d Lr.a t a of
S . a • ( I~: ae [Tl) •
l'lo r e o vo r
h cr c LIe? C,3n notice that there is no c as e of
negatinn tr~nsfor~atiGn.
ThE negation meaning is given in
the reading of the auxiliQry~
In oth~r LJoros negQtion is not necessarily Qiven by the
procedure of a t r a ns f or-rwat Lon ,
It may be entailed by the
meaning of a constituent.

---

188
This leads us
to say that neQation transformation
appli e s if and only if the underlying P.marksr n a s a sEgment-
To make this stater:lent clearer,
let us go through ths
fàllowing sentences.
1 2.
jmar
-na:kkna
xar
)mar
has lost a shesp
13.
) rn ar
xa r
)mar
has not lost a sheep.
The P.markers of the deep structure of 12 and 13 are givEn below:
1 2a.
_s~
~
~.
rld
NP
Pd.P
1
VP
1
V8
v
NP
\\
1 3a.
_----~ S
_
rk) •
NP
Pd.P
i
1
1
Ast
N
VP
!
va
. : » :
.----....
1
~--.
' - ,
.--
rJ eQ
v
1
1
ul
:]mar

---

18 ~,
The above tr8~-diagrams indicate that 13 has a syntactic
interpretation of n8r;>'JtiIJe spntence,
uhcr eo s
12 h a s
note
Nevertheless, as lJe have alrEacly noted it in 11, ria :kk has
a negative-valutôl.
Thus ue distinguish sentences uith overt neQation-
marker from sentences
uithout overt negation-marker.
The former type undergoes Obliç]atorily negation
transformation,
uhile the 12tter does not undergo negation
t.r an s f o r m- t.I on ,
II.2.D3
Question Transformation:
We Can distinQuish tuo types of questions in Wolof.
One i5 uha t U8 r e f e r
to as ful~scope-question; the
Jther one
is uhat Ue refêr to as local-scope-question.
As indicated by our
terminotoj~ the full-scope-
question-type is the tyPe of question uhich affects the uhols
sentence in uhich it occurs.
It .i s , as it uerc,
the equivalent
of yes-no-question t y p e of English.
On t he Dt her hand, the
local-scope-question type r a f or s merely to a Part of sentence.
The affectec Part is ait ho r an NP Subject, an NP Object, an
a d v e r b of
plac~,
an
advorb of time or an adverb of rnarin e r ,
This type is the cquiva1ent of WH-question of English.
Let us consider sOrne ~xamplcs:
1 •
ndax
')mar
j endllla
W j tJ
?
. ......J
.......
has ~mar
bought a car?

---

2.
ndax
d a f ay
uis?
190
is it drizzling?
3.
ndax
dinga
dœ m ?
'=-.... '
will you gol?
In 1 - 3 each sentence 38 a whole is que s t.Lon od ,
T I;'~s what are qu a s t i on ed in 1 ,2 and 3 ar B as f o Ll o us :
1
) mar
j end na. U)t J =
)mar ha s boug ht a car
. .~._.
2
dafay
wis
=
it is drizzling
3
dirjga
dae m
=
you will go
The ax p ec t.ed a ri s wer s ar e as follows:
Local-scope-Questions:
lanla
amar
3a :~~ ?
ljhat has ')mar Il eld ?
5 •
Kanla
)/il ar
ja:PP ?
Whom ha s ~mar
h eld?
6.
ban
gana: r
m)~y
sap ?
Whicll chicken is crying ?
7.
ban
g:>n aB
m):y
j) :y ~
Uhi ch chi Id is crying ?
8.
ranla
-:)m ar
dao m ?
Where has
)ma r
qo n a
?

---

9.
Karîla
~)mar
da:! m ?
L1h en
has
-:cmé3 f
ç'one ?
191
ana
Jmar 7
Wh eT 8
is
)méJf
?
11.
x a I E;3
fJ ?
HOL)
many
c h i l d r en
are p1ayinç;
?
SentencES
4 -
11
imply the truth of the following
pr e su ppos i tian s:
4a -
5 a
jmar
j(}:ppna
C.,:--
Jmar
h as held .w
sap
iJ chicken is crying
rlgiy
d chiJd i e crying
8 a:.:mar
Jae rn
L
...:,maI'
h,::s
qo n e
L\\
1SéJ
.;mar
i s
L\\
11
a li XaléP :
iJgiy
f~
~ ChildTEn ar~ playing
where the dummy
symbol
LI.
stand s for
dara
somethinÇJ in
4a
dara
=
s orn ebo d y in Sa
ap
=
a (n)
in 6a -
73

---

bOèr'ëp sa:fJgam (f éB :n n )
= Somewhere in 8a - 1 Da
192
..... _
..
<:»
waxtu
sa:fJQam
= at X time in 9a
ay
= s orr e in 12a
We Can notice that only the constituents replaced by a dummy
symbol are qUestioned.
In fact if we compare 4a
with Sa it
appears that they are alil<8.
The only difforenc8 is that in
4a
the dUmmy symbol replaces a word which has the featu~e
<">+
indefinite">?
and
<,~,-hu[;lan»
°
lJhereas in Sa it replaces a
tJJ rd
whi c h ha s t he f 8 a tu r c <%+ hum a ri, ,
These syntactic f ea t.u r es
wh i cha r e r e fl e c t e d i n the for m of
the q u 8 S t lÎl 0 n sen a bleu s t 0
state that this type of question has a local scope,
TheY are
made in order to Qst an information on a precise point of a
sentence,
That information may concern the subject, the iJP
object,
Or any
ot hp.r
con s t i t LI Entex cep t
Pr 8 d i ca te.
The procedure of question transformation:
Let us consider the following sentences:
1 2,
fanla
musa:
mburu~
mi r;>
uh or e has muSa !<ept the bread ?
. • r
13
ndax
mUSa:
mburu
mi
ci
mbu:s ml:
.~--'
' - '
has musa:kept the bread in the bag ?
The P,
[:a r 1< er S
0 f
t h 8 d e opst r u c t u rJ e s 0 f 1 2 and 1 3 are a s
f o Ll o us :

---

1 2. a
___ S
193
~:/--
-------------. '-._-
rl d
NP
Pd. P-
..
- - - -
---_.
~----~----
\\f ~
Ad v
1
va
. /
<,
.-"
li
.':
./
Vs t
Af
N
T
1
.t.\\.
_r
Qu e s t
musa: d éB ne
na
mburu
mi
CL<+ Place ->.:
'.---
1 3. a
1
n.Ast
VP
1
pp
./" va '
~/
<,
~/
<,
--~
V
I\\J'P
Pr o p ,
r'.Jp
/ \\
Il \\,
\\
/
\\
\\ -,
'.
\\
Vs t
Af
iJ
T
~I
T
,
i
1
1
!
Ou est
mus a: d ae il-c
na r~uru
mi
ci
mbu:s
mi
'---
, - , '
At the first analysis of the different P.markers what appears
clearly i5 that in
the P.marker of 12 the Qdverb constituent
has as terminal s vrnb o I 3
~Ui'r,"y symbol; whereas in the P.marker
of 13 the advsrb c ons t i t u srrt h a s as terminal symbol the string
ci
mbu'S
-"'
mi
(adverb of Place).
,
This main difference is the source of the discrimina-
tion betw8(n full-scoPe-question type and local-scope-question
type.
12 and 13 "Jre gsnerated from 1'ltl end 13a r a sp o c t i.ve l y ,

---

Let us c cns i dr-r first 1 3.
19~
For 13 the S .D • is as folloLJs:
.LI-
Il-
S //= _:.:./
Qu est
r~p
+
v~
+
ridv.P
1
2
3
{~
that is, II=s Jf=
-~
+ 2 + 3 + 4
When the question transformation is applied ta 13a, the segment
Ouest. i5 replac8d by the word
ndax From the lexicon in ord~r to
.~-
complete the terminal string givcn in 13a and Qe ne ra te13.
Thus the P.marker of the d e r i v e d sentence 13 is as
f o Ll o ue :
r~ d
r,JP
1
1
i
1
N. /-'. s t
~.!
Adv.P
-,
1
1
1
Qu est
pp
/
\\ \\ \\.
/
\\
vst
Af
r~
T
I\\J
T
1
1
nd a x
mus a :
d é8 -ri c
n a
mburu
mi
ci
mbu:s
mi
'----'
'--"
50,
the SC
is as
folloLJs:
#=5 #- _.:.-~
Quest + NP + vP + Adv.P
that is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
--~
_._-
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
....
/
Li;
is und ar s t no d From the ab o v c analysis
t ha t ,
but for the
replacement of the Segment-Quost.
in the R.marker oF 133 by 3
LJord from the lexicon in the surface structure string 13, the
question transformation LJould have been merely Cl vacuOuS
transformation.

---

19S
Another po~nt i8 that the se~8nt Adv.P is optiona l
in 13a whereas in 128 it i8 not;
for if it werE, its absence
would have blocked the qUEstion-transformdtion aS we will see
later.
Thu8 it i5 quite possible to have a D.5.P.marksr
whieh I s as f'o Ll o us t
Md
i
N
-,
v
NP
/
Vst
Af
N
T
1
l=1uest
mUSa~
dœ ne
na
mburu
mi
' - -
From this the Following P.marker will bc generat8d:
._--- ---------~
f'J. PI a t ,
1
du est
1
ndax
musa~
d as n c
na
mburu
mi

---

196
Now let us return ta 12.
As ~08E n a bav 8, th 8 0 5
• • P
• mar k e r
i saS
f 0 Il 0 ws :
Pd.P<,
n.Ast.
N
vst
Af
6
_,
Qu est
mUsa:
d ee ric
na
mburu
mi I-~'+ Pl ac e ~>J
--..J
L.,
That is the 5.0. of 12a is
#5 #
- - - 7
Quest + NP + VP + Adv.Place
t ha t i s 11=
5 1
- - 7
1 + 2 -1- 3 + 4
If question transformation is applied to 12a,
first 3
copying
transformation will take place.
In
this o~Er~tion the
segment-Question will
copy the features of the dummy symbal
and
the result will be as Follows:
12a.1.
_' S --_________
.~
--
NP
Pd.P
~----......_­
~-,
------------- "
N
Adv
//V8~
1
1
.>:
""",,--
Ou est
li
NP
/
"
,/
"
,
/~,
Vs t
Af
N
T
1
i'
!
/ \\
+ Place
mi
1- -;<..+
d aB nc
na
mburu
p"f~>~ 2 ~-:,)_'\\
i..
- '

---

197
At this stage only, a dcletion-transformation will operate
whieh r~sults in geoerating the P.marker giv8n bclow:
._____.----- S",
-------------~ ._--------~...........
---------
--------
~--
Md
NP
~d.P
.-.------...
ri. As t
"~
Ouest
Af
1
Pers.
na
mburu
ml
,-.'
Thus the dummy symbol is deletsd.
This deletion-transformation
enti:,ils the rernoval of the segment Adv ,
From the P.marker 12 ').2
and gives thE following P.marker:
12 a.3
ri d
NP
1
!
1
n ..~st.
Ju est
Af
T
.,<P ers. a f )
«( 3
Sin g • >}
mu sa:
dES ne
na
mburu
mi
,-,"

---

Once again the c opy i n o transformation ".Jill o pe r a t.c .
The t~a~ur8::"
of the: Segment Po r s . a f . l.lill b c co pi c d on
the Sogment
QU8s ticH,3, r cs u l t i nn in the generation of the P.marker given
beJ,olJ:
Pd.P
r1.Ast
il
VB -.NP
/
<,
/
N
""
Ques t
T
/.',,+
Pl aC e "»:»
i
3
Pers '><1
<', Sin Q.;»
!
musa:
ni]
mburu
' . . /
fJ ~ c [' a 9 Cli n the cl cl e Uo n- t Tan s f or n., t ion 0 p 8 rat es,
rcrnoving the elemrcnt -na
from
the t r e e ,
This dcletiJn tronsformation lJill entail a pruning opera t i J n
uh i ch lJj,ll r cmo vc From thl? t r e e the right daughter of the
Segment V,
if therE is no occurren::: E of tense-marl<2r and/or
negation
particlC'.
ût.n cr i.u s c the trel.:'-pruning Cl08S not t ak c
plaCE.

---

ThE result of the above trE~-pruninQ is as follows:
199
n.Ast.
N
<,
1
Ou Est
1
vst
T
r<t+ Place >':> "(
~~
<':,
PErs. 0,;1
l"
','. .:1 l n 9 • "",
.'
mUSa:
mburu
mi
"-'
l\\Jow, if the Segment-question is rep1aced by a word
from the?
lexicon, it generates the following P.markcr:
12.a.6
~ld
n.PIst
Ou cs t
Vs
f,+ Place»
t
N
T
l,~ 3 Pers )
1,···Sing.,>
1
mburu
mi.
fanla
mus a:
d ae î2.s
'-..J

---

the S • C.
i8
200
1# s #
-~
OUEst + ~J P + VP
that is
#=S 1/
----~
+
2 +
3
WB have stated abovc that the dclction transformation entails
(J
pruninQ operation of the right d,':Juqhtcr of thco Segment V only
if therE is no occurrence of tensc-marker and /
or negation
Particle.
Failinç this,
the trsc-prunning cannot take place.
In arder to exemplify this, let us
consider 14.
1 4.
musa:
d83nc ") : n n a
mburu
mi
ci
mbu:s
mi
'-'"
, - '
mus a:
had k ept the br cad in th8 bag.
If \\Je assume nO\\J t hat the speaker \\Jants to kno\\J the plaCE L.lil 'è~:C r
the bread has b c e n k np t , that \\Jill cn t a Ll t hc follouing pre-
supposition.
1 4a.
musa;
mburu
mi
\\J h e r Q, Û
st and
for b Fr ë·p
(somcIJhcrc)
and the question \\Jould bc:
1 5.
mburu
mi
The undcrlying P. rna r k cr of 15 indicatcs that \\J8
1 5. a
Adv
T
; -,
r.::
1
Qu cs t
musa: dao nc ):n
na mburu
mi

---

201
Thus in arder ta gcnsratc 15 From the underlying P.marker 153,
wc shall, as indicated abavc, apply the eapying transfornation.
This transformation will gen8r~tc the intermcdiate P.marker giue r
b cl ou:
15 a.1
PC!.P
-~-
n.Ast.
VS
»-:
V
/ / \\\\
/
Vst
Af
f0
T
1
/ "-<.
Tor 58
Pers
mark er
j.
/
\\
,-
.-.-,
QI) es t
na
mburu
i « -+ Pla cc'·
r"
< : : :
+Pl ac G '))-\\
'-..
.-l
W8
Ta 152.1/will now apply the delstion transformation gencrating
the following P.markers:
1 Sa. 2
ne!
i
-VB
1
n.:b t
:~
---------
~V
~--NP
Vst
----'
.i->:
,- / "
Af
N
T
~.
/ " "
1
Tc ns o
Pers.af
Ou est
na
mbur u
mi
"-'
'«+ Pl a e t: 7~\\
~
.1

---

202
Notice that w[ have systcmatica1ly applicd the troc-
(rioht Jaughtcr of Pd.P)
from the troc.
r~ G X t
t 0 t h c: SEO P c r ê1 t ion s , w8
a gai n a p ply
the c 0 p yin 9
t ra ns f o r ma t ion.
This second application of the copying trans-
formation will gcnErate the following intcrmcdiatc P-marker~
1 Sa. 3 _________
~-s_---------------------
Md
NP
Pd.P
1
n"~st.
Vst
"
Pers
-,;
al".
ii
1
na
mburu
Pla c G »-l
J
j:J Ers .))
1
, 1
3 Pn c-::, i
Si n q , )" i
~ ') 1
,
.J
i
Sin 9 • '> 1
1
Once again we will 3Pply the delotion transformation.
This operation will gcneI'atc the following P-markar:

---

203
1 5a. 4
VB
n.Ast.
.----~ -------------
v "-
.>:
<,
Vst
Af
1
Tc::nsG
Ou est
mus a :
d ae : Tl c
mburu
mi
<::»
<::
Place>;]
3 . P or s 0/1
s l n g .»
J
This timc,
dUE
ta the pr cs en c o of the
tcnsc-markor
j:n t har c is
a
blockaQe of the
prund.ng
of thE' Af -
sGgmcnt,
right-claughter
of V.
Now if
uo replace: the: Quest-Segment b y a ward from the
loxicon,
Wc havE the terminal P-markcr 153.5 which is tho
P-marker
of the surface
s t r uc âu r e s cn t en cc 15.
1 s.,; 5
nd
1\\J P
Pe.R
1
___VB.
----------- ~.-.,
N
_______ V~.
NP <,
Vst
Ar ,
T
1
C)u ES t
Tense
1-:-, + Pl" c c:: ~,-~
r
<Cl
.'
\\
3 P or s ,,)\\
1 {/ +
1
1
L<<+ Sin fJ .,' _:
fan la
musa:
mi

---

204
The ncxt c~se ~c arc analysing is the local-scoPG
qUestion with occurrence of negation segment in the verb
If wc"~}ereto exemplify t ho Qenoration of 16 9
~e ~ould have to follow a1most the same application-order of
transformations.
16.
fanla
musa:
bcyul
(lJherc has musa:
not cu Lt i va t e d J
ThE pr o v i.ous e xamp l e s enable us
to say t b a t
16
pr s s u ppo s r.s 16a.
16a.
musa:
musa: has not cultivatcd
D
IJhcrc thE dummy symbol stands for bërëp (somcwhorc)
Thus the undcrlying P-marksr of 1b is aS follows:-
f'l ---~~.
d
r'] P
_ Pd • P
1
v~ ~dV
.
!
n.Ast.
Pers .af
!
1
Qu est
mu s a : bey
ul
~
So, wc apply first the copying transformation,
which
generates the following P.markcr:

---

205
1 6a •
s
-----~
rld
rJ P
Pd.P
VB
Ad li
v
»>
n • I~ s t
N
Vs t
.-----,Af
. >
"<.
rJ c o
Pc r s v a f
=>
Glu es t
musa:
bey
ul
-
1"'·
G' + Pla
Pla C 8;,)
C 12 ~ ~I
3 P
" ( i
ers ·))1 L +
1
S:ing.·,)
i
-"
~jcxt, LJe élPply the d r Le t i nn transformation, rcsult:ing in 1b,3~1,
1 6a .1
r'l d
Adv
N cg.
QUE s t
1,.. +
Pl
·1
L:
ace·,> _,
muia:
bey
ul
r·
i /( + 3
1
1
Sing.'.
L.·'+

---

206
Thc n , u c apply the tree-pruning, goncrating 16a.2.
1 6a. 2
~s~
NP
Pd.P
1
VB
n .A st
1
1
Ou est
musa:
boy
ul
fi
3 PErs.;]
1
!
Sing.,>
!
Then once again wc apply copying transformation.
)
}
This operation gGncratcs the P.markcr 'given bololJ:
16a.3
~J P
n. As t
hl
1
QUest
musa:
ul
;6
P lac
l
E' »)
1/< +
Fc=r s,)) 1
3 C:crs.))j
Il
\\ ( + S inq. >/,
Si ng.)\\ 1
-.'

---

207
This time a second dcletion trunsformation will not take place.
Now, if wc: replacE the QUest-s cgment b y a ucr d f r orn the Lox i c cn ,
it generates the string -f~nla musa: bcyul 7 -
whose
P.
mark c r
is as
follows:
163.4
~s
I~r
PI' Gd. P
1
1
va
1
1
v
---------
Vs t
<,I~ f
--------..
<,
Ncg.Part.
Pers; .af
Qu est
PI~c c '» ..\\
- .
1
3
~~"l's .• !)
Singo':,) /
1
- ,
1
fania
mu sa:
b cy
ui
~
Wc miqht think th3t the 3bsoncc of the second dcIc-
tion-transformation has bccn crcat8d by the occurrence of
the nc~otion porticlc in the main verbe
I r i t
wcr eth c cas eth con,
h 0 w t 0 a c cou n t
for
th c
transfor~~tions in the following sentences 17 and 18 7
17.
b cyu l
7
Uhcrc have l not cuItlvatGd 7
1 8 ~
beyul 7
Wherc have you
not cultivated ?
17 and 18 pr s su no os e scntC!lCes 113 and 18a

---

17 a
208
b c yurna
Ô
l
havE' not cultivotc:d
Is
18a
1 -.'.
'
i
:t0u have not cult:tljateèJ
HcrE
r,\\
again the dummy symbol
~
That means the dummy symbol has the featurE'<' + Place '».
Thus,
the undcrlying P-markers of 17 and 18 are
resP6ctiv81y 178 and 188.
17a
s
~
r1d
i',jP
---------Pd.P
)
-~ -~
va
Adv
1
i
1
v
1
»>: '~ <,
n.,~.8t
N
Vst
I~. f
-: ~-.
Neg
Pers.af
1
1
!
Qu es t
mé)n
bey
ul
ma
,U
i'~< + Î PEr s '''''l t<'+ Place: :::. ~
1 « + C' •
1
~1.nç;.n i
-~

---

18 8
209
5 ____________
r1d
NP
Pd.P~, <;
j
VS
Adv
1
1
1
V
1
----- "'~,-.~
Il.Ast.
Vs t
,i r .
1
~
'~~~
Ne g
Pers.af
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
!
1
Ou cs t
Y:lw
bsy
ul
1-, •
- '
0
6
anA
17~18 Wc would apPly first a COPYing_
In order to genorate
anJ
17a~18a.
t o the P.markors
This
would rGsult in
transFormation
r
P-makers 17a.l and 18a.l:
oF the intGrmcdiate
~
the gencration
17a .1
----=====:=:=...--,_ s _____________
Md
NP
~AdV
-
-
Pd.p
Vs
1
11. Ji st
/
Ou est
man
: + 1 Pers .»7 r~+L.
-(+
1
1 Sing o ) ;,
'-

---

210
1 8a.1
_ _- ~ S
_
NP
-Pd P
------. .---------
va
Ad v
1
v
~~
Vs t 4 f
/~
Neg.
Pers.af
1
\\
QUest
y)W
bey
ul
Thon)w8 apply the dcletion transformation to 17a.1 and 18a.1
•
This operation will generate thE following P.mar~ers 17a.2 and
18a.2>.
s
.-----~ --------..
r~d
I~ p
Pd.P
1
VS
1
______- V
------
<,
t,---------
Vs
Af ~"
Neg
Pers.af
1
Qu est
man
bey
ul
ma
«+1
Pers.))
~<.+ 5ing 0))

---

Z11
18a.2
_5 _ _ _ _ _
----~
NP
-Pd.r
1
VB
1
V
- - - - - - - <,
r:. I~ S t
Vst
-Af
NGg
~p
ers s a f
1
1
Quest
YJw
bey
ul
lJ:
t.:( '" Pl ac G )'.1
l~ft8r t h cs e operations, ue reapply the copying transformation
to 17a.2 and 18a.2.
This genc;rates 17a.3 and 18a.3 ;:Ji'lf:: b cl or- :
17 a. 3
_ _-~.s ______
Md
NP
Pd.P
1
VB
i
_ _ _ _ _ _ _-V~
Vst
~f
.i->:' <;
Neg
Pers.af
1
\\
l
'
Qu est
ma n
b ay
ul
ma
<<.+ Place"l
<.<.+ 1 Pers.»
~"+ Sin c-
/
'l>
1

---

18a.3
212
1
n , t
.• dS
li s t
1
1
Qucs t
bey
ul
l " ,,
.)
2 Pers.
Sing.)
1 7a. 4
NP
1
\\/8
/
il, 'l~S t
!
1
1\\1 cg
Ou os t ,>;
m,:) il
bey
ul
u+
Place " 1
+
1
1 Pe r s <),:

---

213
18a.4
s~
->':
Md
NP
Pd.P
1
VB
______ ,
1
V ____
n.Ast
Vst
.
----[J.f
I~
1
6g
1
1
1l
««
Ouest"n
U
YJw
bey
<'< +
Pla ce»
«+ 2 Per s «r>
"+ Sin 9 • '» .J
HerG also the tre6-pruning cannat operate, due to the presence
of the negation Partiels in the verbe
Again wc havo to apply the dGlction transformation.
This time
the emphatie NP subject will be de18ted from 17a.4 and 188.4.
This operation will goneratc the P.markers 17a.5 and 18a.5.
1 t«, 5
_ _-::::5
---.::::::::==---- -------
Md
NP
Pd.P
1
08
1
n.i\\st
__________ V~.
Vst
~f
<<.
QUEst »
bey
ul
«, +
Pl ace, >
<.<,. +
1 P er s. ";

---

21~
1 Ba. 5
Nd
---====== S_____________
NP
Pd.P
1
VB
1
1
n, il st
-- \\/.~
!
~~--.........--.-Af
1
\\/st
N
1
e g
1
1
i
1
1- Ou E:st,>,> 1
%
<"(
bey
ul
1
rPlace">:>
«+ 1 PeTs .»
G~+ Si ng•• '>/~
Uc Can
having becn dclcted,
NP SUbj.ct
and 18 •• 5.
The emphatic
to 17 a.5
apply th. trec-prUning
consoQUcntly
17 a.6
!1
n • ,:js t ,
_ _ V~ Rf
Vst
1
1
1
'-'<:
Qu est >-..J
ul
1
1
<:-=-+ Place»
"'+ 1 Pers'»1
J<i~,+
!
Singe»
!-

---

215
18a.6
s .~---------- Pd.P
1
V8
!i
n .I~s t
V
.//,/~-"""-.~'-
vst
Af
1
\\
1
1
NEg
\\
ul
t::<.
QUESt """:-j'
t GY
«+ Place '.,.>
1
c -; +
2 Pers. »
~'+ S ing" ''»
.
-J
Now, if WB replace the Quest-segment by a ward from the
lexicon in 17a.6 and 18a.6, wo gcnerate 17 and 18, as shown
by the surfaCE P.markers 173.7 and 18a.7:
_._-------
S
.--------------
~ld
Pd.P
1
V 8
1
___.V
."----
~'
n . /18 t
Vst
i~ f
1
J
1
j
Ncg
)
1
1
bey
ul
fanla:

---

216
18a.7
s -._-----------.
01 --
d
------
Pd.P
1
va
1
n.Ast
v
Vst
-------Af
\\
1
Neg
\\
\\
bey
ul
Thus, it ap~ears that the blockage of the Second deletion-
transformatio~ in the derivation of 16 is neither duc to the
occurrence of thE negation PBI'ticle nOr dUE ta the presence
of tensE-marker.
The syntactic reason is that the pers -
marker-
Segment on uh i c h the deletion-transformation uou Lr]
have op or at ec , is a zero mo r ph em o ; a d ol ot i on can n ot
take pl ac e ,
At the most, LJe might think of it as a VaCUOUS deletion-
transformation.
Thus LJe can makc the FolloLJing statemGnt:
LJhen ther8
is no nEQation-particle and/or no overt tense-markcr occurring
in the verb (main vErb or auxiliary verb), a second deletion-
transformation takes place entailing a trec-pruning.
On the contrary, LJhen therc is occurrence of a
negation-particle and/or overt tense-marker in the verb (main
or auxiliary verb), the second deletion-transformation takes
pla~E, but it dOes not entail a tree-pruning.
~Jevertheless uh en the verb (main or auxiIL;ry) o c c ur s LJ±t::
negation-Particle and/or tense-marker, in the environmEnt of
a Pers. marker 1.( + 3 Pers '» (./:-+ 5iog)) , thc;n, the second
delation transformation d08S not operate.

---

217
This can be fprmulatEd
thus:
1
V + Pers. a~ -' 9> Pers.af deleticJn --==;tc-ee-pruning
V + (Neg.
Part iclr;) + (Tc:nse.m)
+
(Pers. éf-3 Sing.)
=-~
P8 r S • a f.
cl c Le t ion
==I=~ t r r-o-jir un i nq •
In a sentence the Predica~c-subject relation can be
shawn as indicated by Chomsky by means of a P.marker.
Thot is
the NP immediately dominated by S is subjcct of thE Predicate
of S.
The differenc2 betwecn logic subject and surface
subject i5 not rc:lcvant herc,
since whafever may be the case
the NP immc:diat2ly dominated by S is the NP that conditions
the concord of thE Predicats.
Dur con cern is the syntactic
s ub j ac t ,
For EXam~le:
1 • a •
the d oo r opens
1 • b •
2.8.
the mEat i3 b~inQ eate n by the cats
7..b.
the cats arc c:ating the meat.
Th~ relation betw8cn '5. and 1b. is a relation of
ergativity but thE relation between 2Q and 2b is one active
."-_.--- .---
---_.. .. _.
~
--------_.- ---_.... _-c-
...-.. ..
--
l
--.~>
is tQ bp r ~.:=J..d , a:j : c;ntai l.s
.J
-
.
=~
is to be r Gad as: dOGS not entail

---

218
L 1:.' tus
D S ,5 U f:1 c,
t il.'l t 1 b a n cl 2 b El r eth cre s pee .,
Coris i d r r
the P.mari<crs
of 1 0 :
'l h ,
2;1
êlnd
2b.
1 • b •
----
--_.. --
-- PcJ.P
i
,
V[3
\\
.--.......
\\
- .-.-
<,
:\\Iu mil c r
V
~,lP
./'./~ ---------
---------
T'
~
Vst
Pors.of
r~
i
1
i
i1
boy
s
the
door
r3 PGr s';:l
\\-,3 PeTs,>,:>
i~,-Sing.<j l'
1 \\';,3 p~rs .::\\
\\" -Slng.:/Ji
_.
1 : -Sing •...
,V
~;
1•.
-S l ng .•j
1 • t. •
.-------
--_ ----------
....
.. -
----
i\\J ~o
.---'
Pd.P.
.
/
..•.
. > :
.....
T
,'1
.
v
;
-------
"-----------.......-
Vs~
Pers,af
!
the
do QI'
j1
open
s
ii 3 P8rs.~·,
<.,::5 Pers .);
->. 3
PCî s ,.
'1
l,.' + S in [1
l + Si n c:.;,/
<.: -(- Sin 9 '>'. .'
<, .:. Sin 9 .....'

---

5
_
213
2.b.
_
- , - - --
..
--Pd.
NP-
p.
~\\
\\
/
\\
va
///
,/
v- - - - - - - - -
;JP
./
\\
-> --.._-
.~------- -.~
T
N
~Jumber
vst
PErs.af
T
N
\\
1
1
\\
\\
1
The
cat
5
eat..Jing)
jt1
thE
\\
.
f:':
P er s .;)\\
PEr s. ~)'-1
F3 P~r s."-II" 3
., .
S ing
L-
.').1
te- Sl n9 • )~ _ \\_('- Sing -~\\.J
il,
/ \\
1
" ,
1 \\
" "-
/
"-
T
l'J
Numb Er
e at on by
the cat
s
,-+ Sing •. >

---

220
It appears From tho abovo P.markers that the NP
immediately dominat~d by S is always the NP having a 5ubject-
Prcdicate concord rclationshi~ with the Prldicat~ in 3 givon
p.
rnar k r r ,
Vot, if wc rcturn to the P.markcrs aboDc with a
wc;
difforcnt viawPoint,/noticc a phcnomcnon of redundancy which
indicates also the Samc subject-Predicate concord relation
in DC8P structure as weIl as in Surface structure.
ActuQlly in aIl the P.markers the fcaturc of Pers.
occurring in the NP dominated by S is repeatcd invariably in
thE VErbe
We are not Lns i s t Lnn upon the: NumbEr-Segment though
it is quite relGvant in English.
Now let us considcr the following examples in Wolof
3.
b oyna :
l
havE cultivatcd
li •
y)w
You have cultivatsd
5.
m);m
b cyna
He hns cu l t i va t c d
Let us assume t.ha t
thoir co r r e s pon di n q d oe p-i s t r u c t ur s
-
P. mark ers ar G as foll OWS:
3a.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _- S - -_ _ _
NP
Pd.P
:
\\
Pn
V8
1
V
1
man
b ay
F1 P,;,rs ",1
r<· + 1. PGrs •"~)
l'.' + S l ng.
1
L:' +
L
S l n g 0»
J
-'

---

221
.._
s
------
.-----._-
N'P
Pd.P
VB
i
Pn
v
Y)W
bGY
Per s. >;-\\ .
ï-; .. +
2 Pars .)~\\
Singe» J
le + Sing. >' 1..1
---
.' S
.
NP
Pd. P
1
vs
v
1
Pn
1
\\
1
bey
p~rs.'}>-)
3 Po r s .>~i
SIn 9 .»
Sing 0'»
1
.'
If wa annlyse the above P.markers it appears that the same
features of Person existing in the NP Subject are repeated
on the Predicatc.

---

222
Her~aftcr
WB
can say that both the ~.m8rkcr principle as wcll
as the 5slGctiünal restrictions betw8sn N~Subjcct and Pr~dicatc
indicatc that thcr~ Gxists 8 r~letion of ~gre~mcnt betwecn NP-
Subject and Predicate.
This rolation of agreement is actua1ly concrctised
by the gcneration of a Pcr s s a f f' Lx segment on the t r e o-rfi agram.
II.2.0.5 Pcrson.affix.Segmant Transfo~mation
Given the sentence 6, 7 and 8 along with the P.markGrs
bf their deep structures given bolow, how is the agreement
betw8cn NP-5ubjcct and main Verb concretized.
lao :kkna:
1 hav~ Gat~n
7 •
~)mar
léD : kkna
~)mar
has Gatsn
8.
x a Las
yi
la: :kknnnu
t hc Childrcn have s a t e n
6a.
_- s -
------._-----------._-
NP
Pd.P
1
VP
\\
1
Pn
V
man
la?: kk
'-.--
l',1 P Er s • S i ng >J
r" + Pr cs c nt ,..,-\\
L··+ Per f e ct» j

---

223
7a.
_-s-------
NP
Pd.P
1
1
VP
1
N
V
1
1
1
jmar
lEG :kk
<:»
l<~+ 3 Pers.S ing o"j
r« + Pr ES ont ');j
),_<+ Pe r f e c t »
8a.
----- s _______
NP
Pd.P
!
1
VP
1
N
V
1
xel as
laJ :kk
"---'
\\ « + 3 P e r s , Plur .")l
!(+ Pr os ent ,,;'[
l
,
l<" + d e: f • '»
L<-< + Pcr f G c t» J
,.,1
Let us note that at this le:vel WB arE not givinQ any importance
to the features like tonse and aspect.
First wc shall makc a copying -
transformation which
will r ep ca t the person-fc:aturcs Onto the: Vcrb-Segme:nt.
Thu s
6a-7a-8a will be transformed into thE following P.markGrs
6at, 7a1, and 8a1.

---

224
63.1
s ----.....--._-
..
----..
VP
v
~n
i
1
)
i
1
i
man
lac : kk
\\ /,' 1 Pers .3i n g -,:-'
(-
+ PresEnt>
+ Perfcct ;
7 av l •
------------- S ~-
r'JP
Pd.P
\\
1
VB
v
i
Leo :kk
Jrna r
'-'
[ <\\ 3 P Er s • Sin ç:: ";1
-_.'
Present,,)

---

88
225
e.1
------
------
Pci.P
1
VP
!
v
xa Lœ
1a8 : kk
,~-
F cr ssPâ ur , ""-11
P Gr s • F~ ur. ~-:-I
d cf. ,>,
Pr es ert /,
1
Pcrfl:'ct~"
1
_.1
Aftcr this,
an Muxiliafy-Group-Scgmcnt-transformation tak~s
p l a c c ,
This operation coris i s t s
of the c r c a t Lcn ,of anode
Lab c Le d Pluxiliary-group (Aux.C).
This
t.r ons f nr ma t Ltin results
in 6a.2,
7a,.2 and 8.;).2 as
f'oLl o us t
6a.2
s
_._---_._--------- ---~------- -----
r~ P
Pd.P
; - - - -
r
--
---~---
f'J
Au~. G
v~
1
\\f
f
i
man
lac:I~~
-J
'.' 1 Singe "
-.' -+- Pr cs cnt >'
~"+Pnfect,
7a.2
_ - 5 ·
---------
_-------- ---
.......
.
..----.
--..
NP
rd. F
.\\u x~·G·_-----·---
----,- vF
1
N
omer
la;:kk
~..-.-.
Pers.'>,-;
S •
1
ln g. >, !

---

226
r,j
v
1
xa Las
Lœ.kk
T" 3 Pl ur , ';-J
Then W8 apply the Person-affix-Segmsnt transformation
on the P.markers 6a.2, 7a.'2 and 8a.2, in order to generate
6a.3, 7a.3, and 8a.3.
This oPEration consists of the creation of anode
labelcd Pers.af.
Thcn a copying transformation will transfcr
tho f e o t ur e s of persans, a Lr s a d y copic:d o n t o the verb Sc:gmcnt,
to the Segment Fers.af.
The trGe-diagrams of 6a.3, 7a.3, and 8a.~ arc as follows:
.
c;
-----------
,-
----
'-
- . -----.-
NP
Pd. tJ
------
Aux.c
-------VP
1
\\
Pn
Perseaf
VS
1
V
}
Vst
man
183 : k k
\\(1+
[+
,(
l p. S g. )',"\\
) ,', +
Present, \\
III +
! "
Pori f c c t \\l i

---

--
227
--------- S.-...-----
~JP
Pd.P
i
Aux
----
:t-- .
-------
N
vr
11
va
1
1
v
1
Vst
\\
jma r
183 rkk
..-
~<+ 3.·P•S 9 •)~\\
~: +
3 P.S g. );-\\
_1
Present»)
1
L"+ Pcr f'ec t » !.;
1
1
VP
\\
N
V
1
Vst
l
Xa1~
1éB : kk
-;', 3 p. Pl ur.. _.
\\t.,+ Pr 8S crrt ~',
b+ Pcr f sct ..,,>
No~, if WE apply Pcrs.af.shift transfDrmation, and replace
thE Pcrson-Scgmœnt by a ~ord From thE lexicon in 6a.3, 7a.3,
and 8a . 3 , Wc obtain the fo11o~ing P.markers of 63.4, 7a.4 and
8a.4.

---

228
6a.4
.~S ----------- ---
NP
Pd.P
1
\\
VP
1
1
Pn
v
1
.i->: <.
Vst
Pors.af
\\
1
man
lm :kk
na:
[« + 1 Sing.'-,~
.('- + 1 S ing
r(' + 1
0'-.
i
i
'
S ing. »\\
\\
-.J
PresGnt)/, 1
PGr +GC t '» J
7a.4
___________ S
_ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
1
,
VP
\\
I\\J
V
.--------- ~,
Vst
~Grs.af
1
')rnar
1$ : k k
na
'---'
3
r Sing. » :J l',3 Sing.)~
'-l, + Pr cs ont»
L'+ Pcr r o c t '»

---

8a.4
229
s ~..---Pd.P
1
Vil
/
N
~v~
--
Vst
Pers.af
j
1
x a Las
nanU
Plu r
,>-)
« 3 Pl ur
-,
Pr o s orrt v. ]
[
dor,,']
l"-<3«+c-,+ Fc;rfoct,>,,1
<" +
J
Now wc: can roalizo that according to tho rank of tho
NP-Subject, the: Pers.m. variGs.
Hor 0 wc ha VE? the par ad igm:
- na:
-nanu
ThOSG difforcnt morphomos arc obviously the syntactic Gxprossion
of the agrocmont botwocn the vorb and the NP-Subjcct.
II.2.0.6
Pcrson-affix-shift transformation
Let us considor the following scntoncos:
1 •
damay
dEDm
r
~. -=- r am going ( l go)
2.
mé1:t)giy
d EDm . L
. ~-'.
3.
dama
b'ô~g
d é1J m (
)
-
r want to go
~aI)lL-
4.
bo'g gna :
ctazm
-~

---

5.
na:
230
let me go
6.
deo rnno r
l have gone
7.
hu r r Ln ;
l
am a ~ing
8.
damay
bu:r
(it is becausG)I am a king
9.
dama
s ao t
I
am cl can
10.
Swtna:
l
am clcan
In order to account for the distribution of the
Pers.af. wc must I nd i c a t o how the sentence, q i v cn above arc
genoratoc.i.
ConsE~uently, wc have to givc thcir dcep structure
P. mar k cr s which arc.' as
r cl Lo us i
1 a.
-------------..Pd.P.
1
1
1
va
1
1
d a: m
1 p.Sin g .>
,!l
Pros ont '"
i
Ernp , »
dur é) t i v C )\\ j

---

---

sa-
~s
232
Md
NP
Pd. P
\\'lB
\\
\\
1
'l
\\
t' + S81f:\\t-> 'P.Sing
)
o;
"l
dce !TI
pe I' m l 5 :>
-
Emp. "'''.J
\\
na
63.
N~ 5
Pd.P
\\
\\
'lB
\\
'l,
\\
dce m
1
t-> i PoSingo,;-\\
\\1.(+ PI' es ent -,;-\\
...." _
p
(mP
8I' f
L('+
e ct»
'1>
-)
73.
N~ 5-
Pd. P
\\\\
\\\\Iom. P
\\
N
\\
\\
\\
bU :r
1
t->
'Sing "'1
t...'-.-
EmP .. ,
-'

---

233
8a.
Pd. P
\\
»> \\lB
NP
\\1
\\
y
da
5 i n 9 ';J
r<'l+ f a ct ive )~~\\~+
1
L.
\\.: Erop .,0
9a.
S
NP
\\
s<13 t
l" '\\ p.Sing')l
- (rop -7,
J
(
5
'\\ 0 a.
N
\\
saG t
V.+ Pl' 8S en t ,;,c.\\
\\.~:_+ Pel' f e ct "7'

---

2 r) f
..1 't
So, to la -
1 0 a \\Je apply the copying transfonn a t i cn ,
This u i Ll, result i,l 13.1
to 10301,
1 a. 1
va
1 P • Sin 9 '»J-"
déS m
l '
+ Pre sen t ),
Em ph ')
(. + dur: at i v 8 ')
\\1_" + l Sin g. '»,
2a.1.
s _ _-------Pd.P
1
V8
\\
!
déB m
Qi + 1 p.Sing'»J"
\\« + Pres ent »l
l~"-
+ d ur a t ive
\\
i .
?' 1
Emph),:>
1;( + 1 Sin g» J
3 a. 1
,.~ -----------Pd.P
\\
_______v8 _______
V
1\\1 P
\\
s
1
1
c! 3e m
(Z.:. + Pr 8S ont
>~~i
\\
1
j ('. + 1 Sin 9 •» J

---

235
NP
--~....S-~d.P
)
va
----- <.
v
rvp
1
1
S
1
J
b"ëg g
'-..:
"'« + PI' 8Sen t » 1
« +
>Jj
Pe[iF'ect
; « + 1 Sing.»
Sa. 1
~d.P
- - - - · - N p · / - /S
/
/
V8
)
1
(
V
/
/1
1
Jas rn
6a.1
NP
J
;'1
(-;', +
1
Present
1<, +
/
'
PeI' F'ect »
1
1«+ 1 P.Sing.,,)
' -

---

NP
s
.
230
Pd.P
j
~J Dm. Pr ed.
N
1
1
[ -« + 1 p. Sin 9 • »)1
bu:!,
« - [mph »
.J
8a.1
e~ ++ Jmman;"nt »1
L
1 P'Slng"j
-~-~====--
(')d
S
IVP
~~d.P
)
1
j
____ V8~
!
da
V
NP
G<+
y
facti V<9r-" + 1 P.Sing·\\\\f
bu :r
<-<-- [mph >,
F+ P!'os Gnt
J
>~
1'< +
l
Jinman ~nt);
9a.1
L<,·+ 1 r- ,Slng.»)
- -
s
NP
)
Adj,Pred.
J
Sm t

---

10a. 1
- - _ _ . _ S __________
NP
1
1
1 PoSin . "» !
g
tmph '>).
i
• _J
NP
s ____________
1
Pd.P
AuxoG
1
VP
1
ilB
1
Present
")1'
dura ti Ve '>
1 PoSin 0
») ,
0
."
J
NP
)
s ~-
' pd • P
1
-------vp
1
Aux.G
Va
da? m
d ur a ti v 8"
l
Presont ")
f
1 Po Sin 9 • '> 1

---

3a-2
s-~
NP
~Dd.P
238
.
Aux.c
1
. _----V8~
V
Np
1
1
Vs t
5
1
1
S~~d.r
--~------------!
Aux.c
)
_ _ _ _ _ _
lIB______
NP
li
1
!
S
1
Vst
1
dm m
i
Aux.c
J
1
na
!
[
+ S cl p
l§-
dœ m
1
Pormis si v G))
_,
l......

---

6a.2
rvP
s_~
239
Pd.P
-1
1
Au~. c
V8
1
l/s t
NP
S~dOP1
,q u >< • G
rv Dm. Pr cd.
1
N.
1
bu:r
~< + Immanent »~/I
1<" + 1 P.Sing.,,)·
-
..J
NOm.Pred.
1
)
J
« + 1 PoSgO';1
bu:r
) (, - (mp/1
J
'»

---

9a.2
________ -s _,_
NP
--------
.-
Pd. P
- - - - - 1
---
Aux.C
Adjectival-PD8d.
1
Adj
)
S é8 t
-
";l
P • Sin g" l
c. +
Imma n ent
.
1
Emp")}
J ..
lII + 1 P.Sing.-~J
10a.2
_ _ _ _ _ _ S _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
-------- \\
Aux.C
Adj.Prad.
j
Adj.
1
S aJ t
1-
1
P.Sing.,;,\\
\\
P r e s ent <: -1
1 "
+
1"
1 •.
+ Ps r ec t
ë
'J
\\
1(.+ 1 P. Sin 9 •~~ J
L--
After this operat00n ue apply to 1a.2 - 10a.2 the
Pers.af-Scgment transformation.
This oporation uill gGnerate
the r.markers 1éJ.3 -
108.3 oi vcn b e Lo u-
Suppose at this stage,
us al so apply the folRouing other Auxs-placomGnt-transformation,
nam81y Aux-Vs and A.T.Auxs.

---

241
\\ \\
Cap
\\
Tc:nSG
\\
déC rn
\\
y
[[13
da
Pl' CS ont ~,l\\
\\
'.<. 1 p.Sing '1
t:
~
dur ç.Jti v'" )'i\\
-. + 1 Sin 9 "3
1
F+ Nomina t i va ',' \\
\\
_.
. ' j
1
I\\v+
p.sing~)1J
5 - - - - -
NP
\\\\
\\
\\
\\
\\<1..+ Pl' 65 " ' );\\
\\LL + dur a t ~ v 0 7~ ;
1
1 r. 5 i n 9 . )7';;>
\\ /i.+
L

---

s
2~2
NP
Pd.P
1
VS
1
Aux. Vs
/
- ~
Cop
,is P. V
V
)
j
/
/
ma
j!J
dm m
de
b'o g g
[<H 1 p. Sin9 .)8
f
-1
+ Pr 2 S Gnt'>;.
. : 1
P.Sing.»
J
l ,,-,+
i n t E'n t ive)
1.-
4' a.3
s
NP
riux. ~\\
Vs
V
-----~ ~uxs
A.T.
Pcrs.af
~~Tense
R ts ï»,
//
1
1
/
J
[<<.+ 1
ma
. dm ln
p. S in 9,>~b·c?gg
_1
r-rcs c n t ) ;1
r~ +
+
lr<,+ 1 p•Sin9"j
«
<"<-+N om )"
!
<~ +
/

---

·~
243
Pd • 1=-
---------.
Aux.C
------VB
v
Pcr s. a f
1
As ---------
p
lcnsC?
1
\\
1
1
fi
y1
d as m
Perm is"::i
1 poSin g,;/
•
1
SlVC-')'>i
~
Nom ),>
j
6a.3
________. - - - S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
---
Aux.C ---------------VB)
\\
j~ux.a fs
--------
V
Pers.Gf
---..
A.T.Auxs
~\\ S P
Tcnso
1
!
1
da: m
ma
11
--,
Present ,;-
lu+
Pcrfcct '7)
\\'+ 'j P. Sirig;l
l '..J. +
\\ -r.». r • J n m
!
\\_
'
1:
I l ) )
1
1 Il+
1
P.SinQ)
1
....J

---

- - - - - - - - - - - S ~
__
/\\/P
1
~
Pd.P
.-:lux.G
Aux.V s
-.
"'----------
Nom. Pr cd
Aux.ars
\\1
-.
N
A.T. iiuxs
.i->: <.
Ît.s p
T cnS8
j
ma
)
f1
t-: 1
f1
p. Sin g"'j Ir (+
bu:r
('+
r:l<'<i-immanent'>,
s ~.
j
_ - -_ _~c1. p_______
Aux.G
Nom.PrGcI
.Iux. Vs
~.
Aux.ars
---------- "<.
Pers.ar
,i.T.Auxs
N
/
T, on 3 8
i
i
1
ma
~
,0
/
f3
f~<.+
bu:r
Present
'1
immanc:nt \\,

---

9 a • 3
/\\IP
_ _ _ _ ~__,1UX.~
s
,qux.U
ilux.Bfs
J
-~
1
il.T.Auxs
Adj
/1,
)
----
asp
""tensG
da
j
ma
)
)
%
jJ
SêJJ t
e: 7 P.Sing,;i
1
Nom
'>,
J
Present>;l
['+
lO a.3
-<.\\ +
immanc:nt» 1
.-.1
NP
- - s ~
,
1
1
/
-----
--
Pers. ar
f1 • T .liu xs
1
1
Adj
------~
Rsp
Tcnsc
1
)
,0
Nom.,
0i + Presont,,--
J
1 <~+ 1 P.Sing >'

---

246
The strings gencrotcd at this Ievei arc as follows:
1 •
damaY
dac rn
2.
.:~ a r; 9 i ma y
cJœm
" -
3.
* da
bOc·gg
ma
dac m
<»
4.
u:
.... !:J0~Q 9
ma
d a:J m
--
5
~ na
ma
d a:J m
6.
* ma
da::! m
7.
* ci}',n
ma
bu:r
8.
* day
ma
bu :r
9.
dama
s sct
10.
* ma S éD t
It ap oc ar s t ha t
oxccpt 1 and 9 ai i
ot~',er s e ot enc e c
arc ungrammatieai.
The rcason is that syntacticaIIy some
r oar r a nq cm on t
is n cc cs s ar y ,
The o d d i t y of the :Jcntcnccs givcn
)bOVE
Can bc:
cxplaincd as under:
Whcn a~Qi oecurs in 2 sentence the Pers.af. is to bc
LJhen UL:T2 is no Copula (da/afJgi),
Pers.
af and
'-.-"
tcnsE arc shiftcd onto the Verbe
But whcn thcrc is a Modality
~<+ Permissive" or <..<.., + f a c t i vc» thG Pers oaf is t r aris f e r nrl to the
Modality node.
N~tice that Cop and Md.segment/are mutually exclusive.

---

Uh G n the r c: i s n Gi the r
i-\\ u x i I i a r y n 0 r
~1 0d é3 lit Y _2 4'Î
Permissive
t ncn , the va carrics the r=crs.af. and Tcnse.
lJc c a n pre die t
t hI' e c pat ter ns :
(A)
Occurrence of Copula-Vcrb
in S.
(8)
ûc cu r r cnc o of rlodality <....Self
Pcrmissivo ."or <-, + f ac t i vc ').
(C)
Abs cnc c of both s Lern e n t s ,
Thus in Patt ern
A:
- i f t h G -C0 pu l a i s
da, i t
pr G C e d G S a I l o t h c r
au x.i Li ar Lr s ,
-if tho ~opula is a~gi,it folloss
the Pers.af which
in
turn b e c crnrs the lc;:ft-most mcmb cr o f
t~ux.C.
In
Patt cr n B:
- the
P eT s • a f.
i s
a IlJ a y s
a t tac h cd'. fi 0 t hi s
rl0 d al i t Y-:-
nodc a s
its right-daughtcr.
In
Pattern C:
"':thcrcis n ei t lc r
Cop nor Md.nodc.
The Frcdicatc,
nominal or
ver!~al, precedes the Pers. a f . and Tcnse-m.
But
thGSC affixes romain as
left sister
of the verb, i f the
sentence i3
of this structure
;
! i t
is t
subj Ect-+ who
+ VP.'
For
cxamp Lc t
ri'a :
la:! : k ~,
ç; a n El : r
9 i
~
rers.af. Vst~ N~.obj .. it is(Iluho atc the chickcn.
In order to complete
the derivation of 2-8 and
10,
wc have to apply affix-hopping transformation.
This
will gcnGrate the
following P.markers,
namely
28.4,
3a.4,
68.4, 1a.4, 8a.4 and 108.4.

---

NP
"---~'"
PEr.af.
COp
v
1
1
)
ma
angi
1
--::...-
1
dêB m
Pr cs cnt ») --\\,
« + durati V6 -,> 1
3a.4
1 P.5 ing:'f
5
)
----------Pd.P
~ ~
1
Aux. V
~8
"';ux.~r
[
.i>: !~q ·LAux
1
Cop
PETS_ar as o , V.
asp
tonsc
V
1
1
1
I i i
da
ma
f6
,0
da::: m
)~ +
.')
in ton t iVE '1
/"+
/
,
l~+
<,
Î
p. Sing;,>J

---

2~9
NP
1
1
v
-
Vs--
'""'----
t
'--,
MUX. èH
---_._~
Pcrs.aF
A.T.Aux
1
/
.-----------"'"
A sp
T cnse
1
d a: m
m,a
l
~«+
4-' 1
;1
p~ l
Pr cs on
[
t~)1 Si ng ~-JI
'..:+
PET F8Ct»):
~<+ 1 P.Sing"
1
.J
s -____________
Ni
~d.P
1
r~om. Pr ed
----
N
----------------, '
il u x. G
.---.-----------. --... 1
riUx.V
11Ux.df
---- ~
1
Pers.aF
",LAux
1
i
_//~--
Cop
,;sp
Tcnsc
1
!
J
1
)
1
i
1
!1
bu t r
d j:n
ma
c:-'- 1 p. Sing »i
i« +
1
1
F:;Sing.,
L~ PreseniL, !
1
Î
.:~+
!-+
1
L.
Nom
" ' ;
immanenb·1

---

250
_
_ _---.4 S
~d.P
NP
--,.~
-- - -
/1 u x. G
-
---------
Nom.Prcd
---
J-1ux.af
!
/1ux. Vs
-------- 1 ~
.
1
,j.T.
X3
li u
Cop
Pers.af asp.V
/ " .
---------
" \\
/
/
N
asp
tcnsc.
1
1
1
1 )
\\
da
ma
y
bu:r
li
%
[,,+
r
1 P.SinQ";J'
1<', +
1 p. Sin Q ,,~
1'7.:+ 1 P.Sing>,
L<é,+ Nom
")
j
1,:<+ PrGsent"
1
1/,+ immanGnt~,-,
l_
s -_______----_.----.
0J P
Pd.P
!
:1d j. Pr Gd
- -
'-~
Adj,
ri u x .'G
\\
Aux.~fs
'~
j'\\ • T.
~ u xs ,
I~
T, cns 8
S ----
P
)
1
1
sœ t
ma
%
$
l' + ~rGSGrit~t'+ 1 r.Sing,~J
L"
P•
+ 1.
Si n[Pj!M NOm "

---

251
Yct, it would still be an ~ddity to QGnorats strings like
4 n,sn,
6 rI,
7 "
an cl 1 0" •
r<
4"
~
b·êg gma
déS Olt
--
"-
Sil
"*
riarn a
déP't'R
6 n
* d eo mma
7 11
* bu:rma
1 0"
* saB tma
NOlJ, if lJe aSsumE that aIl o t h er r cqu.i r ad transformations, such
as morphophonemic rulc transformations havE bccn applicd,
wc
obtain the follawing P.markGrs lJhich are the surface structure
tr8o-diaCjrams of i~, 5, 6 and 7.
s -------_.-----
NP
--Pd.P
---~._--
f~ u x. G
------_
-------
---------
VB
..
aUx.V
aux.afs
~-----
Pers.af
A.T.Auxs
~~~,
A s p
T, oris G
\\,0
dcc :m
r~,+
f{< + 1 P.Sin gj
(.c.+
1
,L+

---

5a.5
s
252
r'ld
NP
----------?d.P
------_.
rlux.C
-----vs
\\
riux.afs
-- -.
PE 11 ----
s • a f
--------
,~ . T • ,1 U XS
--------. - '<,
»>
<,
1
I~SP
Tens E3
l,
\\
1
\\
\\
déG m
na:
o
0
6a.5
_ _ _ _ _ .- S
_ _
NP--------
Pd.P
V8
1
v
Vs t
---------
---
---------------.
I~ U X • d f s
rJ
--
P cr s • a f ---- ---....
f\\ • T • Ii u x
.> ~
/ /
"-
MSP
TonSe
dœ m
na:
'--
P.SingJ'i«+ Perfcct;,. ...Pr cs cn t
1
(1
+ Fr CS C nt '"
..-11_
_.' L.
1 {'. + Pcr fe ct),
"+ 1 P.Sing

---

7a.5
s
______
NP
253
- - - - -
------------
,-Jd.P
1
Pn
fl1om. Pr cd"
-~
ijUX·Gf
1
--~--~----
.~
1
!
Pers.af
~.T.~uxs
1
.i-> "<,
1
rlSp
Tensc::
%
bu:r
la,
1c-, + Immanent!
Ie-. immanent.j
1.,_ + 1 p. Si <«.. 1 P.Si ng.:}
1,'+ P'CB En t j
10 a. 5
--
NP ~~
,1 u j . Prad.
-
......
Adj. --
-,
--
'\\
l4ux.Jif
P c::r s. a f
--------..
ri. T./4u XS
!
!
.> '\\
I~ sp
T cnsc;
1
1
na:
'(/ +
i . Pr cs en t )~-i
p. Sing.,!
Fe» r cet ','
j
c:
1
L~
7 p. Sin 9 .",1

---

11.2.0.7
Tcns c .i s mar k ed by /
,0 / for the P} e s e n t t s ns c ,
):n
far th2 ~8st tcnsc.
M vcrb may carry differ€nt
syntactic aspect markers at
once,
for
cxample,
«non-pcrfcct '»
and
-c... habitual » .
Tan s c and aspc=ct markers
may be attached to the main
verb aS wc=ll aS to the Auxiliary group in SurfacE structure.
The aspect «( -P6rfGct-;.,>is .i n df c a t cd by the pr c s sn c c
of
y
or its allomorph di •
The aspect ('. + p er r e c t '»
is unrna rk ed .
The aspect «: + habitual»
is marked by rn c an s of
1
addition of
«( -pcrf['ct'»
t o the mo r ph em a of f'u t u r e ,
All thesG markers of tcnsc Or aspect arc placed in
~ux.C in deep strucUEe , prcceding V.
In s ur fac c s t r uc t ur r t hcy
may bc movEd around the: V by Way of transforration.
The trans-
formation that mOVGS t h cs e affixes around the V Or s orn a t i rnr-s
r8arrangc the: order amidst the Aux~C is known as Flip-Flop rule
t r xns t or-ma t i on ,
Consider the following sentencGs:
da fay
dœ m
-:Jrilar
is going
2.
)mar
da fad",): n
d éD m
::Jmar
uas going
---_.-.._. _.'_._._.._'.... - .-._ _-- -----_.,,-- ,--_.------_._,---_._-_.-.---
"
..
1.
Future is syntactica11y signalized by morphophoncmic trans-
formation which brings alteration of the Pers.af.

---

-,.,
255
3.
jmar
danay
d eo m
~\\mar
gOGS (usua11y)
4-
Jmar
d an ad): n
dae m
'lmar
us s d to go
5.
)mar
dana
dao m
jmar
LJi 11 go
6.
)mar
da fa
dae m
-)mar
has gono
7.
-jmar
c.iaJ rnna
Jtnar
h as
gon 0
8.
-)ma r
da fa
dre m'):n
-)mar
had
gone
9.
:)(Tl a r
d2Bm-:\\:nna
jma r
had gonc
If LJG compare 7 and 9,
b o t h havl/+ Perf8ct;».
Tho
difforcncc is that 7 is <,<'+ pr cs ent » LJhcrcas 9 is ",+ past).
This is s ho un
b y
the formative
):n LJhich is inserted in the
VB daemna.
Frescnt-tense rnar-k c r
i8 a z cr o
mo r phorn n ,
uh cr e as
Past-tŒnsc.: marker is
):n.
I\\JOLJ,
c ornpa r o 1 and 2.
Wc can assort that the
structures of 1 and
2 ar o r s s p ac t Lv r Ly as f o Ll o us t
1.
')mar + d'3faY + Pr c s orrt
+ da:; m
2.
")ma r
+ da fa d i
+ pas t + dao m
contrary to 7 and 9,1
and 2 ara <',-
pcrEect» ..
This
foatur G
is indicatod by the presence of ths
formatives y and di
(Note
that y and di a r c al1omorphs of
Porfcct _ aspect mo r p h em o ,

---

256
This
enablcs us
to say that
1 and 3 have both
Yc::t thcrc is
a differcnce b c t uc c n 1 and
3.
3 has
<.< + hab i tua l '/:>
LJ hi l e : 1 ha s c, - hab i tUa h
1 •
)mar
+ da
- habitIjal+Pns.a f - j'::erfEct + present
+ d CE m
3.
.::lma r
+ da
+
.hab i t.ua Le Ps r s c a f
- Perfcct + PrGsent
+ d a; m
On the other
h and , lEt us
comfarE.'
3 and
5.
kt the s t.r u c t.ur c-T ev c L,
they
co n t.r a s t
by
the absenCe?
of non-pcrfect-aspect- markcr.
NevnthelGss,
the absence of y in 5 d o os
not imply
that
5
has c-: + Prsr f e c t s-; ,
HOLJ arc thes6
fcatuDcs
handloG in surface structure?
Let us
c cris i d cr resPl2 c tiv(!lY1_9 a Lr cad y given
abovc:
1
~'maI'
dafay
dac m
~
)mar
is
going
Wc assume that this sentence has the folloLJing undcrlying
P.markcr
la.
s
_
1 a.
NP---------
Pd .fl
Aux.C
------
_.~-----_.
Vr-
1
!
Au x. V
1
1
da
dao m
,_.-
"1
\\". + Present )'1
(1<'- Pcrfcct.:i
L.
..J

---

257
To 13 Wo apply what WG refer to aS ~spcct-Tenso-Auxiliary
transformation.
This transfprmation consists of crcating a
segment which will account for all syntactic featur2s of tenso
and as p c c t .
This lJill gcneTatc 1b q.i v cn b e.l cu t
1b
-~--
------
---
-----"--.
~j p
Pd. iJ
- - - -
._---.....
---------
fiux.C
----.vp
1
- .~--- ---~ -----.----
i~ U x. V
dua;(.af
va
\\,
\\
h.T.aux
v
1
-------
gsP
-------
Tcnsc
1
da
uao rn
Tho next stcp is a copying transformation.
This operation
transfCTS all fcaturcs of tcnSE and aspoct of the verb onta
A.T.3ux SegmenL
If wc assume that the lexical pass has
oPcratcd,
this u i Ll, qi v c 'l c ,
1 c
_____-----5
_______
NP
Pd.P
----_..---- ----------_..
Aux.C
VP
.--------- _._------
Aux.V
rlux.~f
v
------
Pcrs.;r
-------
~.T.aux
1
i1s p~'--~':;c~sc
;
~
da
fa
dEG on
\\ <"
+ Pr oS en t
')
1
ii« - Pnr f cc t ».

---

2.
)mar
dafad):n
~
jmar
was going
258
In thE 8amB way, Wc aSsum8 that the undcrlying
P.markGr of 2 is 2fa.
2a.
5
~--- -------
._--------
NP
- Pd.P
,__---~-------
1
Aux.C
VP
\\
!
Au x. V
V
\\
)mar
da
da; m
'\\- <: + Pas t
'»
- \\
1., -
Pcr f G C t, ~J
Th Gap pl i c a t i nn 0 f A. T. Au xs
transformation will gcnGratc 2b.
2b.
s
I\\IP _._--------
-------Pd.P
-" ---_..- -" --
------------
Au x. C
VP
--
.-------
---------.
l
Au x. V
Au x. a fs
VB
~~
.>/---
"'-
Pers.af
A.T.af
V
-~
Asp
TonsG
')mar

---

Then by
the e ame
procedure of copying-transformation and
259
lexical Pass we generate 2c.
2c.
s
_---_._--------_._-
---_._---------
..
-------
.
NP
.---..-- Pd. P
------"----1
• • • _ -
- - - -
. - . - - - - - -
1
Aux.G
VP
Aux.\\j-------- ~
Aux.cH
---- _---------......--.....-......
..
P BI' S • a f A . T • Au x
V 8
.i->:"
1
1
\\
1
As P
T en se 1
1
1
V
da
3.
~)mar
danay
d ce : m
:::;
Jma r
9 0 e s
(u s u a Il y )
give n the
underlying P.marker of 3 which f o Ll.o us :
3a.
~ s
f'J P
Pd.P
- - - - /
1
Aux.C
VP
1
1
Aux.V
da
da8 rn
c • +
Pres ent_)
1
1
v+ habi t.u a I 'J

---

We apply
A.T.Auxs-transformatioil in: o r d n r to generate 3b
260
which f'o Ll o us ;
3b.
_ _ _ _ S
•
_
--------
NP
------Pd.P
-
-..-----_.-
- - - 1
Aux.G
VS
---------~
\\
Aux.V
,Cux.af
1
______.-~
V
We:C ; • a f'
A. T • a f"
.4------~- --""
IIsp
Tense
da
dcs m
l" + Pr esent >;J~]
L<" + ha bit ))
Then to 3b, we apply the copying-transformation.
Th1~
Operation will generate 3c.
3c
s
NP---.-----
--------Pd.P
Au
1
---------
x. C
-------VP
!
-----------. ----
\\
Aux.V
Aux.afs
VS
1
.------------ ~
Pers.af
A.T.Aux.
1
3 P>::rs/i;' + hab i t » . \\\\+
dm . m
\\,
\\
"
S ·
1
ln 9 .>':> : :", +
pr o c e s s.]
.. -

---

Fina11y, replacing the segments by words From the lexicon
we q en e r a t a 3f.
261
3f.
_ - - - - - - - - S '____--------
-
NP
-------Pd.P
---_._-----. --
Aux.C
----VP
,Cl, u x. -------
V
--------
Au x
\\
.4H s
va
--------
Pers.af
-----
A.T.Auxs
~""
Asp
Tense
V
1
,
1
\\
'Jmar
da
0
~
na
y
déS
m
<:»:
1
1
« +
3 r.s 91F+ hab L-. \\\\..+ pr es en t}(«+ present '»
l<+ habi bJ! tuaI "; \\
i
1 (,+
habituaI"
1':+ pr 0 c e s s..
L
-'
4.
dan ad') : n d ae 0\\
==
j 111 a r u s e d
t 0 go
4 will
differ From 3 simply in the sense that the
vsrb in 4 has u+Past -:»
featurs
Then its terminal P.marker
would be 4a.
4a.
~
----_s ._________
NP
Pd.P
--------
Aux.G
-------VP
Aux. .---"
V
-----
.
,D.ux.llfs
1
1
va
i
---------
Fers.af
-----
A.T.Auxs.
---'------.
1
iisp
Tense
1
1
1
jmar
da
na
d
:;>:n
Pasb '
\\ (+
,
Past»
!
1 t(T
habit j~
L_

---

5.
jmar
dana
da:m
=
YTIar
will go
262
~8 assume that the underlying P.marker of 5 is 5a.
5 a •
..-----~-----
r\\IP
PcI.P
---~_. -----
--------.
---
-----..
Aux.C
VP
1
V
da
G<+ future
1~+ 3 P.Sing.»)
Ta 5a WB apply A.T.Aux-segment transformation.
This operation
ge neratc:;,5b.
5b.
_ - - 5
NP
-------
,({ux. C
~"---- <,
~"~'--...
.-"
'
V
Au x. \\!
,\\ u x .dH s
N
\\
1
i
1!
da:~ll
",mar
da
'-'

---

263
Then, we apply to Sb the rlsP8ct-Tense-copying transformation.
This operation generates Sc.
Sc.
___-5
-------
---
-----~-
I~P
Pd.P
_._.-------- _.-------
-----
riu x. C
VP
----------
\\
~ux.V
------
Aux.afs
V
- - ' - - '
---_.
-----
N
PGrs.af
A.T.Aux
\\
\\
~~
Asp
Tense
\\
1
\\
1
\\
~mar
da
déBr- m
' J '
Fu tu r e,;-j
)
Past ,-,
1
-'
The next transformation to be app~ied is the lexical paSs
This
operation generates sr .
_ _ _ 5
Sf.
--------
I\\JP
-------Pd.P
..----------
Aux.G
--------Vp
1
.u x. V
.;ux 3\\f s
V
------- -----..
Persoaf
ri.T.auxs
_-_.----_
..
...~,
iisp
Te ns e
\\
1
r:mar
d ,:E".
da
m
na
~
0
'-'
«+
Futur e ~.

---

d a f a
d 038 m
=
~, ma r ha s 9 0 ne.
NOlJ,
consider
the sentence 6.
We assume t ha t
I t s underlying
P-mark sr is 603:
603 .'
_ 5 - __
-----------
NP
~-----------Pd.P
.-
_......-----
-----------
rlux.C
VP
1
,"lu x - V
)mar
da
~'
lr-:;,'+ Pres nt,l
e
)"\\
";+
Per f set ,,;>~.i
We will apply the Aux.af-segment transformation to 603 in
order to
generate 6b~
6b.
~_ _----_s
[~ p
------.-Pd.P
- - - - - -----
!:\\ux.C
---------
VP
1
~ux.V
------,/\\ux.'lfs.
vs
Per s . ----'--
a f ,
-----
Ii • T. Au x
)
v
/----------~
Asp
Tanse
~,mar
da
Pr es ent -,)
Per fect ,>

---

265
To 6b WB apply now the Aspect-tense-copying transfGrmation.
This operation will generate the P.markers 6c givEn below:
6c.
s
NP
---
.------
-------------Pd.P
.----_.---_.._-_.._.
,~ux.C
------VP1
I~U x. -----
V
------HUx.afs
Vs
------- ..-- -------
P er s. a f A . T • Au x s
---~
I~SP
Tense
jmar
da
c,;,+ Perfectj~ PresentJ
In arder ta g8nRrRtp 6, W8 have to replace the segments Pers-af j
Aspect and Tanse by words From the lexicon.
This ge~erates 6d.
6d.
NP
Pd. P
----- -
---
..-----------
------
Au x. C
---------
Aux.V
--------------,Aux.cafs
VS
____- -
1
P er s . a f
I~ T • f~ u xs ,
V
•
-~-~
Asp
Tense
l1
da
fa
>6

---

7.
) mar
d ê€
rn.na
= 'jmar has 1 e ft
266
Let us
assume that the und~rlying P.marker of 7 is 7a.
7 a.
s
NP -------- '--.----------- Pd.P
Aux.G
------- vP
1
1\\]
va
1
v
1
d E9~'m
)mar
f«+ Pr8Sent..,;l1
<~ + Perfect -s-, 1
1
To 7a we apply the Aux.af-segment transformation, cenerating 7b,
7 b •
s -_____
_.---------
NP
--------Pd.P
1
AuxoG
-----
. '
\\
---------- .---- VP
\\
1
['1
Aux.af
Va
.i>: -------.
Pers.af
A.T.Aux
...-------"""-"
/
Asp
Tense
)mar
da:/\\m
i (" + 3 P8 r s. '>;
1
v,
-t
S g. »

---

267
Then WB 8Pply th~ aSpect-tense-copying transformation to ?b.
This operation generates ?c.
7c
------ ----s
-----.-------
-------_..------ --
NP-
Pd. P --
_
,'r,ux..C.
\\JP
1
;'~ux.dfs
va
----...-.
A.TJ:ux
»>:
~ ...-
f\\sp
Te r1 SE
1
! ('.+ Per fset
",
déB m
-.'
i "-+ Pr es r:;nt,;
\\1,,+ Pe r f s c t ...,,;
i('.+
3 P. S g '-:_,i
This time, W0 havE to 3Pply Flip-Flop rule tran5form~tion. Thenj
applying lexical pass, we gEnerate finally 7d.
?d
____.________________ S
~I P
Pd.P
,
vP
V8
1
___-------- - - - - - _. V __
N
Vst
Rux.êfs
1
--
-------
A..T.Auxs
Pers .<tH
1
- -- --'
------------
1
Asp
Tense
1
1
,
!
:)11 :.' r
daem
yJ
n~
i «(+
Pr es ent >_:~
/<'+ Per f se t» 1
1/1 +
3 p. S 9"
L.'
8
_-~'TJ"'r
hQld Le f t
SentencE' 8 LJould havE the s arn e cierivatiOM like 6, u i t h " cJiffer-
snCE that in 8, the Flip-Flop transformation dOes not mOVE ths
Pers.àf.
Its terminal P mr- r-k s r
would b a rather 8a.
Ba
__
---.
. - - - - -
NP
1
!
l';
1
;
Pers .àf
Vst
c4Sp-
'.lfI12r
\\-;d P i'1 s t >-
\\ '(+
Per h>
l/~',+ 3 P .Sg.>

---

268
Similarly, 9would have lh 8 same derivation like 7,
exc8pt the
differencE of tense-marker.
Lt s terminal P.marker
uou Lo be 9~.
s -----
-----..-
NP
----
-
~- ----Pd.P
\\
VP
1
V8
---------..
V -----
Aux.~fs
--- ----,
A.T.Auxs
Pers.af
1
Asp
Tense
1
1
dcs m
na
rH Pas t" -)l+ Per f eet:il:c+ Past"J
L'+ Per fecft»
~
After this analysis,
it appears that the following
conclusion can be arrived at:
Conc~rninç the plaCEment of aspect-marker and tense-
marker, two pos2ibilities c~n be identified:
~.
Occurrence of ~uxiliary in the sentence
B•
Abs an cc of Auxiliary in the s nn t eric a.
In
either CaSE,
3spe.ct-marker a Lua y s precedes
tense-marker,
In B, aspect-marker and tense-marker are suffixed to the verb.
In A, two possibilities exist:
A1
the sentence has /.'.... Por f e c t «
feature
1~2
the sentence d o e s not have ':_>~ Perfect ,:' feature.

---

In J11 the aspect-marker and the tense-marker are s u f f Lx ed ~§9
the main verbe
NoticE' that <.<+ Perfect'))
as .wel l
3S <<..+
Present-.·,
are rnar k r.d by zero mlJrp~M"'1..
In A2,
b ot h aspect-marker and
t en su-rnar k er are suffixed to
Au xi l i ar y ,
An f~2-case,
if the sentencE has c + hab i t.u a l > feature,
tense-
marker rnay indifferently precede or follow aspect-markers.
Note that it is the only case in whi~h tense-marker precedes
aspect-marker.
II.2.D.8
Flip-Flop rule in Env
adu-place and /
or
In the next stage to be analyz6d, we envisage the
occurrence of hdverb of place and /
or Pronomin3lized NP-Object
in t'hE sentence.
Let us
consider the following sentence 10-12.
1 fJ •
xa l éE
Yi
d an u d ~\\: n
j"é~·e·t
9 a r a p
ca
da: r a
j a
the children WErc planting tree at the school
1 1 •
x a la e
y i
da"nu fa d ") : n
JËt~ °8t
g a r a p
the children werc planting there tree
1 2.
xa 1 a 8
yi
dan u k .: f ad) : n
j'som b'e"t
the chi~drcn wcrc plùnting it therc
10-12
are underlined by the P.marker 10-ao

---

10a.
270
---- s '-
r~p ----.--
------Pd.P
-- ---- - --_._---"------_.=~~:.=-_._- -- ..~----
i\\
l~uz:.G
----
------
VP
pp
1\\
\\
1
i
:\\
/
1 \\
\\
Aux. V
va
1
\\
1
1
,
----
v
--NP\\
! \\
1
1
\\
N
\\
!
\\
\\
1
\\
/ \\,
1
\\
•
1
.'--
----l.
1
xalae yi
da
q ar ap
ca d a :r a j-a
Past ',;
'-\\
'J,. -
Perfect>;
3 Pers.,,;
'.', -r Plu r
.,~
10 and 11 arc r(?lated b y a substitution of an a d vs r b of plaCE
fOr the Pr e po s i t Loria I
phrase~
Ca
d a er a
ja
11
and 12 are related by a pronominalization of the NP-object
garap,/ k)a
lt appears that in 11 the adverb has b8en inserted in the ~ux.Co
Simil a r l y , in 12, the pronominalized object has been inserted
in the Aux.G.
We
mon t i on that ObjEct precedes Adv.
Notice that in I ûb ,
and 10c given bElolJ,
the strings
genBrated are ungTammatical sentences.

---

271
1 Ob °
___
-__'
'. -
S
Pd oP
_.---------------_.
--,._'_._._--._-_---::~---
vr
Mdv
iluxoG
!
/
1
1
NP
1
/
/
!1
~,
°
Xd~ëI:' yi
da
jÈ:1n béat_
fa
" _ . " .
:.. + Pas t ;>.~
\\
J
/
"- PerfecL,
1
~,+ + 3 ~8!'S 'j'.-
l "<." Plu!' »J
i__
b 0t
O
9 a r a p
fa
-Ho
l
.
d -.; d .
.o.•
X3
<3IE' y.i
anU-:J. n
3C?CJ_ e
1 DCa
s ___
~--'~
NP
PdoP
'.
.. _._--:-
-..~
-------
.,..."""
..
-_....-
.....
...
liu x-~ê
VP
i~d v
1\\
\\
i
/
i
V
va
I~ u X 0
...-/.-/-'~
v
NP
U
1
1
fa
xal~ yi
da
j ê'r~.!l8·t
1
"+ Past).
t...' -
Pel' fect »)j
J
'.',+
3 Pers.»}11
» /
'dPlu r o
-1

---

*" x a l go
Yi
d é-,n u d -) : n
j"(="~'G't
k )
fa
272
In order to Qenerate 12, a rearrangement-transformation is
necessary •
This will attach ~dv and Obj to ~ux.G in different steps.
Yet
i f the P• ma r kerg en e r at['~ -Er i n 9 s l i k e 1 2a- b , i t !.JO ul d b e
ungramrratical.
12-a * xaI œ
yi
Jembët
'-..,'
12-b .;p xalao
yi
danud~):n
ra
k)
Je~·8·t
Tho rearrangement-transformation should insert these elements
in front of asP~ct and tensr: markers, !.JhilG keeping their
original arder given in the underlying
P.marker.
Thus !.Je uould have the P.mark~r 12c.
1 2c.
_ - - - - - 5
-----
NP
----------Pl~.P
/\\ux.
1\\
-------
G
-------VP
1
\\
---------------....
~u~.V
Aux.~fs
' , - - - - - - 1 - - - -
Pers.af
Case
,1.T.,iuxs
VB
1\\
/ \\
1
Asp
Tanse
V
!1 \\\\
!
\\.
'"
x a l.as :' yi
da
nu
fa
d
r+ Pa stl
C"+ ri cc:J~ Pl a c E?+.. Pcr f cetl
Ϋ+ Past
...J -
.'
i
!"-
rd 3 Pers. >
-\\ Plur
J
~'­
>'
1
r.,

---

Consider now the following sentênc~ 13-15:
273
1 3.
x a l a3
Yi
j"ê91.b·o·t ) : n n an 0
9 a r cp
ca
daoJ'a
.j a
the childrcn
had planted a iree in the school
xalae
yi
."
b'e't
-
k
J e m o _):nna nu )
Ca
da:ra
ja
.~
the chi1drcn had planted it at the schuo1
thE childr8n had plantcd it thero
13-15, 1ik8 10-12, are re1atcd by adverb-substitution-transfor-
mation and NP-objoat pronomin~lization-transformation.
The d i f f.er crtc c b8tLJEen 10-12 and 13-15 is that in
the lattor Case thore is e, + Perfoct,,;>
a s p c c t .
If We compare the initial P.marker 158 and thE
terminal P.markcr 15b of the derivation of 15, it appears
that ub sn t.h e r o is ('-., + Perfoct»
aspect and if t hur c is advnb-
substitution and object pronominalization, therc is rcarrango-
mont of the t uo br arich es
of Au xv e f s ; aftcr Aux.af.hopping
h as t ak cn plac::.
Initial P.marker 15a.
___- - - - - . - S
.
NP
______ Pd.P
-
Aux.G - -
!
VP --------P~
1
i
rlux.afs
VB
- - - - - - - - <,
»>
1 PGrs.af
M.T.~uxs
V
~J P
/\\
------- "\\
i
asp
Tinsc
\\
1
1
1
i.
.,.
\\
\\
i
.•. b··t
x a l œ y i
nanu + Pcrfcct + Past
garap
ca da:JB j El
Jorn_.e

---

torminal-P.markor
1 5b •
Il/1
1
v
»>
Vst
------------IAux.af
-------
IA.T.Auxs
------.
Par s . a f ~: n
.i->: <,
As p
To ns o
1
/
1
___l
i
\\
-,.
xala:;yi
". b
~
na nu
k~)
fa
J
··t
am G
'---'
~t
We Can now rEstate the conclusion arrived above.
<
marker tuo possibilitics can bc prcdictcd:
rl-
~n Auxiliary occurs in the sentence
B-
There is no ~uxiliary in the sentence
For .-,cwo possibilitics arc predictilblla:'
;'-1.
the v cr b h,JS "'<..+ Perfcct »
foature:
r~- 2.
thc verb d o cs
not
have .(/. + Perfect,) fcaturc
If thc CaSé.- is ,:\\-1, t b c aspect-rnarkcr and the t cn s c-onar k er , aS
said previously, arc immcdiatcly suffixcd to the Main-Verb,
e x c cp t
uhcn the v r r b hasu+ncQativc »
f e a t ur c ,
in which c as c
they bccomG rightmost clements of the verb.
Wc k ccp i n mi nc1
that.« + Pcrfect)
and« + Present ':.»
arc markedi by ~ero-morphemc.
If the case is ~-2, We may have tuo structural descriptions:

---

27~
~-2.1
aspect-mark[~ and tense-marker fnllow the Pers.af
as usual.
But if thore is the occurrGncc of advrrb of place
and /CJ:"
pr o nor.Lria.l i z cd c ob j r-c t; ,
as p c c t
and tensc-markers givc
up thcir place to thesc olements and follow thGm.
H-2.2
if the verb has <..', + habituaI» featurE,
aspect-marker and tcnsŒ-markcr may have tho distribution
indi c a t nd in 1~-2.1.
If not, the tonse-marker is inscrtod
right after copula-verbe
Then t hc aSPECct-markcr r ernai na ·in its
placo, or follows adverb of place and/or pronominalized objECct
to which it gives its place whcn they occur.
8 ut i f
the Ver b ha s ~-:'.+n cg a t ive '/» f ca t u r c:, aS pcc tan d t en s 0
markers arc preccded by the negation particle, itsclf inscrtcd
n d v rr b
bofore lOf place: and pronominalizod ob i cc t
uh c n thcY o ccur ,
In case B also two possibilities arc prcdictablc:
)
81.
vcrb has <z-+Positive-,,) fcature
82.
v cr b has/oL~+NcgativG »
fcaturc
In 01 ,aspect-marker and
tonsc-marker foilow
immcdi~tcly the verb-stom.
In 82, aspect-mafkcr and t c ns u-jnar k cr
aI'C tho
rightmost constituonts oF the Verb-segmcnt rcgardlcss of the
o c cur r o nc c or absencc' of adverb J of place and/or pror.ominali--
z o d ~JP-objcct.
Th e s c analyses c a n b r- presL:nte::d as
t oLl ous :
~J il + Co p + Por s + V u. ~ Por f ccL + (N cg) + 0 ire c t Pn)
+ (f~dv Place)
--~-~
NP+Cop+Pcrs +(Dir Pn)+(~dvPl)+V+(NGg)+Aspcct+Tcnsc

---

276
I\\IP + Cop+Pcrs. F!f+V~<noC'\\-pcrfcct-." +(Dir Pn)+
(Adv Place) -~
NP +
C0 p + r- crs + ( wi r
Pn ) + ( fi d v Pla c d +;~ s PB c t + Tc n s c+ V
NP+'~ux.af+Pcrs.af+V</. habiL> +(Dir Pn)+(ridv Place:)
::;,
(~JP+Aux. V+l=crs.i3f+(Dir Pn)+(Adv Placc)+/\\sp+Tense+V;
\\
(
)
,
'j
NP+j~ux.V+Tens8+Pors.af+(Dir Pn)+(P,d Placc)+,~sP+V i
',
.:
NP+ ,-\\ u x. V+P C'r s • El f + V«.\\ hab i t)
+ ( Ncg) + (0 i r
Pn ) + ( Ad v Pla c c ) -_.-";-'
~)p+riUX.V+(Nog) +Fors.af+(Oir Pn)+(Adv Pl acc)+,1sp+
T"nse+U
rl.lp+v<,."\\Posit» +(Dir
Pn)+(Adv glace)
-~
r'J P+ V+!~ s p +'J c n s e + P crs. a f + ( 0 i r P n ) + ( ,~d IJ Pl iJ c ,J
NP+V(~d'JGg;, +(Dir Pn) +("~dv Place)
';>
NP+V+~JGo+P8rs.af+(Oir Pn) +(Adv Place)+Asp+Tensc.
This
operation consists of deleting the NP Subjcct
in surfae" structuro.
Tt
is said
that transformations arc not meaning
changing.
This
assertion ercatcs a l i t t l c problcm ~hEn ~c
face
the syntactic bchaviour
of NP subjects in Wolof scntsnces.
What is i t ?
Let us considor the follo~ing sontGnec.1.
1 •
dafay
sangu
-:..../
)mar is
taking
bath.

---

"
277
s P.marker isas f o Ll cus ;
_----.s ________
N P ,
Pd.P
----
\\
AuX.G
VP
1
1\\dafay
WB Can apply the pronominalization-transformaiiGn ta
this sentence.
(Ws shall later deal with pronominalization-
transformation).
LGt us take it for grantGd that this operation
will geneiato 2~
2.
dafay
SafJgu
......'
«himis'tak ing bath)
the P.markGr of 2 is as follows:
~__-_s.
~J P
Pd. P
- - - - -
1
i~UX.G
VP
1
'dafay
,san,gu
Now if WB apply the so-ca1led NP-Subject d cl et i on t.r aris f or ma-
tion, ,it generatGs 3.

---

278
3
dafay
(he)
is taking bath
the P.markcr of 3 is as
follows:
-'----------
I\\J P
-----Pd.P
.------
AuXoC
------
\\
VP
1
:\\
Pn
1 \\
/ \\
1 \\
Let Us considcr 2 and
3.
Civcn the abovc dcrivation 2 and
3 arc undorlincd by
the
string 1.
Obviously thon,
thcrc would bc no diffcrcneo in
mcaning b8tW88n 2 and
3.
Contrary to this
oxpcetation, 2 and 3 arc felt aS eonvoying
differcnt values.
Aetu3lly 2 is perccivcd as convcying an cmphasis
loeatE:d on the c o ns t i t u o n t m~;:m (I\\JP-Subjcet).
In ot r.c r words,
m):m
d af ay
sangu
rn c an s :
he (emphasis) is b a t h.i n q -
lJhorcas
.._~
3 docsn1t carry the abovc mcaning.
dafay
sa~gu
means mcrcly
ho is b:thing -,
u.it ho u t
any ornph a s Ls .
Such Interpretation:
[l'J,:
no dciub t , is against Chomskyts./5t,']ndard t h oo r y ,
And if '-Je lJer:::
to kcop on advoeating thc abovc intorpretation wc uould bc
forecd
to justify the relation botlJGcn 2 and
3.

---

279
Tho possible answcr to this prob10m should bc aS
follows:
In order to conform to Chomsky's aCcurato assertion,
wc must think
that at first,
2 and 3 ar~ not underlincd by
acommon Ps rna r k e r ; s c co nd the dcrivation (1-2-3) is mislcading.
1 •
=)mar
dafay
salJgu
' - . /
2·.
m):m
dafay
safJgu
' - '
3.
d a f ay
safJgu
"--"
What should bc the alternative oxplanation?
Let us roconsidcr 1. This time, assumo that th~ pronominalization-
t r ans for mElt ion 9 en Gr a t c: s the f 0 Il 011,Î 9
P • ma r k e r
1 R.
.---- s----
.s->:
--------
NP ----
Pd.P
.
---------1
..---
Aux.C
VP
Pn
.' \\
1\\
1 ' / /
1
-'.
+ Pn
--\\
1 1
J ~
\\
« + 3 Sing
1
salJgU
Em p h a s is)~"~j
It follows that the r ca d i nç of Pn offcrs two possibilitios:
1 a. 1
Pn «-cmphasisJ} + (dafay sarjgu)
1 a. 2
Pn «+cmphasis~ + (dafay sang u)

---

280
1 a. 1
s
- - - - - - - - -
~-----------
NP
Pd. P
-.-.--------- 1
----------
:~ux.c
1
vp
Pn
/
(
defay
e mph a sis »: _1
and
1a.2 will
have the sPecifie
P.marker
givEn below:
S·
~JP -------------
Pd. P
1
;~ u x. C
Vr::
1\\
Pn
/\\
' - - - '
dafaY
sarJQu
Now i f wc replace
the
rn-scgm cnts by
words
From
the lexicon
1
1
u c ha v.:
1a.1
and
1 a. 2 •
1
1 a .1
~-- S ___-----
NP
p_1 P
_ _-~
t;.
_ - - - -
1
Aux.C
vr::
Pn
i
/'\\
\\
L
.,'.
P
dafaY
sarjgu

---

281
1
1 a. 2
.-----
---- s ___
_
-------
..
-------.-.....
1
----.
.. ~.-._._-
Aux.C
VP
/\\
~n
j\\
(
1
\\
L_~
i
m-)m
cJafay
san gu
It aPPGars th~n, that the NP-5ubject cJclction transformation
a p pLi r s
only if the ~H' 5ubjcet has tho f8aturcl~- cmphasis.'»).
In this Case, since the Pn is ::) ZEro mor ph cmc , lJ~ may c ons Ld or
the NP-Subjcct-dclcti~n t~ansformation as a vacUOUS
tra nsform8tiC1n.
It appoars that-m):m dafay sa~gu-and - dafay sa~gu - arc not
--
from the same jerivations.
Lot Us giVE sOrne
mor~ oxamplcs for illustration.
man
l au : kk
, ..-'
I (crnphasis) Gat
5.
me")
:rJ~liy
L:e :kk
,,-_.."
1 cot
6.
you (crnphasis)
study
7.
ya:0~iy
ja:~
Vou s t trd y ,
are
4 and 5/ und er lin 0 d bY the P. rn a r k 0 r ri Q iVE n bel 0 lJ :

---

282
A
___ :3
. i - > :
--
----
. '
_--------------
..
f~ u x. C
VP
\\
1
«+
speaker >;,
/
!1
« + 1 Pcrs • -,,>
!
/,<.
+ Singe ~')
ma:fJgiy
L:c :kk
.~ ...'
",---...-
4.
is
gcnoratcd t h cn ,
and r cpr c s en t c d in the P.markor a1
aftel'
Pronorrinalization -
transfoTfllation
\\Jas
a pp lI e d
to f~.
s ~--------------
-------------
~J P ---------------
Pd.P
j
----1
_------
..
~ux.C
vP
1
\\.
1
\\
\\
l
,~.. + Pn -"
--.
\\
1
.
1
1
, - - - -
~ + 1 pGrs~)1
m;~ : il gi Y
Lm :kk
<.' +
Sin g "')
1. «, + Em
p h y:-J

---

5.
is
q o rie ra t cd
and r r.pr r s rn t o d
in ,LJ,2 afi:cr
pronorü1i31izatiorl-
t r ans f OIT ma t ion,
LJ a saP pli e d t 0
/-1.
s
-------------
----
NP
----
.--------
Pd. ~-~
-----------
V~
//
<- +
Pn >:>
1
P Gr s »
-
Emph-o.-,
6 and 7 arc undcrlincd by the p.markcr givcn bcloLJ:
B
------ Pel.!-
/ \\
\\
\\\\,
-------1
Y::t : n Qi y
j,]:rlg
<_'"
+ Sin g
<-: +/-
Emph :n

---

284
Aftcr Pronominalization transformation, the following
n
k
1 .
d
.
r'.mar Gr 8
lS gcnera9cd an
6 is obtalncd.
S
-~--
----------
[\\1 P
PcJ.P
_ - - - - - - - - - - - 1
--_.-----------------
!
fiu y. C
VP
Pn
'>j
i
j'a: n Q
2 Pc;rs.Sing ~)i
1
1
2
Similar1y,
the following P.markcr 8
is
Q8nc:ratcd and 7 is
obtainccl.
-5
-----
NP
--------
Pd.P
':'ux.C
vP
/\\
/ \\
/
\\
.'
\\
1
\\
,-
L----_--,
fJ
--Î
1
ya:nqiy
ja:f79
!
i
1
/,.
+
2 P Gr S • Sin J > >!
1
1
Em ph ->,
1- '\\ -

---

285
SUPPOse Uc arc ask~d to intcrpretc B.
8.
Cop + PEr6J.af.1/3 P.Plur + M.V
be
us/they.
sQat = (uE/they arc
s ca t ed J
,
lis i t J.J,
in s ur f a c r structure,
t.h cr c is n o ac cu r a t c
uay to
o c t sr rn i n c uh c t hr r
the Pers-af ha s
thc fca t u r 8 « ~ 1 P. ?1UT »
or
<<. +
3 P. Plu r '»
In fact,
the und8rl~ing s c n t c ric o coulJ be Ga as ucll as Bb
8a
(NP.(<'1 PluI'J;ompf1'1 darlu
t ~):k
,
( ~j p (, 1 plu r /'> <', - C mph»)
arc S Gat cd
Bb
( NP <t' 3 Plu r ~'~ (. - Emp;)
t): k
If Us drau their F.markœrs
i t appcars that da~u in
8a and d;nu in
8b
~rc diffcrcnt regardinQ thr:ir ranks.
8a
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ s ------.
NP
Pd.P
_ - - - - - - - - - 1
,'1ux.r:;
Vr:
/\\
darlU
t ): k
k. + 2 Fcr s.·, -1
'
<, + 1 r:: Gr s •-;;;l
! (~-;
f'lur~) 1
<.z
1 -
_!
.+
Pl ur ".
1-
i
Lc-: -
Emph J) .. j

---

286
8b
_ - - - - - - - - 5
________
r·J P
Pd.P
1
--------
.-~---------
1
~ux.C
adj.IJrod
1
\\
\\
, -
1
1 --
./ '\\
l
'
1
__
1 _\\
danu
3 r=ers.>'>i1
Plur ')J'
Emph '?)
1
We con state th2t
danu
has tWD readinQs.
Unless Wc know
with which NP it is matchinç, we.
cannot giue tho right intcr-
p r E:ltat i on.
If wc apply the NP - Subject dclction-transformation
to 8a and 8b, wc; u i Ll
br: able to di f f r r rn c i a t c 8a.1
from 8b-1
giucn b ol o ut
Ba. 1
S
F [~ • p
I~d j . r:-r c d
.' \\
,
\\
\\
\\
1 Pers.f'lur ,,>
Ernph ",

---

287
8 b. 1
_ _ _ _ -
S
_ _ _ _ _
--_.-._- ----
-
NP
Pd.r
_ _ - - - - - - - - - -
1
.1 u x • C
.~ d j. Pr cd
;\\
i \\
\\.
/ \\,
9f
danu
t): k
\\<i+ 3
Il,(- Emph;;.)
It gocs
I,:ithout s,3ying,
th,Jt b:::forc
this
dclction
t1'éJnsforma'-
tion t ak c s
p La c r ,
the copying-tr2nsform,CJtion and
the:: Pcrs.af-
p~accmcnt transformation must 0feratc.
wc could Qcneratc such an odd dcriv3tion
aS
the
follouinQ one:
NP---
Pd. f:
MJ x. C
r\\clj.Prcd
da
t): k
\\~/./. + 1 Pers.Plur >}~;
f i./, + 3 P Gr s. Flur 'nj
1
L..z,. -

---

288
· Intdrmcdiate P.markcr
s
...-----
-_.-- --------
---
NP
Pd.P
1
,._---------- j
..-----_..
!
1
Pn
,lUX. C
i~c.Ij.Prcc!
da
t ~: k
,-
'1
r(--' + 1 J ers•.rl ur:>:) \\
l«+ 3 Pers.Plur-)) fi
1.( +
Pn ':>'>
1
T ~r min é~ l
~' • ru a r 1< cr
,Aux.C
i-l.dj.Prcd
da
Tt uou Ld b c impassilJ1c to any idcol [Jalof spcakcr-hcar8r to
trace the undcrlying structure of such oddity.
The rcasOG
is that in the abovc tcrmin~l P.marker the fcaturcs of the
~P-Subjcct ar: not rccovorablc.

---

289
A vcrb may have a direct ~bj2ct along with an
indirect object.
This .i s the Case urrcn we express in Cl
sentence that X has sold Y to Z or the other way Clround) X has
s oLri to
;Z Y •
Either
Porm Expresses
the s@me idea without
making any differcncc whcther
Y
precedes or ffollows Z.
Traditional1y Z is known aS indirect object, whcrcas
y
is k noun as direct objl:?ct.
In
s orn c Lan qu a q r s, like Fr oric h Or English,
it .i s Eê:'SY
to differenci?te thE indirect objo=t From the direct object.
This is made
possible by
the ~rcscnc~ of a preposition matching
the: indirect ob j r c t
at lcast in Dcep structure.
For ExamplG:
1.
j'a i
vC'ndu
ma
Voiture
3
Pierre
2.
I haVE sold my
Car
to Peter.
,
In
1 as
wcll ,"3 in 2 the respective prepositions ;;,1" and rital!
indicntEthùt Pierre and Peter arc t he r aap e c t Lo c indirect
o b j c ct n ,
EVen if the other
L):':y ar ou n d werc taken,
uc would
not
Thus
la
an~ 2a arc not ambiguous.
1 a
IJcnclu
m'0
voiture
G
2~
l h~D~ so}d ~ctcr my C~r.
ûb v.i ou s Ly ,
fol' 22.,
wc have in rn i n d t ha t
dElction h,'=]s
t ak cn
place.

---

2sn
Now let Us discUS8 tho 88me problem in wolof.
Let Us ~onsider 3 which is d translation of 1 and 2.
3
3a~yna:
pœ : r
The SamE idca,
without the slightest scmantic differcnc2
is cxpresscd in 4.
4
ja:yna:
p as : r
s arna
Contrary to Frendh or English,
in Wolof thcrc is nO structural
cl[?rll{'nt to ma k c the difference betwcen indirect and diroct
abject.
The situation in the declension languages like
Latin,
Tamil,
etc.
may create 'trc Lmpr r s s i on that thc o r d r.r
of placement of indir~ct 2nd direct objects is not relevant
in the intcrprctation of the sentence wherc they occur.
This would bc an c=rroncous impression bascd on a
supcrficial anulysis.
~ careful approach will show that thcrc
is .':"] primary cr d or uh l c h s~ould bc p r o f or e d in grouping
indir~et and direct object,
Consider the follouing sont~nces.
5b)
_ fIl,~ r
h éJ8 sol rJ the s h ccp (t 0 )
t he chi l d r en.
In 5a the order i5
Ind obj + Oir obj.
But
in Sb it i5
Dir obj + Ind obj.
Now let us
3Pply to Sa the Pronominalization transforfllation.
This will Qencratc the derivation givcn bclow:
b)
d af o
Ja:y~Ql.0?
yi
Xar
mi
---'r-.-3-m-~~--F;as ·-s-6TlT-T~;--ChTI clr~--rh ~- s h ~-~'p-:--

---

291
c)
* dafa j8 :y Lao : n
xar
mi
- - -
- - ' - -
d)
* d::,fa j éJ :y 1::I ....
_
.
_
:n
-
~
k:
As it is,
the dcrivation ~nds in an ungrammaticol string.
Hcre,
i t is n cc ce s ar y to opcr at c one more transformation,
namcly,
inversion-transformation.
This
operation will move the
NP objects round the Vcrb, and Qenerate the gféJmmatical string (c)
dafa
I cc : n
k)
j'a: y
Wc note that the o r d c r is h cr c
Ind
obj + Dir ob jr c t.,
Let us illustratc this through the P.mnrkcrs of the abovc
h i s t o r i c oI
derivation.
lJc assume
t h a t
(,c:) is the undcrlying
structure.
---------- --------------..
NP
PcJ.P
- - - - l '
1
1
Au x. -------
i
C
\\
1\\
1
\\
/ \\
/ \\
1
/J
/l \\
1
,
'
"c
dafa
x é,iI' rn i
s.o.=
1
2
3
4
5

---

Np
/1
-
Ja :y
1 ' \\ ( -1-
t,~ -
- - - - - - - - 5
-~ Pd.P
- - - - - - - - 1
1
IJS
~~
li
IJ'
Np
1
/1
NP
/
1
/
/ 1
/1
1
1·.
1
!
1
1
.--------..'
fi
dtif:)
1 20 :n

---

d1
s - _________
1 --
NP
Pd.P
_ _ _ _ - . - - - - -
1
ALX.. C
va
-~
<,<,,."
\\"
NP
1\\
»>:
/ \\
IIJ
\\
------
P
Pn
Pn
Pn
i
\\
1
\\
~.
j a :y
l ts: : n
k ',;
1 Pn ))1
Sing )!
r i
J
Empli.» 1
01
-'-
s
____.
NP -----
Pel.P
1-,ux.G
: \\
, \\
/ -,
, ~J
1\\1
\\
i
pn
Pn
Pn
1
J _ '_
)3
cl sf 2
l éC : n
k~,
ja :y
i -
i ~ +
J
1
1/·, +
,
i/.l -
S.C.
1+2+3+4~5
===~=~
2
5
3

---

294
Wc apply naw ta Sb the pronominalization transformation
This operation will generôtc the following
d~rivation:
f)
)ff',;-Jr
ja:y
Xélr
mi
xa
_ l.ai
_
vi
- - -
',----L....::::- _
g)
clclfa
j 2:y
xor
mi
x a La:
yi
h)
~
dofa
j <3 :y
kj
~a~œ -Yb....
i)
* d a f a Ja:y k)
l éC : n
-
--
-_~_~
Similarly for the dr r i vx t i on a1-\\21,
this dcrivation orid s in
an ungrammatical string.
This SCEms to indicatc that an
Inv~rsion-transformation
,
l S
ta b r ClPpli ccl.
If this is the c as c , Wc gcnerote then
J
:
j)
* dof" k")
lac;n
J a : y
But still J 3Ppears to bc ungrammaticol.
Here,
we have to apply one more pcrmutoticn transforma-
tion.
TOîs oporati~n, which eonsists of rëV2rsing the order of
the daugrt crs of one: n od o , wiJ.l iJcncratc the:: sTammatical string k.
Once agéJln uc note thi-Jt the order is
Incl.
Ob j
+ Dir.
Obj.
Let Us eonsidor the ea5~ of 3 pronominalization trans-
formation affcctinC cithcr the Ind.Obj Or the Dir.Obj"
but one
nt
a t i mc ,
First
let it
b r, t~ll~ Irid
Db
The dcrivation would
v
jtc t .
b o thcn
cithcr
L-l\\l
or
L1-N1.
1)
dafa

---

295
m)
d é) fa
j a : y
~ê.l~_._1.~
xar
mi
_..._---_.
he has sold thr children the sheep
n)
~ dafa
j-a:y
lc:e:n
xo r
mi
--~.
-----..---_._---
he h a s s o Ld th_c~~_~c_~hocEJ._
l 1)
:) méJr
d Clf Cl
j ,J : y
§
I.' __r12.~_
2S.QL::c__ .y_~__
)mar
has 301d l-rïc sFiccp t o .!.~~c. __~ht~.~.I~~ __
rn l )
d a f a
ja:y
xar _..n:!i:.
xalêCy_t_
he hc s
sold~ç: shoep ta i~E_f.hild_~r:
n 1) * d Clfa
j 3 : y
xa r
m i l a~';_~_
he has sold the shcop to thom
In cithor Case the terminal strings are ungrammatical.
N and N1
rcquirc re3rran9cmcnt.
Hor: ~5ain wc wilJ. apply a Permutation
transformati~n.
This will move the pronominalizcd NP Object
round the vcrb and q cn er a t u 0 §lnd 01.
0)
dafa
lcç: n
Ja:y
x a r
mi
he héJs s o Ld t.h r rn the :::;hci:p
Wc notice that the Ind.Dbj. occurs bofare the Dir.Obj.
Considcr nOW that the Dircct.obj.
is
the one affectcd by
the pronomina1ization transformation.
The dcrivation would
bc
cithcr P-R or ~'1
-
R 1
yi
xar
mi
-.Hll Clr
h a ~3 sol d~ h c chi l d r c n th c' s h c ~ p
q)
da fé)
j3 :y
xal éD_-12-
~._'!lt
he has sold the childrcn the shclP

---

f) (J (
L ,) .J
d.i f:]
j ' : y
XéJL:L'
xi
)mar has sold
the shecp tu the childrcn
q 1 )
jJ:Y
X;:\\1'
mi
--~~._-_.
he has sold it te the childrcn
Here again thc terminal strings rand r1
~r[
ungrammatiea 1 and l'squire to undcrgo a permutation transforma-
tion.
This o p r r a t i on will mOve the pronomjnali7ccl ob j c c t
in
front of the verb.
5)
ja: y
xa l é'.~
yi
h e
rn s s (J l dit tut h c chi I d r ,~ri
At this stage wc can arrive ~t a Partial conclusion:
Th,]t is,
uhcn
Inci-olJjc-Tt. .i c the
only
pj-o n omi ria Li z r d
Î\\IP.objc:::::t,
i t
()C C ur s
h c for " Di r . 0 h .i .
lJ h en
b [) t h
l Il cl. O~: J •
- il :: Di r • m! J.
<:è r l
s i rn li l t:J Il c, o l) s I. y
p r IJ il o mi -
n a l i z c' d ,
l n d • 0 b j.
c' =: ::::: l,: r s
b • [' :JI' i:
0 i r • 0 b j .
6.
k;
.rno r
h'Js t o l o (F'n.Obj.l11 + Pn.Obj.l2))

---

29";
t h [' a b D V e
c x 'ffi pli fic a t i CJ non a b 1 cs
u s
t 0 s t a t e t h a t
0 b j ~ 1) i s
1 d
Ob '
d b ' (2).
D .
t
Ob'
nc ,
J.
a n
0
J.
l S
.i r cc -
J .
Bcforc going to
the ncxt
point,
i t is
propcr
to givc
the
1-0
El.markeTs of the
derivations
of
f-k;/11-01;
p-s
and
p1-s,1.
1.
~_--
s.________
NP -
Pd.P
------1
Aux.G
VB
1\\ ------- <,
V~
NP
.-------
NP
-------NF
/1\\
/ -,\\
1
/
\\
/
'-
dafa
ja:y
x ar
.n.i
x a.l ai y i
( 9 )
S
p.JP
---------PcI.P
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1
i-\\U x. G
\\J B
Il
~~.
v,
NP
Il
.i->
/
1
/ .
---------- <,-.
Pn
NP
NP
,
1
\\
1
.
\\
1
/\\
1 1
/
/
1
LI
i
._---- -----
}!f
dafa
.j-a :y
xa r mi
'xa l ec
yi.
3 Sing.~,;;-7
1
Emph)~
1
1

---

/1,1
l;
i
1
/1
1
/
/1 /
Np
w
/
1
/\\
daPêJ
/
/
\\
ja :y
/
\\
k)
"
\\
~
xaLm
yi
'S
Np
1
!
-!!d.p
1
Aux:c
!
1
II.
__ V5
/ ;
.~.
Pn
i 1
V
/
/
i
i
Np
1
/ )
1
-------.
Np.----
"\\.
/ 1
JO
/
LJ
J
NP
1
Pn
1
r-
i
Pr;
1«+
J
"r:
di)f',C)
3
.ie :'y
1
k "
1
L" - [mph . .
/
Lê(; :
./,;. J
~

---

299
( j)
_ - - - - - - - - s _______
NP ---
Pd.P
----------
Aux.C
\\
V~
~,
-----" --'-----
------
,
~
NP
V_
/
/
~
Pn
f\\\\P
NP
\\
Pn
f='n
i
1
1
l a; : n
ja : y
d a fa
Ji
I~ + 3 Sin 9 ">>1
L!Z - Emph »;: ..J
s
~
Pd. P
NP
------------ \\
~ux.C
vS
[\\1 --------
P
----
j\\
V,
}\\
r>:
Pn
\\
NP
NP
1
\\
1
1
\\
Pn
Pn
\\
\\
\\
1
d a f a
la::n
ja: y

---

3UÜ
.
. 'ln
. va U " ::,,,-_
o
dcT'~
___
11. l-=--,
\\
5
\\

---

( n)
301
________ S -----------. Pd.P
------
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
1
,
VS
Au x. G
~,
f
V'
NP~
~
Il
<,
1
Pn
~JP
NP
L
f
i
j'
1
\\
,
1
1
~
,0
ja:y
he :n
xar mi
f+ 3 Sing );-1
[~~ - Emph» !
_1
( 0)
_ 5
_________
NP
1
'--Pd.P
1
'.
I~U x. G
va
,.~
-------
il.ux.G
~P
-,
V'
NP
1
1\\
Pn
1 \\
)
/\\
---
- '
d a f a
102 : n
ja:y
xar mi
~
r.:< + 3 Sin 9 ·>1
l« - Emph » J

---

JI 1.
11 - 01
dGrivation
---'_._---..::..::::~----
(1 t)
302
S
NP
1
/
---
AUx.G
Pd.P
--- 1vS
1
/1
LI
~-~
/1
NP
/
1
1
1
l
'
1
»->
-,
1
/
1
»>:
NP
-,
NP
:::mac
1
U
1
daf a
ia :y
L\\
( m
Xar mi
/)
Î )
------
x a la:,
yi
S~
NP
'(1
~
/
Pd.!=
j
/~ U X • G
/
vB
1
1
f
fJn
1 -------
~
/1
V
NP
1
---------
NP
~
1
NP
/11
1
!
11
~(
d a Pa
\\
/1
/\\
\\
àe:y
------.l
t+ .3 Sing0)/
Xür m~
~.-
[m r::h »
U
Xal ao
yi
J

---

pn
\\
NP
1\\\\
)
\\
''
\\.
~~_.
}~-- \\fi i
)(,81'
.
5 -
\\J '
1\\
!\\
1 \\
\\
1 \\"\\
!
J
\\
.
\\ \\
1 \\,
\\
\\
\\
L~
,
da
• \\1
laJ
.
.
""
je.' ~ 'J

---

IV.
p -
S
dorivation
-------------
(p)
3D'!
s
NP
I~UX. G
/
rvp
1
1
(
NP
------- ~"NP
/ -
, \\
Jmar
LJ
dafa
.Ja:y
f /\\\\
!
\\
- - - - - . . l
( Q)
:<ar mi
C'
.,
-~
NP ---
1
1
------------~ Pj.P
AUx.G
-
1
1
.--
j
ua
-
ri
--
/1
1
/1
\\)' ----------
~,
Pn
1
NP
1
1
----
1
~
rvp
-.NP
1
j;1
J
j
/1\\
/Î
r-
--
daf êl
\\
/
/
Ja:y
-
.1
1« +
xa1ëD
L - - . _
3 Sin 9 »1
yi
Xar mi
1<' _
j
L
[mpn »
1
_J

---

Cr' )
s --..
3D5
NP
1
/
{:d.r:
1
Va
1
J'
1
-~---
~"<,
li,
/!
/
J
//r
--Np
---------
NP
/1
' \\
NP
J
,
/ \\
;
,1
\\
"
1
/
~
P
~j
n
/
\\
da fa
ja :y
'-~,
X'Jl êL,
Yi
/
-
- - 5
Np
1
f
r
1
1
r
/
/ ,11
Ja:y

---

v.
p.1
_. ,__ta
w_.. s.1
_. · dorivation
__..
..._
306
~
.~
~ 5
~
NP
Pd.P
_ _ _ - - - -
1
__. - - - - -
i
Au;:C
vS
------------ ~NP
/'~
NP
NP
1\\
/~
/ \\
/
,
)mar
ja : y
xar m'Ï!
x a l.as
yi
Pd.P
. _ _ _ _ - -
1
- - - - - -
!
:-\\u x. C
\\
\\/
1
1
Pn
~j p
J\\,\\.
Ja :y
xar mi
xalao
yi
3 Sing »1
Emph.,>
!
_.i

---

s
NP
307
!
va
l ' ·
"
rvp
)
J
!if
1
NP
1
,1
/\\
Jo: y
/
\\
?l--
a ,")0
y
NP
s.~
/1
.
1
/
1
!
1
" - _
1
dor;;'
/!
Ja :y

---

308
50 far
LJe have b ocn ucr k.i n q with s on t cnc cs having
the following structure:
[\\1 P + i~ u x • C + VP
~c now considcr sentences having the follow~ng
s t.r uct ur c :
S
~
I~P + vr, su ch as 7a.
7a.
)mar
Ja:yna
xalac
yi
xar mi
~mar has sold thc children the shoep
Wc know that 7b conveys the Same meaning as 7a.
7b. ')mar
Ja:yna
xar mi
xalaJ
yi
.:;mar has sol::.1 the sheep (to) the children.
Similar to 5a and Sb,
let us apply the ~ronominaliza-
tian-transformation to 7a and 7b.
At the first stage, this operation will apply to 7a.,
f Lr s t ,
affGcting Lnd • Obj. 1 then Dir.
Obj.
2nd finally both.
At the second stage this oporation will apply to 7b,
in the obove c r d r r ,
First
.•
• '=0'.
_~_.
StaDe:
73
3a~yna
xar
mi
-------~

---

309
t)
')ma r
ja:yna
YaléD
yi
xar m.:i
.)mar has sold the ch i Ldr cn
the sh ccp
u)
ja=yna
xal éD
yi
xar
mi
(he)
has s o l d the childrcn the s h cop
v1 ) * Ja:yna xaLa;
yi
k:;
( he)
has
So Id
the ch i Lrir cri i t
l nd. .9.b j ~._ .9_n d Dir. Ob j. Pronominalizcd:
---
t)
:~mar
.j-a : yna
xaléD
yi
xar
mi
)mar
has
sold the ehildren the shcep
u )
ja:yna
x a Lœ
yi
x ar mi
Ohe)
has sold th2 ehildrcn the shecp
v)
ja : y na
lac: n
x a r
mi
( he)
ha s
sol d the m the s he cO
LJ)
ja : yn a
l a:I : nie)
he has
sold them i t
Di r ,
Ob j .
Pr 0 n ami na l i z cd:
x)
Jmél r
j a : y na
~~~__ mi
xQl~§?--1..i
')mar
na s
sold ~!]c_sheq'p (ta) ~.b.c_ehi~drGn
y)
j-o :yna
xar mi
xaléD ï~
(he)
has sald the shocp to tho childrcn
z )
Ja : yna
~2 g~_a::_ :Li
(he)
h a s s o l d i t (ta)
the ch i Ld r un

---

310
\\jir. ûb j , Prunominalizcd:
< . . _ - - - - . _ - _
• •
, - - -
x)
<:) ma r
j-a: yn a
X a r
mi x a l éD
Yl:.
jmar has
sold the
shecp (to)
the
chi1dren
y)
j-a :yna
xar:-.É!î ~lEEJ..:i
(he)
has
sold .!.-hc ..ê.-~.QÇP (ta) the ch i Ldr cn ,
--:----~ " 1 - - - - _ ..-
Z 1)*
cra:yna
-) ma r
ja : y n a
X éI r
mi
x a l a=
l i
Jmar
has
s o Ld !.~_g_~~2:-~e. (t[))~~~._..ch~}Ar_cfl~·
y)
ja :yna
B..~_m~
xalaJ---.Y.i
Ohe)
has
sole ~~_~~G.~'p (to) i~.~LEhildre~
z)
ja :yna
k-j xalce
yi
_
.
....
- - '
"
. "-..-"
..-. ..--
(he)
has
s o Ld 1:.t. (ta) the childrcn
Z 2)
*. j-a: yn a
(he)
has
s o I d i t
(to)
t hcm
It ap p o a r s that
v , z '1 and z2
cannDt
be Lc f t
at this
1
stage.
They n~[d to undcrgD 0
permuta~iDn transfor~ation,
which
will
9cncratë the gr:ammEll'.tical strings
V1
a,
z1 ~~~ and z2'0
V1 • Cl)
ja:yna
k) x a l aa yi
(he) has sold i t to the childron
Z1 • a)
ja r yn a
la::' :n
xar
mi
(he)
has
sold thom the shccp
ja:yna
la:: :n
k,
(h c)
h,JS sold t hem i t

---

311
Thus tho Case of 5 ---......;»;>
NP + VP also c or r ob or at cs
our prcvious Partial c~~clusion"
Sefora coming to our
final
conclusion, i t is
worth
givihg. the P.mark ors of tho dcrivation of t-·v; .t-V1"8; t-~~
I .~".~,,__d IJr i vat ion
( t )
~IS
NP
Pd .. P
1
vS --------NP
-------
NP
-----------NP
/~
/"'"
,)m a r
L\\
j-a : y n a
XalEB
yi
x ar mi
(u)
~s
NP
Pd"P
1
;
vS
----- ~
v
NP
'\\
-------------
NP
<.
Pn
NP
.0
.tu
\\ /\\
D
:yna
xa Laa yi
x ar mi
g "î
\\-::<, + 3 5in
b.- Emph'»

---

( v)
s
.------------ -------------
312
NP
Pd.P
1
__________ va '-------
v
NP
---------/ <.
NP
NP
l'
1
Pn
Pn
!
/\\
ja:yna
léP : n
xar mi
I~~+ 3 Sing~1
b- Emph s J
II.
t-v1a
derivatiC)n:
u-i
__- - - S ________
NP
Pd.P
\\
VB
------------ ~
.
V·
NP
1\\
-: ~
Pm
NP
NP
\\
/\\
ja :yna
xala:J
yi
..
1
~
x ar mi
1~+3Sing)l
l
'
L!< - Emph~) .J

---

s
313
_ - - - - - - - I J B
. li
Pn
/.:
Np
1
e:
yi
N P - - - - -
s
PCI • P
1
va
v
r ,\\
r-
~
1<, +
!
.:ra :yn a
3 Si
J~'"
ng>~
-
[mph),1
/
1

---

314
III.
t-l.J
o cr i va t î on
for
t
u
v
Scr:? ab o vc
lJ
_~_----- S- ________
NP
------Pd.P
1
VS
- - ------------.
V
l:J P ______
NP
Nf!
\\
\\
Pn
Pn
Pn
1
\\
\\
ja:yna
lm:n
k'J
7f
«+ 3 Sing '~I
! (z- Emph::>;> J
'-
x
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ S ~
NP -----
~Pd.P
)
Il
/\\
/
\\
.1
\\
----..
)mar
Ja:yna
x ar
mi
x a Las
yi

---

y)
315
s
---~
---------
NP----
PcI.P
,
\\
VB~
--------------- .~--.NP
v
Pn
---------------- '~
NP
NP
\\\\
/\\
\\
\\
j \\
/ \\
_ \\
}8:yna
xar mi
x a l eo
yi
r<+
·
--,
3 S Ing ;;;' '
l<-
J
Ernph v,
z)
s
.
------ --------- Pj.P
NP
1
vB
------------ -- < ;
V
NP
~~
NP
NP
f
i\\
rn
//\\
}
i
.
\\.
' - - - \\
k)
xa La;
yi
j-a :y n a

---

V.
x - Z 1·éJ
dcrivati:Jn
316
Or
x
y
Sec abo v o•
Z 1
_ _ _ 8
~Pd.P
1
LB
1
V:
~ AJP
1
/1
------~ NP
Pn
NP
1
Pn
1
/
/1
~--.,
da:yna
la; : n
xar mi
,0
-:<+ 3 Sin 9 '>:>'/'
/ <" - Empli >" -/
Z 1' a
... 5
v
Pn
/\\
/
l
,
Pn
1
r/
i
•
.1
1
'_._-
.0
jéJ :yna
l aJ : n
Xar mi
3 Sing;;r
Empli )
1
_,

---

_
31 i'
__
-_.---".
._-~ ..
VI.
x-z 2a- dGrivation
-..~._-... ..
For X
y
z
Soc abo VG
Z2
--
NP
1
1
-V'8~.
- - -
J
Pn
-
NP ~~
0JP
NP
1
1\\
Pn
P n
L--J
/
1
1
ja : j'fla
k")
lco ~n
3 S in 9 »1
[mph »
_,
Z2a
. S
0J P
i
/\\
Pn
Pn
/ \\
--.
/
Ja :yna
k )

---

31n
We can now
formulate the final remarks which are 3S
follows:
A
-When the Ind.Obj.is th~ only NP being pronominaliied :
(a)
i t precedes Direct -
Obj.,
and bath Direct and Indirec
ob j ec t s
are preceded by
the main
vbl"b, i f there is no
Au xiI iary.
(b)
by hopping transformation i t becomes right daughter
of
the Auxiliary-group,
if an Aux.
o c c ur s ,
B
-When the
I r ,
Object is
the only NP being pronominalized:
ü
~a)
i t precedes
Ind.Obj.,
and b o t h
i r s c
ü
t
and
Indirect
ob j e c t s are pr e r e d e d by
the main
v ar b ,
i f thera is no
Auxiliary.
(b)
If an Aux.
oc cu r s , tnen,
by hopping transformation
the 0 il'.
0 b j.
bec 0 mes r i 9 h t
d au 9 h ter 0 r~ he li u x •
C
-When both Irio • Obj.
and Dir.
Obj.
are pronominalized
(a)
if t h ar e is no Aux.,
they
both f o Ll o u the main verb,
anc'
the
Irid Ilb j ,
p r e c ad
s
the Dir.
Obj-
i
r
(b)
If thora is
an :Aux.,
both
Ind.
Ilb j .
and Dir.
Ob!j1.
Decome right
daughters of the Aux.
and Ind.Obj.
precedes
Dir.Obj.
Thus our conclusion,
obviously,
is
t ha t
in
Welof,
even
though the Deep structure is not that much
helpful to determine the natural order of occurrence of
Ind.
ûb j ,
and Dir.
û
b j , ,
the pronominalization-test s aerns
to show that this
order should be aS
follows:-
+ Ind.
-Obj.
+ Dir.-Obj.

---

319
Let us
now summariz8 the above eXQmplifications in a
formaI dGvic
1
Ind.
rJP/Pn.T/+Dir. NP -_.--:::;;
Ind.
Pn.
+ Dir.
i~P. in Env
r1V + _.- + --
rno , NP +Dir.NP/Pn.T /----)
Dir.
Pn ,
+ Lrid ,
NP in Env.
MV + -- +
Ind,NP/Pn.T/:· Oir NP/Pn.T/ -----:>
Iri d s Pri ,
+ Oir Pn.
in
Env.
M V + - + -
D.ir .
NP/PnT/+Ind.NP -----> Dir.h,. + Ind.
rJP in Env.
MV +-+ -
Dir.
ÎJP + Jn d Î\\JP/PnJ/ ----->
rid . Pn.
+
i r . t,IP in Env.
ï
ü
MV + -
+
Oir.
NP/PnT! + Ind
NP/PnJ!---7
Ind Pn + Dir.
Pn ln
Env.
MV +
+ ---
Irid ,
~JP + Oir. NP/Pn.ï/---~ Lrid , NP + Cil'. pn. in Env.
Au x+ r1 V + -
+ - -
Aux.
+ MV + Ind.
rJP + Dir.
Pn.
----? Aux + Oir.Pn
+
r1V + Ind .I~P.
Ind.
NP/PnJ/+ Dir.NP/PnJ/----~ Ird.Pn. + Dir. Pn in
Env.
Au x ,
+ r1V
+ - +
Aux .... IYJV +
Ind
Pn + Dir.
Pn ,
~--~
Aux.
+ Ind.
Pn +
i
Dir.
pri ,
+ IVJU
Irid ,
f\\IP/PnJ/+Oir.rJP
---~.
Irid
i
v
Pn ,
+
r ,
NP in Env.
ü
Au,c.
+ rH!. + - - + ----
Aux.
+ rl. V. + Lrio , Pn. + Dir.NP. ----..:;>
Aux.
+ Ind.
Pn
+ nv + Oir.I"JP
D'i r ,
NP/Pn.T/+Ind.NP ----7'
Dir.Pn + Ind.N~ in Env.
Au x + 1'1 V + - - + ---
--------_.-.- ..- - - ..._--- .. _----_._-------
1. /Pn. T/
Lnd Lc a t e s
that Hw clemont it immediately ,foll o UJ 5
underg08s
pronomin3lization Transformation.

---

3~O
Aux.
+ MV + Di r v Pn .
+
Ind.r~p ---->
Aux + Oir.Pn.
+
r1\\J +
Incl.
NP
Oir.NP/PnT/+lnd. NP/PnT/ ----~
Dir.Pn.
+ Ind.Pn.in
Env.
Au x .
+ MV +--+---
Au X • + ~1 V + 0 il'. Pn , + I nd , ~ n - - - - .:;>
Au X + I n d Pn +
Di r
Fn + ~1 V
Oir NP + Ind NP/PnT/ ---..::-..
Oir NP + Incl Pn.
in Env.
,-'
Aux. + ~lV +
+ ---
Aux.
+ MV + Oir NP + Ind Pn
. .::-.
,o.ux. + Ind Pri , +
. /
MV + Oir I\\lP
Let us considor 8 -
15
for a doepening of our ana1ysis:
8.
dab ,3
cJafay
suxxil
---....
bu:na
éJY
9 an a:
r
daba plucks chickGns (for) bu:na
9.
daba
suxxilna
bu:na
ay
gana:r
---.-
daba
has
pluckod chic~Gns for bu:na
10.
daba
dafay
suxxil
ay
gana:r
bu:na
daba
plucks
chickcns (for)
bu:na
1 Jj.
d édJ éJ
su X xi l n a
a y
Q 2 na: r
b LI ~ n a
------'
daba
has pluckod chickons
for
bu:na
12.
daba
dafay
suxxil
bu:na
ay
gana:ram
claba
plucks
For bu:na his
chickens
13.
daba
su~~ilnéJ
bu:na
8Y
gana:ram
d a b a h a s
plu c k e d fa l'bu : n CI hi s chi c ken s
1 Li •
daba
c!afay
SLlxxil
ay
'-----'
15.
daba
suxxilna
ay
gana:ram
bu:na
' -
In 8 -
11
if WB mean that daba is plucking chickcns,
and that
tho fact that daba is plucking chickcns is donc for bu:na,

---

321
thon tho pErmutation affecting the Ind-Obj and the Oir.Obj.
doos nc~ affect thE mcaning throughout 8 -
11.
Suppose now wo add the qBnitivc-ca5e-affix to Oir.
Obj.
Wo Can no morD apply pcrmutatiD.l without changing the
mc in i rio ,
This i8 attcstcd by the sentences 12 -
15.
In on c
Way (12-13) wc arc saying that:
\\
a)
bu:na ha5 chickcns
b)
daba i5
plucking/has
pluckGd thoS2 chickGns
for bu : n,"] as uell élB
c)
daba has chickons
d)
daba is plucking/has plucked those chickens
for
bu:na.
L Cltus n0 tic eth C:J t
t hi S <J li, big u i LY Il cccl n 0 t li [
L CHI .c, i d C'r [' d
'" t
this St:3QC:
formation ch~nqcs the mEanin~ (a-b) and ~[stricts it to (c-d).
Thus, since the permutation-transformation has
aff8~t~J th~ doubJ. e Interpretation of 12-13 whcrc the order
is Lnd
Db j . + Dir.Obj.,
LJe find it r oo s oriab l o to assume again
i
that Lnri ,
Obj. + Oir.
Obj.
is tho n a t u r a I o.r do r ,
Wc may have sentences likc 16-18
16.
ndm u
d a f a y
le :ti:;::ll s',xna
.j: q~;p
---'
ndcclJ
brairls j~;g)P on behalf of s-;xna
, - .. -
1 7 •
n d 30 W
cl ,"] f cly
j ~1111 ;J 1
S~;XlliJ
j:Q_P
'-_ ..
ndaolJ
is doing a Qum-makc up tu j~Q:P on
béhalf of s-=-'xnéJ

---

322
18.
mi na rn
dafay
rn sc y a I
flgo;r
d);mam
jabar
mina: n
i9 0rranging on bohalf of mUSa; for his
son a wifc:)
First of all uc r r-rn i.n d the d i f f or cn c r bGtw8cn Ben:-I
and Ben-O.
For this pur po s c , let us
c omp ar c 19
with 16.
19 0
ndéP w
d a f a y
safJgal
j::gJp
'----'
' -..
ndao w is bathing j')g)P on bchal f of sy xrra .
'---
In 19 j~gJP is diroct object.
What is bcing washGd
is j:lgJp hcr-s o Lf' ,
n d ac w is bathing j")g)P on bGhalf of s vxn a ,
---
whercas in 16 wc havG a r rie t.or Lc a l
figure known aS SynGcdochlJo
Actually ndéOw is braiding the hair;
not J:lg")P
he r s cLf",
Thu s 16
' - '
mo ans t hElt
n d ao w i s br ai d in 9 the ha i r
0 n
b ch ,:11 f 0 f s:; xn a (B en - 0 ) 0
"--'
Tho hairs that aro boing braided arc j~gJplS (8cn-I).
In the samc Way as for 16, s)xna and ~go:r on the one hand, and
j~g)P and d~:mam
on tho othor hand arc respcctivc1y Bcn-O and
Bcn-i in 5-17-18.
Hcre the undcrstood constituent ci:nam and
lj-abar'
:'jreDir. ûb j ,
Now let us go through the fo110wing sentences:
16a.
nd8Jw
d a f ay
1o:tta1
j:> g: p
s:)xnéJ
.........
,~
17éJ.
ndac w
dafay
jama1
j ) g:,p
s"Jxna
---
1 8<il.
mina: n
dafay
mm ya1
d~):iham
noo:r
jaba r
, ~
mOVQS
Wc have appliod a Permutation transformation whichjthc
8en-I bcforc tho Bcn-O throughout
16a-18a.
The rcsu1t of this
operation is that:

---

323
- ln 1 6 a, n cl ao L,} .is P e r for min 9 an;] c t ion 0 n the h 3 i r
'--"
o f
s:) xn Cl 0 rl
b r ha I f
0 f
j) 9 ', p.
-in 17n,
ndmw p~rforms tho action on SQxna's jaw
,-"
on b ch a l.f of j,\\C]:P.
-in 18;], mi~a;n i8 giving a bride to ogo:r on bchalf
of his own san,
wh~rGas in 18 ~go:rls son is the one who t~kcs
adv~nfagc of the action pcrform8d by mi~3:n on bohalf of nc]D:r~
Thorofore, whilc rGvcrsing the prcvious order 8[n-0 +
Gcn-I Wc change
at once the meaning of the s r nt oric c ,
Su ch
oporation converts Bcn-l into Ben-O and Bcn-O into Ben-l.
Wc now coneludc by stating that when Ind.Obj. is
fOrmed by tw o Ben which arc not e onj6incd but rathcr have
a
rclationship of inner and outer bcncfactivc ~ith the vcrb,
the: Ben-O pr cc cd r-s the Bcn-l
Ncw
consider anothcr aspect of the b oba vi oun. of
1
l\\jP Objoct., t fir ou qh sentences Lik r: 20 and
21
uh er c lJe have
Dt once Gen.D ~~d RQn.I
r ..
21].
mïi'1a:n
ja;yalna
ngo:r
mb arn
mi
x al a,
y a
mill L1:n
hiJS
sold fOr IlQo:r the d orik oy to the
childrcn.
'-
21 • 1 min è:! : n
j él : Y,::1 J n ,']
n, go: r
cl 'J : ma m
mb a mini
x a l éD
min(]:n
has
sold on behlaf of n,go:r
for his
' - - '
son the do nk ey to the childrcn.
The order here is BCfl-O + Pcc + B12n-I one;
DQn-O +
Gen-O
+ Acc + B'2n-I.

---

324
If we assume that the order lS free,then we would
generat€
the following sentences:
20a * m.i ria i n
ja:yalnéJ
mbam
mi
rJgo:r
xalae
yi •
'-...--'
mina:n has sold
for the donkey ~go:r to the
c h i Là r e n ,
20b
m(na: n
ja:yalna
xaL:e
yi
mba:m
mi
~Qo:r
-----
-....'
mina:n
has sold
on behal~ of thE children
the don k EY to 1) o : r •
ç
2Cic * mi na: n ja:yalna rj qo rr
xai.ce
yi
mbéJ:m
mi
--~
rilÎna : n has sold 01"1 b ehal f of
IJC] 0 : r
the
c h i Lrrr en
to the donk ey ,
20d * mina:n
ja:ya1na
mba:m
mi
miria : n h a s ~~ r, l don b E'h .:l f 0 f the don k GY t h2
children to 'lgo:r •
. -...
2iJe *
'
rnlna:n
ja:yalna
xa l aa
yi
fJgo:r
mbéJ:m
mi
" , - .. '
rnina:n has sold on behalf of the children I"Jgo:r
to th e donkev.
21a?
m.i.ria r n
ja:yalna
d')~marn
n,go:r
rnb a tm
mi
xalae
yi
•
mina : n
ha s sol don b e h81 f
0 f
hi s son for IJ go: r
th 8 don k ey t 0
t hG chi l d r en
But i t a~pears that 20a, c-e are ungrammatical fOr
the lack of selectional restriction, while 20b and 21a imply
a change of rneaning.
This finally corroborates our
previous
statements.

---

325
The P.markers
of 20,
2Db,
21
and 21a given below will
help to
point out the different r e La t i on s hl p s
b e t ue e n the cons t.L
tutents
beforo and after the permutation-transformation.
20.
-_.-----
.-----
NP
PLi.P
1
1
vP
i,
VB
-----------
V
1
/\\
/
\\
ja :y
mba r rn mi
ilCJo:r
.-.........
'1
1 Sin 9 -,c ~\\
Elen-I
' j
osn-O')
• cv
mlna:n
to s 811
the donkey
for ~0o:r
to the ch iLdr
...... -"
2Gb
____ s
NP-------
---------Pd.P1
VP
\\
(
____- - VB
V ------'
~,
________ r~ P,~
1
1
\\,
f~P
NP
1
----
~
"
/ \\
NP
NP
1
;/~.
/,/ """"
mba rrn mi
x a l œ
yi
lJgo:r
--....
r..,+ El en-O
-1
';J-
t+ Acc >~ J
.., )
l/(+ El
1
i
en-
1
lu+ 1 Sing:> j
L_
mil'la:n
to s811
the donkey
for
the
to rlQO: l'
~ .
c h i Ldr an

---

j
j
j
j
326
j
j
j
j
j
j
NP
j
j
Vp
j
j
Vs
j
--'~
j
v
rvp
j
j
NP
j
j
/
1
j
1
1
j
/
/
j
/
,
/
j
---.....----
ja:y
rnba t m, m.i.
r;go: r
j
( 1) ' .
j
Sen -0 ;":>~
j
( ) l
8 c n - _ O)
j
j
8 e n- l: .'
j
j
21 a
j
s
j
j
NP
1Pd. P
j
1
j
j
j
/
V
-.NP
j
1
j
NP
1
,
j
j
1
j
j
j
1
j
1
j
!
1
j
L..-:----~
mitla :n
J-a:y
j
~Ci1 0 : r xal ee yi
1
j
8 (On ~ ')
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
J

---

32'1
II.2.0.17
Nominalization Transformation
t y p o s
of norninnlization
su ch :1.<:) ocrL!nl~i1Jc: nom i rm I , o d j ect i vr-Liz:
tions,
etc.
Oll! élin:
i::l
01--'.1./
t o ~:hcu tn c prOCC:E.l::l of n orni nn l i r .v-
tion transformation through sui~ablc cxamplcs.
L,JhL.:h a
s yrrt aorn
aequircs the st aL u s of nom i na L c a t oqo r y ,
N8V~~thGlGss, whGn a verb i8 transformcd into a noun, t~2 rEsult
i s sim ply C é:l ] l c cl
VCL ~] a.1 n 0 li il •
it o c c ur s rnnr n I y 8t t h o word lelie.!..
r: rin 1: r 0 r
to th i s uord-·
l 8 li 0 l
d 8 r i li ;=) t iOn ~ nom i [1 al i z al: .i Cin t r ,lll .s;:- 0 r rn.r; ion 0 p cr a tes a t t 11 L
The str~~g which rC2ults from 3
nominalization
transformation a s s urn cs
till: :~am'J fLJnc~:.i_,Jn of the synt,']gm for
or an cmboddcd srntE~c~,
L G t u s c 0 m~ i d cr
ch ,-. f oLl. 0 LJ i ~ C1 S c'n t. cne ; s 1- ~)
1 •
oe: :\\.:l: Il ,Cl
ITIU S iJ :
'-'
the dopa~~~~c oF
jmar surpriscd musa;
.~ 0
lJ cc; nn Ia
'-'"
.'..
.. l
l , . .' , ' •.~ .
u
X ,.1 l-a:;?
\\/ ·i
xumbna
J
.-
. . "

---

328
4.
x a r
LI
5.
f a s
LIU
S ., x ) r
ci
'-JanaK
LJi
a vicious horsc is in the back-yard
The spc3!<er mur not b,= o ua r c of the propositions
LJ hic h Clr c und ers t 0 0 d i n tr, r
1 ne Gr p r r L'?:-, i cr
o f
Î - 5 •
Actually
i f h c
LJGrc askcd
co tr~ce b3Ck
the propositions inv~lv8d
rGspcctivcly in 1-5, he LJould havG draLJn out thefollowing
Sots of propositions~
1 a •
has gonG
1 b.
,'1 b éD :t t n a
musa;
/\\
~,
has surpriscd musa:
2A.
~m~r is cnthusiastic
331,
~hc children ha7c a
field
3a)0
'<a la::
yi
=
SOI:: con r.
p.1nughing t h r- fi r Ld of the c h i Ldr-.
3b.!J
1\\,
,
XlIllb:l3
=
,. -~
.i s 15_ vc l y
::-J':'
.rnar
has Cl s h ocp
4 b. (\\ da f 3
T. e : r
lJ is Jo sc
Sa.
a hOl~SC 15
v i c i o us
u i
= h
is in tilC back-yard

---

329
Llo notice that the (a) parts of the abovG sets
are +ikely to undcrgo transformation in o r d or to be substitutc;(
for thG dummy symbol ~
Thus in 1 .3, a participlG-nominal transformation
willlta k G place.
This
operation o on v or t s the ParticiplG Ida:' ml
into a noun and mo vc s it as the lcft-mos t elEment of LNP, SJ .
A preposition 1 ulis added, prGccding the original NP ()mar)
This Cdn be illustratod in the following trGc-
d i aqr arns t
cc
ü
p S ttucturo
s
Pd. P
i'·
1 \\
s
[\\1 -:
/\\
P
Pd.P
//>--------
:::Jmar
d êJJ m
b œ :1:: t n a mu sa:
· ... P
*
00
s ur pr i s cd musa:

---

Particip1o-nominal tra~sformation
~.
f'J P
Pd.P
/~
N
NP
1
\\
\\
033 m
")nldr
go
Jmar
sur pri s Gd mus a :
Prcposition-insGrtion
transformation.
N
//
1
PT€r
r'J
(
/
\\ '.
dce m
u
Jmar
b oo : t t n a mus a :
'--
That is,
SD
(NP + Pd.P)
ES
ES
1
2
sc
1 ... 2
::::&::::=)
2 + u + 1

---

331
It should be notr-.:d that
hart"
LJC arc mainly
concern~d LJith [DS domin~t(d by
NP,S
The 1,3 bEl E. S.
st a ,l d s
f o r
crnb cc! de d sen t CI ce,
In 20 an 3dject~v(-nomin21 transformation has takcn place.
nominal cJOC2,.
)maI'
SaWârna
Thus
3D
( ~J :=- + Pd p\\
.
\\
)
~S
ES
')
2
sc
-+-
2
..._~;
2 + 1
'cakes
ploee.
8ut a ct ua.v Lv ,
::.t t ak c s
plaCE.
Duc to s orno
morphophone:nic rLJL:s:;h~;
pr o p os i t Lon
u
h2S bgen d c l o t c o ,
In fact
sorne ::,poskcrs do ut t cr
c auar t so
u
)mfBr.
-.
)m::lr
is
good
rnh a: x
u ·0:,r;18I'·
-
thc
goodncss of ~mar.
Con si cJ Ci'
n 0 ld i~ Il lé
r0 Llo 0 u i ne] 3 e Il t é:: ri C l? 4
f.!_ •
>: (1 î
U
'. .mo r
daféi
rB :r
the:
:3 h l?Ci,JI
of :,;mar
i3 lost

---

332
The dccp structure of this sentence has the following P.markcr:
4.a.
I\\J P
Aux.C
ad j. ;Jr cd
,
f\\
NP
-. \\\\,
1
v
I\\J P
1
\\
1
) l
1
1
1
! \\
1
1
j
' - - _ !
xar
oafa
ChomskY-Qdjunc~~on, wc mOve the N~. object of C.S., in ordor to
rn ak c i t th::; Lc f to s Ls t cr
cf[NP, E.D.

---

333
L~. b.
S
.. ------.
.>:
-------------..-
~J P
Pel. P
/ /
E. S •
/
''"''",-
-:
',,-
NP
VP
Au x. G
adj .Pr cd
-:
NP
-.
,
NP
V
1
1
1
\\
\\
J
1
xar
')mar
am
LJdafa
r c r r
Thon a deletion transformation ~ill rcmovc the VP of F..S.
This produccs 4c.
Finally an insertion transformation ~ill
a t t a c h the preposition
u
to the ~JP right d auq ht cr of [Np, 5],
q cn or a t i n q 4d.
The applicat~on of a~l thosc o Lf f cr on t o pr.r at.Loris
constitutes ~hat wc call horc gcnitive-clauso transformation.
4c.
5
FeL P
. > : ~\\
~JP
NP
Aux.C
adj.Pr~d
\\
' \\
1
\\
1
\\
/ \\\\
1
1
\\
J . . - - .
Xar
)mar
dafa
r c:r

---

334
4d.
Pr ep
NP
Aux.C
ad j . P r ed
\\\\
N
l1\\1
xar
u
d a fa
rc:r
The histori cal
derivation
of 4a c an be p r c s cri t crl
as uridr-r ,
.
SD .
( (
(
( NP)
+ (
( V) + \\~JP)
) )
) + ~
(Aux)
+
( V)
)
)
Il S f\\1 P ES NP NP
vP V
V
NP NP vP ES f\\IP PdP Au x
Aux
V V Pd P S =#
1 +
2
+
3
+
4
+ 5
•
SC :
'1
+
2 + 3 + 4 + 5
=~
) 3 + u + 1 + Li + 5
The gcnitive-elausc transformation may
bc
~cscrib~d
in a no t Il cr
Wa y wh en
the
e mb cd d cds en t en c cha San
r~ P LJ hie h i s
<~ + Pn ",) •
Let us
eonsidcr
the
following sentences 1,
m,
n given
bclow:

---

335
1.
s arna
x a r
d af a
WéD:X
my sheop is white.
m.
xar
da fa-nu: 1
y o u r
(sing) s hc op
is
black.
n.
xaram
dafa
nu:l
h i s s h ccp i s . -b 1 a c k •
l, m, an~ n
arc
rcspcctivcly undcrlincj by la, mB
and n.a
uh i ch arc as
f o l l nus ,
5
.i-> -----------
NP
Pd.P
\\
E.5.
_/~
NP
VP
Aux.G
adj.Prcd
/ \\
\\j
NP
(
1
J
1
am
xar
d El fa
wac : x
1
pcrS.Sing,,!
Poss ..,,,,,
1
(( +. Fn >7
l '/ _
L<-'
Ern ph "7>
1
..........

---

336
m.a
.--------~-- 5- -~-------- - - - - - - -
NP
Pd.P
1
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- .
1
E.S
---
---._-
-
-----
.
~IP
.......:> - Vp~
Aux.C
ad j c Pr ed
V
j
r,ip
'\\
l
,
!
1
1
r
~
am
xar
2 P 5ing
P~s s <:»
Pn •. »
Errph:;:
.
- - - - 5 ·
NP
i1
[ • S •
..-
"------
.. "
NP
.- VP_~
V
~JP
J
!
1
1
~
am
x ar
d af a
ïlu : 1
\\ ~,+ 3 P. 5 ~ n g<
jé' + P 0 s s ,J'
!
( e. + Pn >'
'
;,:.,-
Empr-,'>
1
~
1
8y i.,pplying Chomsky-adjunction transformation,
LJs q eri e r a t e
l.b,
m.b and n.b
given below:
1. b •
_ _---.-- S..--
.
_
NP
J~d. P
--~----
1
[.s
-------------------~
.-'
» Ô :
- - - . . . . . . . -
.---'
Rux.C
adj.Pred
I~R
VP
--»>:-
-~
NP
NP
V
i1i
,2j
am
'+ 1 P 5 ing;l
c+ Pn"
1
,+
Gen i t -;,
1:.- Ernph."
,

---

s
~
/ / /
NP
/"\\
/
\\
\\
, /
. /
o ' Fr ccl
3
J'
(.5
/
'~,
f:\\ux. G
\\iF
\\
'\\
j \\
\\1
\\
1 \\
i
\\
\\
l.:.- ...
"
~----
\\
\\
d af a
\\
~
'.ï.<.+ 2. pers,S ing ;;\\
l~+ \\=ln
·7';
\\
\\ \\ l'-.+ Gonit JI
\\
\\ <'_
(mph"
j
~s
Pd. r
/ /
\\
/ / \\
NP
\\\\
/ ' "
aoj.pr c d
J-l,ux. G
\\

---

338
Thc n a dclGtion transformation will
Qcncratc I.e.,
ms c , and n v c .
1. c ,
::P
Au x. G
a lJ j . PI' cd
/\\
1
1
\\
xar
Vi
d a f a
waJ : x
1 Pors.Sing,..,-
Gcni t z>
Pn »
Em ph ,.,
m. c •
s
---------.
~J P
Pd.P
---------------- \\
.>:
~J P
NP
lux.~
adJ.Prcd
\\
/ \\
l
'.,--
xar
)t1
dafa
nu :1
·1
\\~< + 2 Pcr s vSing ~,\\
<:< +
Pc s s »
1
Pn .,,,,
1
1
l "-<, -
Emph '1>
.J

---

339
n , c ,
Aux.C
ad j -Pr cd.
1
\\
\\
Xar
,e1
dafCl
3 Pers .Sing ~':l
« + Pn '>~
1
l
,'
<« +
_
Ccni t '.»
Aftcr this ~pcration wc substitute: the corrcsponding
Po s s cs s â v.
adjective
for the NP ,e1 segment.
!Jc
q cn o r a t c "1cl,
rn.d,
and n.d
rcspoctivF.ly.
1. d ,
_- S
NP
Pd.P
-: -,
-:
'
.>: ------------- Il
-.
..--'
NP
Adj
Aux.G
adj.Prcd
\\1
1
/\\
1
/
\\
xar
)lf
cl a fa
IJ,;:Q
: x
",
1
\\ « +
, 1 Pcrs.Sin9 .,)\\11
,
'
tT Poss z:
Il
1
(l,
+ ad j 'c)
l'
-

---

m. d ,
3:~ fJ
~J 1-
/ / / \\ " ,
N~
Adj
Aux.C
AcJj.~rccl
/\\
,
\\
1
\\
1
\\
- i - i
x()r
dafa
il U : l
~~+ 2 Pers.sing;-~
<,{ + Poss ~:»
!<<. + Ad j >:>
n • d,
s
,~
NP
Pci • r=
/~NP
Au;;. C
Adj.Pred
\\\\
nu:l
i <'< + 3 Pc,:,s.5ing),;,
1
\\ z" + Puss »
1
L-:i + ad j ):
.\\Jou,
i f Lie rr p l a c •
t Il C
;1 cl • - n 0 cl c:
b y LlO r cl s
f r orn
the l c xie u nj
ue LJill
gcnoratc the s t.r I nqs
gi\\J;~n bcloLI~

---

1.1
x,,,r
Bama
clafi]
GJ,"G : x
s he cp my iS uh i te
~~
iil • 1
cléJfd
e 1
XéJr
~) é.l
nu .-
S he cp
your is black.
' .
n , 1
X,::Œ
am
dafo
nu :1
shccp his(her) is black.
In common speech 1.1
and m.l
arc not
used in Wolof.
An optional pcrmutiJtion-transformation is to bc appliGd. This
oporation will shift the Poss-adj as loft sistcr of NP d~min8tecl
by
NP, Sand gcnoratos the more grammatically acceptable
stri~qs 1.2 and m.2 qivcn bclow:
1.2
lJéC :X
rn y s h c l~ p i s LI Il i t c: •
m.2
XéJ~
Wc notic
t ha t
this op t Lona l
r.:-crmutati:Jn-tr.Jnsformation
docs net lJOrk
for n.1.
If it cJocs,
i t uou l d pr odu ce 112.
am
n'u :l
. c ir
in uh i ch ~asc am ie; no Ln n q r r
aspOSSCSS1Vé
éllJjc:ctivL but
rather ~5 indcFinitc ~rticlc.
Thus n.2. mCClns
Thus am in n.1
and am in n.2 arc tuo differcnt morohc:ncs.
This optional permutation-transformatiDn LJorks fOr
aIl pcrS~~3
cxccpt for
3 Pers. sing.

---

3 l ')
' 4
'
....
~
t~~nsfQrmatiQn i5 8ppl~ed to 8 s~ntcnce ~hGrc NP i3
Pn
the' r~JJ.r· l~:; as
foJ.lcLJ2;'
"
'-"
n
"' ....
( ( \\1)
-l-
(~\\I P ) )
v: \\/
,.'1]
r
'".1 ~
"J.
.J
; .. f-
2
3
s . c.
.: 2 Pc r s
P c: S '" .- :Ci ci j""
5 i n C);
Plu :::'
0
-'-1
','
j:è l T' S . ;J0 S ,::; - ,~ cl j
+ S i ~q
The
f' i r st :me,
c.,:ij---.,
C;cl_it:'.\\/;-rl'Yiiilé:~:isacirJn? C'»Uè:I't~,
-v'
x aLa.
l '. ',
-- ii'~13n u
t li r
r:: h i L d I,' c: n
il CI v:
.01
f i c:L:
intc
the
field
cf the
childrcn
8"
:;,~;:':i<'f-adjunction it be.comes left-siste.r
)
élf
xa1ac
yi.
c o n v cr t s lN F 5 S ]i ,ll: ':1 :-i=' •
c onvr r t
3a2.
t ", c: ï
\\J "1
332
li i l.7i ); r.l
..... .,",
u
i
.-
into

---

343
Herc an actiDn-nominalizati~n-transformatiDn conucrts
Vin t Cl ~,I P •
It should bc no+sd that the V ~ovcs alang with the
NP dominatod by VP if any.
Thou~h the surface structure rnb
,
_ _0
cy
um V):l u xaléD
yi
is 2mbi~uouS, a rcferencc ta the undcrlying structure will ma~G
clEar which intcrprctati~n should bc givon to ~~cy um t):l u
problcm at this St8QC.
Thus the action nominal moues \\/B as
lcft~~st clement of S ehanging it into NP.
The NP Obj2Ct shiftGd a10ng with V bccomcs P~ by the
insertion of t h ;
• l
•
pr r.p o s i t.r on ume
The initial NP diw is thon
He r r. I.JCilS S ; i.n eth éd: t Ilc und crI yin g P. ma r k e r
0 f
3 i s ,q
given bclow:
A
--------- ------ VP
C'
-.J
1
---------
1
l
\\1 El
.>:
------...
1
1
Il
j'Il P
1
VP
1
VO
~
~
V
NP
\\ -
\\
diw
b cy
xalo:::
am
t~):l
xumb
'---'

---

If,
followirig t hc t r a ns f cr mx t i oria I cycle aS defincd
( 1 )
by Chomsky~
wc apply the abovc mentioncd transformations:-
Genitive f\\O(Î\\inal:~~~(tion nornl na l , We oericre t e the surface
string 3, whosc P.marker is
aS
follows:
B•
VP
f'
1
!
1
1
!
/
T
1 \\
\\
!
l..-_-.!..
yi
xumbna
An important problcm arises now, and should bo
d Ls cu s s c d ,
In the ex,]mplc; of 3 wc have a qcnitivc riorn i na I
embedded in an action nominal.
Wc have noticcd tha t the l~ft-
mGst ND in the deep structure P.marker A has bECn delet5d in
ls it always the Case that the lcftmost NP in the deep
structure should b2 d rLc t cd ?
Lët us r c r o ria i d c r the surface structure 3-
Llo
hav c
alrsady saiJ that it can hélvc A as deep structure.
lt maYas
weIl havE tW0 other
diffcrcnt mcanings.
That is it may bD
und Gr lin cd bY t tJ DOt h cr d i f fer en t
P. mar kc r s.
1. S Gel The Sou nd Pat ter n 0 f
En 9 lis hl,
~~. Ch0 rn s k yan d r·-I. Ha Il G
1968,
pp
15-4L'~.

---

345
In faet the: ,ï.ntcrprctation c ou Ld be 3 e
3e
xalau
yi
arnnanu
t·'_:l,...xa1::r:
yi
b r y n ariu
t:,:l ...
the chi l rlr c n h é1 V C a fic l d - the r ~ 1:. 1. dr en h ;J v C plo u 9 h c cl
fi cld
••
a s
wc: +1 as 3d
S orru.on chas
f iclu- chi Idr en ha v c pl oUQ hc:d
fi dLl •••
Let Us givc the r Cf-lI'CS r"ntation of 3c and
3d'; 'l P. mark r s
AC and AD rcspcctively.
AC
s - ________-. VP
E. S. 1
/
---------~
NP
VP
~.
~-~,
V
f,JP
/::05.2
.--------
NP
.---'-JI->
<,
V
NP
x a Lac
bGY
X El La:
am
xumb
.:»

---

3~b
AD .
\\
5
-----------
.-----------
.-
NP
--------------. VP
i
E. S .(1)
.: --------------.
NP
VP
r
~NP
\\
E.S (2)
/~.
I\\JP
VP
»<>;
V
N
\\
xaL:c
boy
di\\J
am
xumb
I f i t
\\Jcre t rUE: t h Elt
t h G l '"ft m0 s t
~I Pin th G d G 0 pst r-e ultur Gis
to bc dcletcd in surfaCE structure,
thcn the
surface structure
of Ad \\JO u l d b c 3 El •
3 El •
mbEY
u m
t .~\\ : l
u
di \\J
X U mb n a
3a
may mcan
1)
diS
arnn a tJ:l- diS1) b cyn a t ye I
••
(somcon~1) ha s ficld-somcon~n pl ou qh cd field)
as \\Jcll aS
field)
or

---

3 1 "'
\\
°1 1
(2)
.
. (1)
cl i w
a mIl a t j : 1- d llu
b C' Yn a t j: l • • •
( 2 ) .
(1)
(Sornconc . ha s flc1cJ - SornconE pLr-u q h cd field)
In the long run this uo uI r] rcveal a vicious c i r c l o, 50, LJh()t
happr ns is that, in the Case of A.D, instcaci of doleting the
IGftmost NP of the decp structure, Wc will delctc th6 NP LJhieh
constitutos the heBei noun of E.S.2.
( E• S • 2
d i w am t.Hl);
the n
wc dd6tr: the V of the s arnc
58 rrt cn c c ,
nominal.
This LJil1 mOV8 the V of Cyr, E.S f
\\;along LJitf; the
r 0 s i ci Ual
[\\11='
0 f
E. S.
2 t 0 th 0 l e Ft m05 t
par t
0 f
th l' s c nt en c c JI sI!.
~~b cy Clndt) : l
and a pre po s i t ion u i 5
i ns cr t 8 ci b 8 t u cG nt") : l a n cl
Xalae yi.
It appcars that the initial NP is not cJel~tEd as LJ8
could have GxpcctGd it.
A dEEpcr analysis shows that the dclotion dcpcnds on
which nominalizati~n is givrn mOre importa~ce.
In othcr uo r d s ,
if the interpretaticJn d op cno s rno r : on the Gcnitivr:::, thc'n tho
initial NP (LJhich happcns
tu bo agent) is delotcd.
But if the
intorpretation dopcnds rnor~ un the action porforrnod by an agent,
then thE initial N~ is not dclctGd.
In this Case the gonitive
NP undergoes the deletion.
i
Thus
uh cn a Uo Lo f
s p ea ko r
comes across sentences like
.:.\\ ' \\ (.~
31y he knoLJs that in 3 thc ~gent of the action is unspecifi cl
and undcrstands that the irnportance is given to LJhom the fi~ld
/
L):l/ bclongs;
ub er ea s in Y he k rious that the r r.La t i o n ac t i orr-
actor is thE Elernent LJhich prr:vails.

---

3~8
3
um
s cma
t'):l
ba
the ploughinJ of my fiGld
y
sama
mbcy
um
t):l
ba
my ploughing of the field
This analysis Can bo pr QS ont Gd aS undEr:
For A
S.O.
(
( NP) + ( V + r~p + V -fi r~ p) ) ,
)
IIJ P ".j
NP rlJP VP
VP 5
NP
:3
5
s.c. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 =~==~
2 + um + 5tu + 3
ForkC
S • D.
( ( (N P
) + (
IJ
+ NP + V + NP) )
)
NpS ~IP
NP
VP
VP
'5
Nil
1
2
3
5
S.C.
t
+ 2 + J + 3 + 5 ====~
2 + um + 5 + u +\\1;3 1
For A.O.
S• D. «
(~I p) .,. (V + ~J P) + V + ~I) 0
)
)
NFS
[~P
NP VP
vr-
S
I\\JP
1
2
4
5
S.e. 1 +2+ 3 +4 +5
===~
2 + um + 5TU + 1
This can be Gxprcsscd in a marc gcncra 1 way as under:
S.D. ( ( ( rll P) + ( V
+ I\\JP + V + NP) ) )
NP$ ~IP NP
vP
Vp S io;p
1
:2
:3
4
5
S,Co 1 + 2 + 3 + LI + §
====;;.
2 + um
+ r:0 + u + {o/ ; 3}

---

We turn nOLJ ta anothcr exa mple LJi th 5.
C"
::J.
Fos
LJU
S :Jx)r
anqi
ci
LJ",n ak
LJi
,"1
v ici DUS horsc is in the li L' r, k. ..y a rd,
This sentence 15 underlincd by thE P~markcr 5a givcn bcloLJ.
5 a.
__----------- S
. i - >
.--- .
VP
,1
1
1
1
i
(2)
Fa J1) r as
First of aIl, LJE have t o notice that
fas(1) and
fas(2)
co r e f er on t.La l ,
If LJC uan t to gcncratc 5 from 5a LJ8 have to
apply a relativG~rulc~transformation.
This 0pGrat~on LJill
convcrt the IL~IP, E.S' f a s into 2 :relative pr orioun ,
Thus LJC
-
.-J
obtain thE FolloLJing P.markcr S.b:

---

350
S.b
s
------------- ----
..
-------- PcI.P
.---
. '~
'<,
Pi:
- ,
./ .>:
"~,
\\1 ~
PI' LP
NP
»<>
->
-,
ri
T
1
f as
WU
ci
wi
p.+ Pn ') -j
l':d l'cl:, 1
1«+ ~ i no ••
~ J
T h i s
t y p C 0 f
n 0 fi: i.n ;:-, 1 i 7 3 t i.: n i s
IJ h é' t
i sC,,,! 11 co c!
" ,: j e c t i ~ al i z Cl tic n .
transformation.
h 8, sne Ces s Clr i lJY the
f ea t ure. (', + adj Œc t ive ">., whco r G a S LV p , E• 5 :-\\
i n rel 2 t ive c I El L! S c h él S
the
Fc Cl t LJ l' C o: + V ')~ •
Wc shal1
d:::::ol
L:;tcr
uit h r r La t iv-
cléJUSC
which is
31so a
typ~ of n~minalization.
Thus
the rulc
for
3~jcctivalization is as follows:
S .0.
(
(
(
~~ p ) + ( p, cl d \\ '
\\
)
j
1
fJP
iJF
S ~J P
l\\jP
Vr:
Vp-
S r·JF
1
2
3
s. C.
1
+ 2 + 3
====~
1 + 2 (R c la t i v i z co)
+ cc

---

351
Let us
consid2r now two mo~c cxamplcs with 6 and 7 givcn bs12w:
6.
.: mal'
bOcgç:rlé.l
fâ : 1)9
........
:,mar wants to studY
.
7.
~;mEl r
b·ôggn'3
mus a ,
je ~~§
'.im
,
a r
ua nts mue; El ,
t ;~; c: t ud y
ar o thci:c
rospoctivc undcrlying P.markcrs?
6.a.
s .___ ----
..--.---
--.
NP
-------
\\
V8
1
i
»>: ~----
i
-----.
1
v
1
1
il
1
\\
!
\\
i
,
1i
;
VP
1
,
,.
,
l
..__ :
Dl3ggn c1
J.ma1.'
- -------
_.-
'J
~I :_1
.\\
1\\
1
E.S
..-
/ \\\\
" ü
/
\\
.1_._-...-.\\
)mar
b\\!go,l'd
L·le
notice t ha t
in 6a.
as wcll a s .i n 73, él s r-rrt rnc « :la3 b c e n
cmbcddc~ in the main sentence and functions as V~ complement,

---

352
That is to say thcsc embcddcd sentences have bccn nominalized.
In fact,
wc can replace them by any word which bslongs to the
C iJ t cCl 0 r y
~J.
Now lGt us
considcr 6a"
It appears that both :>mars a r e corcfcrcntia1.
In o r d rr
to o c or.r at c 6 From ba, ~e have to apply uha t
is
krinun as
Equj __
NP d r Le t i on ,
This operation will sirnply d e Lrt c the s e corid I~P
which is [N~, crno c dd c d 6].
Thus LJE: q e ric r a t c the P.I~aJ.kcr 6b
LJhich i5 the rcprcsentation of 6.
6b.
~JP
1
va
r,i P
1
1
1
/
\\'.
1
-1
..
j
"
._-'-_.~.-
b"ég gna
ja:fJg
Cons id cI' in 9 7 CJ,
t h C t WO NPs
ha pp en
t 0 b c ,j i f fore n t
NPs.
In this Case, the Equi-N~-dcl.ction can no longsr bo
appli~d.
Thus the cmbcddad sentcncc-mus8: ja:~g, as a LJholc
fun ct ion Sas rI) p "
OnCE again,
wc can say that any wo~d From
N c at s oo r y c a n be substitutnd for
the 1,/hol,J s r n t cn c.e ,
This
t YP c 0 f
nomi n3 l i z a ti CJn i s k n 0 wn as i n fi nit i Va l
n (J i1 :;'l al.
So wc can stato that
whcn 2 scntQncc undGrgo~s
infinitival npmina 1 the rulc is as folloLJs:

---

S.D.
( (
l'JI'
)
+
( (
V ) .j,
( (
(
NP )
+ ( V~) ) , )3~~~
# S
NP
f~P
VP
V V
NP ES NP NP
Vp
vP ES NP VP S #
1
2
"3
4
S.c.
1 + 2 + :3 + 4
=== =~>{ 1 +2 + -4-- in Env--+~+
1 + 2 + :3 of. 4
II.2,D.12 Pronominalizaticn transformation
_.- --
.
.... ..--'-
_~
.,'
.." .-. ..._.....__..---.~
. ----._..._--.•.._- ..~ ....~
Pronominalization transformation i3 the operation
which r e pl o c es
an NP<~-Pn/) by an r0PLI. + Pn»),
This s ubs t i t u t i n o
element Is traditionally known ~s Pronoun.
Strictly speaking the Pronoun JOBS not a1ways r~~lace
an NP already IIH:ntioned.
TI,8 r e f e r an t rn a y be,
for Lris t anc e , the
speaker or t hs he a r er .
In sorne instances the pr orioun itself
is a VaCUOUs element.
Consider the following sentences.
dafa
JmaT
has tak~n a bath
dafa
Assume that 1 a i8 the P,marker of the: d e e p structure
From which WE darive 1 and 2.
1 a
s - ----
NP
Au x. C
V
)mar
da
ri,.,. [-J -.~~
i
\\-:.. + Pr es ent ;;1
« <+-
rr l 5 j. n 9 i>
-1
1
{(- Emph ;,:.,1
1..
l
t Per fect,) !
(l,
-!

---

If LJe ldant to q e ne r a t e 2,
LJ8 uiH first apply a
354
verb ccpying-transformation on 1a.
This op3Tation gives
the folloLJing P.marker 1b.
1b.
c
---.----- --. ~---
'-'
---.---
~
..
~J P
Pd. P
-_.-._._.
1
\\!
1
Aux.V
.:mar
da
I~;+ N >'>
Pr es ent ;",
l'~+ 3 Pers.5inQ»
3 Pers.Sing>,
;l,.'- Emph y)
L
Perfect -,.,
WQ.
Then to 1b~must apply the Aux.afs-segment-transforma-
t i on ,
This operation .c oris i s t s of cr e a t i nu anode ;!'lux.afs LJn.l.ch
LJill become right daug~ter of Aux.C.
NClJ
1'/8
ha v c 1(;.
1 c •
---.._-------------Pd.P
\\
Aux.C
v
/"~
j
Au x. V
Aux.al"
1
da
sal)gu
- . ; '
i"
\\ \\ +
N"»
'1
+ Pre S Elnt, "
\\
('+ 3 Pers.Sing »i
1 /:
+ 3 P ers •Sin 9 )"
<~-
Em ph ":-;;.
1,-1...+ Perfect.,
1

---

3 t::" r
,J ~
Then, ~e 3Pply the Aux.afs-copying-transFormation.
Hers this operation ~ill tfansfer step by step the verbal
f e a t ur es
of Par s cn , t en s a and
aSPect onto the Aux.afs-segment.
At this ~tage, ~e are intsrested in the copy~ng the
features of PersOn only.
Now uo have 'l d .
1d •
s
-----
NP-------
Pd.P
1
N
Jmar
da
1
-1' +
3 Pers.'·'l
(I~+- Sin go.,
1
N " ) \\
_._
__J
0+
Pr 8 sen t ))
3 P er s . Sin 9 ))\\
,:(+
3
Pers.Sinq
L('-
1
Emph -",
1
1
.J
J
If ~e replace nOLJ the segment P~fs.af b y the
corresponding morpheme From the lexicon ~e generate 1e.
1 e.
S ______--------_Pd.P
-------
Au x. C
VP
..------
Au;<.V
"---------
,Clux.Afs
1
Pers.af
:;mar
da
Fa
s arj qu
\\~~ + Pn .~,>
1:.
'l
3 p~rs;]
l'< 3 Pers .Sing>,
l./~ «
..j
S ln 9 ~)
+
I~:: Pr 8S8nt >'j
\\ " +
Perfect».
'--
-;
(/.. -
Emph )'>

---

356
Now, in arder to generate 2 Wc have ta apply
Pronomi n21ization-tr3nsfarmat:ion
Of:
18.
Thus
W8
h av e the
P.marker r;ivcn b8~OW:
1 f
-s
._------ ---------~----PcI.P
------
---------
1
.. -
------_.
1
,c,ux.C
II P
~-
-------.
ALI x. \\1
Aux.Afs
i
Pn
PE-.l:s.af'
\\
1
~
da
f' ~
s ar:qu
Cl
1-1 ; + Pn
-,-',
r.
rt
: ". ·-r
J
1 <'
+
1_<'- -
Ernph -"
,
ThE' P.In<JrkGl'
1 f
.i n d ic a t e s t hat :iJ! the s s n t o nc e ::2 tilt:'
Pn is a zero-morpheme.
Assume
nO'JJJ
thot the
NP in 1a had the fea i U r 2 ~+ fmp ».
T hE' P. ni a r k er
lJ il1
b 8
the n) -Q •• 1 Ç1 iVe r: b t: ~ 0 u t
1a .1
--._-----
-------
NP
Pd. P
{J,U.'(" C
VP
1
. ,'·,L; X • V
\\
\\
\\
1
!
:.Jmar
cl a
.-
1'-'+
r-
I~ "
I
('
1
ic + 3 Pers. S i n q.
i
/
» ,
?erfect »
l ,. + Eni ph."
C.

---

~ 5""
o ~ ,
8y
3PplyinÇ] the same
t.r an s f or ma t iun s ,
LJe Can q c n e ra t e the
P.marker
Qiven beloLJ:
1 a- 2
s -"
---- --
NP
0--1
::J
• LJ 0 .
-----
..
-- -----------_.
VP
.-~."
Aux.Afs
\\
i
Pn
cla
F,C]
l~
Pn
',-
+
\\ -</3
3 Per.Sing,~)
:-'erfect -,)
\\:~, : E'-'I-Jh -,'.
Th i s
t i [Tl el,} C' n 0 tic c t il El t
t hc [J:r:' (J il 0 uni s
n 0 t
a z e r 0-
marphema but a
LJard LJhich stands
fc~ )mar,
Cansider nou scnt~nC~f-3
JméJ r
rla f'3
Sc., f) 9
b~ : p P;11 1
'--
~
Assume t ha t
the u n o e r Lv i n o st ru ccuro of 3 .1S the P.ma:rker r~
A
-'---'- ---.
-.-..
NP
------'
------.
Pd.P
\\
-
- - - - - - .
- - - - - - - - - - - .
1
i
--_.--
(i,lIX.C
Va,
rJ
1
/J, U ,~~ • \\j
.,._..., ..
V
NP
1
1
S ::Cl Il Ç'
~.',.mélr
';ma r
'.~
r-
I
;...1::
:-,., -:-
8 s e.ll-~ ..... ( "
r~
.; "
J /
. ' .
\\1-' + ~J
i
III + 3 Pers.Sing~>1
l, -:-
\\! -"lG'~fcC'-, '>J
P _0' r c; S ~ rr ;J )~
L_
1 .•
.s:
1
1
p...->
\\
'-.
r.1 ex~"e
. . . . . .
,.
. , '

---

358
If we 8Pply verb-copying transformation,
then Aux.Afs-Segment-
Transformation and Aux.Afs-Copying-transformation.
We generate
3a.
(.i)
(.1)
3a
* )ma r
dafa
sa~g
)m 'J r
( 1)
( 1\\
)mar
has bath8c1 ':jmar
It happens that 3a is not grammatical.
The reason .is
that in 3a )mar (NP)
and '~'mar (Obj) are both in the same simple
sentence and arro coreferential.
In su ch Case a pronominalization
transformation is a must.
This operation will consist of the
replacement oF the NP-Object by a pronoun with which it has
concord.
Thu s W E 0 b t a in the P. ma r k e r
3b
eJ hic h des cri b es
3 •
3b.
S
Pd • P
N
,Q.ux. V
AlIX.,Clfs
\\JI
NP
Pe r s
Pn
v
a f
1
\\
:Jmar
da
fa
1-;" + I\\J - J ) - \\
Pn
?>
1'< + 3 Pers.Sing>J
3 Pers.Sing
Reflexive ,-0

---

359
Now,let us analyse anothsr aspect through the sentence 4.
ja ~yn;:J:'
h~6
l
have sold mine
I
havt] s o Ld ray
shee!J
POllowing the derivation al~8ady givsn, thE P.marker of 42
èJill be El q i.v cn bel o u :
B
----------
I\\J P
Pel.P
.--.-
---
'Aux.C
\\/P
VB
~J P
Pn
Aux.,afs
V
i.-,
xar
..J c.. 'J
•
s a~;12
,-
I/./ +
Pers .S ing..,
Emph ,',

---

3(:i 0
If u e iJ s S U Il: e t fi a t b -,s
((~ ) s tan ds for xa r (.4a) , it mc ans
that a pronominalization transformation has takEn plac8)
changing
8 i nt o C.
Notice that affix-ho[Jping transformation ha s m:JvEc! the Pers ",]:'
as riQht-daughter of V.
c
------ --------------.Pd.p
VP
va
»->:
--
-
v
l'JP
. /
/ /
/
/ /
-:
Pn
Dsc'
jiJ : y
na ~
S 2lT18
b )5
(( + P n ,)
/;
Pn
;
/"'- Emph
4-
e;", n.. t -\\.' r~
,
! ~.
+ c:: ing
5 •
ia :yna:
s a mé1 )'
xar
l
hav~ sold my shcep

---

361
It C]08~, ui t r.ou t
s a y i n q that 4a
and
5 differ only
l'8ga rdillÇ] the nurnb r.r
f e a t ur e on
the segment N.P.
Object.
Thus
the P~marker Ca LJhich describes 5 LJill be the counterpart oF
P. mar~er -C.
Ca.
~s
/ - - -
NP
Pd·~P
\\
l
VP
i
\\
VB
\\
~-~ .-
1
v
\\
Pn
Det
,
\\
Por Se
oet
Pn
ja:y
na:
sama
ay
l
i,
1.: + P lur ,+ Pn,
Emph »
1
.'+ C;Eni-tjV~:J'
1
1 Pers.Sing>i
,+ Plur -»
1
.-'

---

362
II.2.0.13
RELATI\\JE
CLAUSE
- 0 "
~ . . _
• • _
. . . _ _ .~• • • • ~ " _
At
this stage
we want to 8xemplify the procedure of
rel~ti\\..'i?·2tion Or rrcliltivE transformation.
Relative t r an sr o r ma-
tion is thE devicG by which a
sentence is
transf;rmed into the
detErminer of an ~JP.
8y
the s arn e togken,
this
s en t sn c s becor,!es
a
constituent of the constitute NP which it
0~termines.
Before going
further
in this
task,
we feel
that i t is
at
i mpar tan t
t o c l a r if y Cl n as P 2 C t
LJhic h ,/ bot h
for mal a ri d S / n tac tic
leveis
could imply 80me confusion as
ta the r8cogniti~n of :o~~-
tive pronoun on
the one hand,
and article on
the othEr
ha'ld.
Consider the sentences given below:
1.
Fas
wi
ga:wna
( h 0 r s e t h e f a s t )
«" Pr ['s '': nt _~> )
the horse is
f3St
a L,J
Fas
ga:Uila
(a ho r sc
~: --, "..)..) t
Pr ~ Sen -L'- .'.> ')
> ,
' c , o l /
, ' <,
cc
c
a
hor se .i s
f.:::st
the il0 r S 8
tJ il ici Î d n :) r
h as sol d .i s
f Cls t
aw
f as
LIU
~ma r
ja: y
ga:wna
(a !lorse wilicil ~mar
sold f2St)
a hors8 which )mar has sOilid_is
fast

---

363
If we assume t ha t
wi in 1 .i s an a r t Lc Le , considering 3
we may ~le naturally t.smp t ad to say tha"t th!? head-noun of NP is -
fa s wi -.
The n consequently ws would conclude that the ~plativ8
claUSE -
)mar ia:y -
i8 directly introduced under domination of
the s ur f ac s s t r u c t ur c ié:' co nc or n nd ,
r 0 l' the s a k e 0 fou l' e X Gmpli fic a t ion 1
we pur po sel y
ignore the other alternative which would havE' bee n ta consider
that a deletion of the assumed opsrator might have taken ~lacG.
Eornp a r Ln q
2 with 4 n c u ,
we notice t ha t
the :.r-el ative
c l aus s -
'l~!l1 )mar
J-a:y -
is .i n t.r o duc e d by the Pn - wu -
which
is co r o f er o rrt i a.l u i t h the head-noun of \\ NP) S-l - 3W fas -
•
'--
-
ReconsiderinQ 5-3,
we oould envisage -
wi -
functioning
as relative pronoun instead of article.
We could also assume that - ~i -
h~d a double function
of article and relative pronoun as weIl,
and 3ssign it a
s t a tus
l i le f?, S éJ y, rel a t i vs art i c l (3 .'
The ambiguity in 5-3 is dUE to two major fôcts;
one
is syntactic, th!? o t hr r
.i s IT:orpholo(~ic,'Jl.
The
fOrmer
is t hr t
in Wolof,
d e f i n i t c article follows
no un ,
The, latter .i s that
relatiVE pronoun and article are homonyms when the head-noun ia
« + d G fin i t c: » •
Thus it 888ms that in S~3 the usage of article
would be r edunc1ant •

---

Nevertheless
W8
may have sentenCe like 3a.
3a.
fas
W1
Jmar
ja:y
wi
Qa:wna
(horse LJhich '::mar s o Ld the fast)
( <-,--Present.,))
the horse which jmar sold i5 fast
where the s eco nj
- LJi - i5 an article an d as predictable occurs
a fter the -nOli,]
Fas
wi
-rno r
j a =y
~,j
fJ
We should bear in mind that the first -wi -
in the string 3a
belongs
to the clause embedded mn #
S
#
fas
wi ga:wna and
that the second -
wi -
is an
element of the d i s c ont i riuo ur
constituent fas
wi.
The occurrence cf S like 3a is attested in Dr. Pathe
Diagne's Grammaire de
Lo Lo f moclerne
:
Il
0 ans
COI'
r:; i :
mUa n d i l ' é.....non c é. mu Cl ndie~ t une
.....
exp anc i on
de ~or qi .. gi ~ (sic) valeur nronornin,3le
.'1 1 2
et
es t
appos é ~ "Jor:
gi mu e nd i
q i ,
'
Let us turn now to onother aspect of relative
transformJtion.
Ccn si d ar the selli~2jlc,;S 5-8 given below:
5.
gana:r
Qi
)mar
ja:y
ba:xul
(Chicken IJhich,':mar
to scll ,Pr.Perf'90od .,Present,.',
not)
the chicken which )mar ha3 sold is not good.
1.
Cf.
Pat h e Dia Q n.e,
1 971,
p.
1 81;
n 0 te -
2.
2.
Translation
j'in Corgi: mu andi the clause mu andi is an
8xpansi~n of gor
gi.
qi has* a pronominal valus and is apposEd
to
-
. . . .
. .
o or :
gOI'
Ç11
mu e nd i
q r .
* We aSsume that UE should :L'Bad a instead of a in the French
quotation.

---

365
6.
gana;r
gi
)mar
~a$Y
gi
ba.xul
( chi c k 8 nS whi ch) ma r t 0 El sll «P r • Pe r f)o
the good
~'~r8sent»
not)
the chicken which )mar has sold ls not good
7.
ap
ganarr
QU
Jmar
ja:y
ba;xul
(a ch i c k en uh l c h )mar to sell ~.(Presenit:"
a ch~cken which ~mar sel1s is not good
8.
gana:r
gu
Jmar
ja;y
ba:xul
(Chickf:-,n
which )mar ta sell good
_"Presen1-"
not)
a chicken wh:ch )mar sells i5 not good,
If WB
com~arc 5 with 6 We notice that in 5 there i3
no occurrence of arti~18s, uh ar c as in (] there I s .
At
this
stage,
this is not a p r ob l om , b e c aus o I.JB have alreac:y€xplainéJ,
t h i s ( Cf,note 1 Page 363":'4). r'!eveTtheless it is worth repsating
that the ~ definiteness of ~he head-noun gana:r is
easily
retraceable from the sur~ace structure •
We saw in the subcategorization rules that
j' rl e f. Rel. P n
i.
+ number
i n d e f , R el • Pn, )
s Lnc e d e f , Rel.Pn.
is gi (ancl its allomorphs) , it .i s
ob vi ou s
-Thus
the o c cur r enc o of the article gi
uh i c h syntaçti-,
cally detcrmines th2 dufiniteness of gana:r is redundant.

---

366
The 5ame Or~um8nt could do
fOr
the absEnco of
article in 8.
Act ua 11 y gui S
coi n e d a s i r rj E' f , R C? 1.
P n •
This i s su f fi ci en t
t 0
in f 0 rrn lE; about thE f e a t ur E (, + cl e finit E.>;
no
of gana:r in 7.
Th ET:? .is . p CJ in t
0 f
con 5 i d er i n 9 g u as a
relatiVE article given that 7 attests the distinct occurrence
of article and relativE pronoun.
Sentence? ~ike 7 is quite
c ornrnnn in Uolof.
Let us examine now how a sentence 15 tutnsd into a
clause which determines an NP.
Co ns i d nr s ent cn ce s ~ik8,
9 ari d 10
9.
c as ku
huy
WaX
ba:xul
Parrot + which+progressivc + talk + good,
n o t
<."
Present-,>
A Parrot which falks is ,'lot good
1 'J •
CéB k u
b i
')m a r
CI i 5
b a : xU l
Sentence 9 has the following prQpositions:
9a.
CéJ2 ku
LJaX
( ernb edo ed )
9b.
Cœku
ba:xul
Parrot is ,'lot
goorl

---

36'/
Sentence 1 !J has
the f'o Ll.o u.i n q
pro pas i ti ons:
1']a.
.~mar
CJisna
CEEJku
C ~""\\,QdàQ4 )
)m~r
has s sen Parrot
10b.
CéEku
b a :xul
( \\\\0..\\" 'x)
Par r ot
is n o t
good.
This enab18s us
ta r o pr es arrt bF.'loLJ the r o s p ec t i v e un d e r Ly i n o
,
P.markers of 9 a rio 1iJ uh i ch are 9.1 and 10.1
:
9.1
5 ____.-------------....
l'JP
.r >.E~S
Ad j • Pr Bd
NP
1\\
/~
NP
VP
\\\\
\\
\\
\\\\
\\
1
\\
,
1
i_ _ _ _ _
\\_!1.
..
_ .
0i
-
CéB ku
Ca::' ku
y LJa x
ba=xul
i '. ,+
1 ~L. + N"-I
f'J
-»
1
1·
de f ~> !
L" - d ef»
l",
i
(
+ Sin g >.OÎ
;
( ' , +
Sinn.,

---

368
s
. i > :
._----.-- --
------------------PcI.P
E.S
Adj.
/
NP
Pred .I~
\\,
1
1
1
)
J
VB
/ ,
1
.: ~
1
<,
(
V
NP
1
,
\\
\\
1
' - - - '
CéB ku
::"m a r
gis
cEe ku
ba:xul
1-'
)<,+
'1
1
1
L.', +
r\\J
"»
r'~ ',)
,l': def>"
'{: + d
1
8 f >\\
Sin g.)i
:.Jin~l »1
.-J
LJe a s s urn s that the tLJO NPs CEB ku in 9 a s LJell as in
10 refer to the 8ame reality in each 5Bntence~
'Je
l'DticE that in 9 as LJell as in 1CJ, the
f i r s t
f',jP
--!
But) LJhile the second NP CéB ku is 1-NP,
E.S 1
VP 1
[ ..,s'I
i ~
_, •. J
This difference of syntactic behaviour i5 relevant
fOr their respective procedures of QeneTation.
First let us consideT the derivation of 9.
The relative rule transformation will generate 9.2
~

---

369
----~._---- Pd.P
E.S
~----
'-------.._--
.
.
-~
< ,-.
l'J P
VP
,
i
\\
\\
Ad~
N
v
/\\
l'
,\\
1 \\
1
\\
J
\\
,
\\
l
'
/
\\
/
'.
.
'.
_L_----'-
CEfJ ku
Cae ku
y
wax
ba:xui
r\\j >::
-1 i ,-, + [~
l«+ i nu ef c-:
in c.I e f o: 1 1
1'/+
Pn ;,:.
L.+ rel -,-,
The n We 8Pply to 9~2 the article-segment transfnrma-
tion.
This operation will generate the P.Marker 9.3 :
9.3
------ Pel.P
A,j j
v
.'
",
"
.C!-._-_\\
CEE ku
Cae kù
y
wax
ba~xul
-.,
"
~
-,
""::',
+ ar t ~> 1
+ N)) Il.+ art »»
! {...L- N .",,'
,- ,
\\'
1
<. +
ind e fi,
\\:,~ ind e f, !,.+ Inded
r,
-+ Singc»!
+ Ind-'il+ Pn -
L+ Pn
l
;>')
~
.)
1
:+ r el.~
+ Rel'

---

3'70
We have nOLI to replace" the article segments
by
uor ds
f rom the. 1 ex i con •
The r e s u1.tin 9 s tri n g wi11.
b 8 9· a. :
9 3.
~ ap
Ca::' (U
bu
cee ku
y
ua x
ba: xul
But 9 .. a.
for
Wolof nati~le speaker is ungralnmatical.
One more
transformation i3 still
ta be applied,
that i3
the
r e l a t Lv i z ed noun-deletion t r a ns f o r rna t i ori ,
T!,is operation will
9 8 n e rat e t h e gr a mma tic a I s ur f a c [:" s t rue t ure
p. ma r k e r
9 ~. 4
s --______-.--
~~ p
-
Pd .. P
->
~J P
F:: • 5 •
/ / / " ' ' ' ' ' ,
->
/ /
~
T
N
I\\J P
pd.P
Acl j
\\
\\
\\
V
1 \\ .
/\\
1
L'-~-
,L \\
ap
Cas ku
bu
y
ua x
ba:xul
~JalJ, given t he t the r o L, Pn. bu has the feature",:+i.nd·,,>
an optional article-deletion transf~rmation will t~ke place.
This
will
clelete the article of the
head-noun
of Sand
generate the string -
9
:
9 •
(éD ku
buy
wax
ba:xul
Consider HJ,1
ncu,
The application
of relative rule
transformation
will
gener~te
the P.marker 1'=.2.

---

371
10. 2.
_3----
----.
---
.--
--
.>:-r~ P __________
Pd.P
NP
LS.
--------- ------..,.
NP
Pd.P
\\
VP____
Ad j
»->:"
-------.
l'
V
NP
'\\
1 \\
/
,
'
1
\\ .
. - ; - - - - -
Coo ku
)ma r
gis
ba:xul
<, + N >'
~,+ d ef')
<:+
Sing:'
~<. + Pn :>:
L'(+ rel~.,
Contrary to 9~2 we have to apply 3 moveffisnt transfor-
mation.
This operation will move\\ NP lvp, E.;srl to '.:he front
L
-,_1
of E.5.
The resulting P.rnarker will b « 1Cl.3 q i v r n b o Lo u,
11] • 3
)
S
NP-----
-----
PcJ.P
NP
------E.S
1
i
- - - - - - - -
NP
NP
Pd.P
Adj.
!
\\
VP
J"
!
. \\
1
/ \\
V
/
\\
1
\\
1
' - - - -...'
CCf' ku
<:as ku
gis
lJa:xul

---

372
AfteT this ~e Can no~ apply respectively artic18~
segment transformation and relativized.noun~d8letion
transformation to 10 t3.
This operation q armr a t e s the string 10"',0):
10 ,,1 •
Ca3 ku
bi
bi
)mar
gis
ba:xul
Yet 1CJ-1 .i s not cr amrna t i c a L, b e c au s e def.T h as to be
placed after the f'~ coris t i t.u no n (cr, Pagé 363). This uill
generate the follouing P.markeTs 10... 4 by the applicatinn o r
article-movement transformatlo~.
s -
~------ Pd. P
[.S
1
1
~/!'~~-
Nf
NP
Pd~P
Adj
i
v
t1\\
1
\\
.1.
.
C ce k u b 1 )ma r
gis
bi
ba:xul
The oenerated string lq th8n quite grammatical as
~e have alre~dy SGen it,
( Cf.
Î~ 0 t l?
1
P 3 9 e ,
But,
From a statistical point of vie~ one more trans~
formation has to taks place, that ls
thE article-deletion-
transformation.

---

373
Ue have already seen that this optional transformation
is mo t ivat c o by the fact th;:lt in MoJoj? the relative pronoun)
itselF, gives aIl the semantic features which the article
!JOU l d
9 ive.
Thus the sentence? 1>Ihich 15 9(?'nerated is HJ
10.
Cœku
bi omar
gis
b a t xu I
~8 can now statE the following rulos:
In a relative clause transformation,
when the
r
ide nt i cal
l'J P i s
r,j p 1
E. SJ
l>Je have:
ç(T) + ( r~))
s.n. ( ( UN). +
(T)
)
+ (
( 1(10 )
+
(T)
) + (V?))
) + (VP)'
)
-II S
NP Nf' N N
T
Oi
c;
~
i
Nf>
ES "P
tJ
N
T
,.
~\\~
~f'
~r E,HIt' '''',P
t'cH'
..; ~
-. .-:.
, ..
{; +
:2
+
2 1
3
+
4
+
5
1-
6
+
s. c.
{: 2)
1(1)+ 2 + :'3 -fl 5 + G
===~
+ 2
+ 3+4-:-5+6
. 1 ' + 4 + ~) + ( 2) + 6 ~
then LJ8 havr:
)
,1
-
s .'0 •
( (
( ~ ( r·1 )
# 5. Nf' ~f. l(T)
1 .. 2
+
+
4
+
5 + 6
+
?
S.c. t::j +3+4+5+6+7 ====:?1 1 + 6 + 3 + 4 +- (2) + 7]
f(1) + 2 + 5 + 3 + 4 + 7

---

374
11.2.D.14
R Ert. ;:: xIV rZ(.\\ T r0 N
ThE Proc~ss of reflExivization is a 8yntactic
phenomEnon that consists of deleting ln NP object wh~n it is
identical with thE NP subject in a Same simple sentenc~)or
rcplacing it by its corresponding anaphoric Ieflexivc.
Let us consider thE following sentences:
1 •
)mar
d8faY
)mar is shaving
Assume that 1 is derived From the un d ar Ly i n q string 2 q.i v sn b oLo c.:
( 1 )
( 1 )
2. * )mar
dafay W) t ) mar
(..1)
('1 )
'.)mar shaves :) mar
where the two NPs are correferential and identical.
2. is ungrammatical and requites
the application of reflexivE
trans formation"
This transfcrmation will cb ano e it I n t o the
sur f El CeS tri n Q 1 wh i chi s a gr am mat i cal
on è
•
Civen that the P.marker of 2 is A presented below,
WB
haVE to
a pp l Y fi r s tan .i d s n t i CEl 1- NP d el et i l:l t ra n s f or ma t ion.
This
generates the P.mafker 8:
A
---------_
I\\IP
----
..
-----
Pd. P----
..
Au x. c
VP
!\\
----- \\V8 _
V
NP
1
1\\\\
l
1
'1)
J'nar

---

37S
B
s
----.._--- -
h
_
[\\1 P
Pd.P
------_.__...-
.s->:
1
Aux.C
VP
1
1
J\\
\\
l
1 .
, \\
va
1
!\\,
i
v
\\\\
1
i
1
Jmar
dafay
To
8
WE ap~ly
now a transformation that we will c311
u- r e fl e ;<Ï Il iz i n 9 t ra ns f or mat ion.
Th i s 0 p er :3 t ion will éJt tac h
thE' formütive -u
ta the verbe
Thus the F.marker C r o pr r s an t i np
1 is generated.
Notice that W8 have inserted directly the
Au x. C.
C
s '-'~'_ --_.
----------
Pd.P
._.. -----.- ------- 1
Aux.C.
VP
1
,
i
va
\\
1
v
,
\\
if
1
1
,
1
Vst
i
! \\\\\\.
.vnar
dafay
u

---

37&
At their surface level
i t cou~d appear that syntactically
there is no d i f f e r s nc s beh!p.8n reflexive s nn t o n c e and a
Passive sontence.
l'JO LJ,
ho i, to
identify LJhether a sentence is
Passi~ or reflexive ?
An application of reflexive-pronoun
test Can help.
For examplE-,1
i s are f l ex i V'2 S 8 n t (,ne E i f LJE CéJ n h a ve
1 - a;
1 •
dafay
1a.':;mar
dafay
~mar
shaves himself.
Suppose we apply
the sa~e test to 3 underlinod by 4:
3.
::"mar
da Fay
LJ:tu
Lj.
fJgo~r
da Fay
w-t ')mar
'--'"
i)go:r s ha v eS
-.::ma r .
--
Ue cannot recover 3a.
d a f av
LJ:)t
bJ:ppam
50 the test does not
work.
Ue r-o nr-Lu d r t hs t
3 is ~ a
Passive sentencr:.
The reflexivization can be formalized
thus;
, )
( Np.1)
S • D•
(
(
f\\J p'1 )
(i4UX.)
( V) + )
) )
S
fJ P
r~ p
Pd.P
Pd. P S
1
2
3
4
5 . c.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
-:='':';::'''::;'è:;)
+ 2 + 3 + u
(Rearrangemollt c::dfecting Aux.C.
fTloy take place.)

---

377
11.2.0
15
H1PER AT IVE TR A~.jS rDRrfJAT r DI\\J
The Imperative tr~nsformation is a device by which
a sentencE, synt;ctically sPGaking,
carries the feature
(".; + Comma n d >.,
Say,1
anC\\2
1.
l éB : I~~ a l
eat
2 •
b u l
l ae : k k
' - - /
cl on' t
Gat
The underlying structure of 1 and 2 are r os p ec t i ve l y 1,3 and 2a.
1 a
_--- c,
_________
Md-----------=---------
NP
~
-----------------------~d.P
lœ i k k
r
- < +
C0 m~ .- -1
<. .:.
2 Pers . Sin g ':1'
[ <, + Pos l t > i L."- Emph '>
2a
_ _ --5
._----------
.>:..
-----------
Pl cl
f\\'\\?
Pd. P
i
1
\\
1
Pn
v
1
1
;;1
lœ : kk
-{
Comd ") 11,j
l\\jeg')J

---

37b
If we compare the above underlying P.markers
with thE
follow-
ing surface structure P.markers 1b and
2b
which correspand
r e s P E'C t ive l y t 0
1 and
2,
w2 n 0 tic e t h a t
l,Jh 8 n
a n 1 rn p e rat ive
sentence is «'+ Posit",
the s yn t n c t i c structuro to
co n vr y
the l''ld "", Irn p v
is
the
formation
Pers-af suffixed to the?
V.
But
wh Ena n i mp e r é1 t ive s 8 n t r:n c 8 i s (<:+ ~I e 9 >,'
t h 8 S y n tac tic
structure to convEY
the ~ld '.Imp >~, is the Aux. C (b+u+Pers.af)
p r ec ed i nq
the
V.
1b
_---- s
--'-----------
1
NP
Pr ed • P
1
V[I
.------------- -----.
Vst
Pers.af
1
l ae : kk
al
r;;, +
I Sin 9 -", --1
"'+ Command ;"
l:'+ Posit?> .:
2b
S - -
_
r-.JP
--_Pd.P
----~------
..
\\
Aux.C
VS
- ' - '
- -
~l d
Aux.af
-
1
/~. ----------_..
\\
\\
Imp ,
NeC]
Pers.af
Vs t
marker
b
u
+éE :kk
'-.-'
«+ 2 Pers.Sing~'·
' +
Imp ,')

---

379
The genoratti;on of 1b
LJill differ From t he t
of 2b,
duo
to the difference of a f e a t ur e i(+ Posit:».
In order to
generate 2b,
LJe first
apply
verb-copying
transformation LJhich LJill genoratc concord botLJeen V and NP.
The n, LJE have to apply
one more verb copying-transformation
LJhich ~ill attribute to V all the featurGs of Md.
After this
operation,
LJE' ap ol y reSPEctffJvely Aux.C. Segment
transforma-
tion, Pers.af.segment
transformation, and Mel. movement. tral]s-
fOrmatiCln.
This
latter operation moves Md as loft dau~htor of
Aux.C.
Finally NP a:1d the initial r~d are delFLscI, arici their
nodes removod From the troc.
NOLJ,
Pers.af.
i:Opying trar.sfOHla-
tion and Md.copying transformation are
applied.
~JOLJ, in o r d nr to q crie r a t o , 1b, we app l y verb-copying transforma-
tion LJhich LJill generate concord betLJ8En V and NP.
Thc n, LJe
have to apply one more vorb-copying transformation LJhich LJill
attribute to V all the features of Md.
After this 8peration, LJ8
apply r as p oc t.Lvs Ly .~ux.C.Scgmcnt transformation and Pers.af.sc:q.,
trans/
rinally NP is deleted anl1 its
node remov"d
f r orn
the trec.
NOLJ, LJe pcrform Pers.af-copying transformation.
Hor e , the
affix-hopping transformation t~kcs place.
This
operation
b r Ln qs
t n. nodc Aux.C.
round the V, and re,:Jrrangement r u l os
can apply.
NOLJ , let us
consicler t ho f o Ll o u i n q par ad i qrn ,
4.
na:
cléE m
let me go
'7
J .
da8 m
go (sinqular)
1. Pcrson-affix-segmcnt Transformation.

---

380
5.
na
déB m
let him
(shG,~t) go
6.
né3nu
déB m
let us
gO
go
(plural)
8.
nanu
d ae m
l et
th ern
go
SUPPOse we want
ta
generate 3,
f r orn
the P.markGr
3a given b e l o u ;
3a.
-------------------- ~------------
-:
Md
NP
Pd. P
1
.-----------------\\
Au x" C
VP
\\
1
,
na
fJ ga
da:; m
r ":
\\ <'. +
2
Pe r s • Sin 9 ,-~l
i1
i
\\
-
//,
Emph ,,>
i
'.
First,
'.'G
ha\\H:: ta
apply
NP-deletian
t~~ansrarmation, and then
a mavement-tran:::formatic'l
which will a t t a c n the
nade Aux.C.
ta
Md as right-daughtcr.
Thus,
we obtain
3b
which is
the
P.marker
of
3.
3b.
c
--------- ~ ----
------
-----
..
r'ld
Pd.P
_..--------- ----------..
~ld
,1.l,ux.C
VP
i
1
i
1
na
I)giJ
d ae rn
'--'

---

381
The P.markers 4a-8a q i v o n be10w, r epr es an t i nn the
Dee~ structure of 4-8 resP8ctive1y, show that 811 the sentences
of this
paradigm bear on overt impcrative-marker and 81so
t hey ar E 211 .(, + Pos it -c-
_-
S
-------;.---' --.--
r~d
NP
--------Pd.P
\\
na:
d EB m
r« + command-i r-::H1Si ng"
L« + Pci s i t
j
\\_/: -
Emp h J
5a.
____~ 5 -
_
Md
NP
Pd.P
na
; u
+3Sing ,",
da, m
\\
Comma n
,'.',-
Emph»
-,.,Î
1-
Po s~, t
J
>:'
_"_--------:;,: s -
_
.,-~--------
!"ld
NP
Pd.P
1
\\
\\
na
1'+1Pl u ;,"'j
déC m
.
1
<, + C0 mma nd ,:l i - Ernp h 0, .J
!
/l.
+ Posit c~
7a.
---'-,--
Pd.P
,'1
!
d œ m
i ,~+ Command;;:l
Emph~, i
I_~+ Pos i t >:. 1

---

382
:?: •
__.__-" -s
-_.. -
' - '
------------
--------
l"ld
j'.;p
Pd.P
na
dx [Tl
i ' +
c ommnnd ':--
1 + Cl 0 .ci i t.<
1
-.
he syntactic differencr between 1a and
4a corresponds
to an
nterprctive differcncB.
~ctually the structure of 1a is uscd
nly
in
d i r cc t
spec-"ch"èncJ
the
J'JP shoulcJ
have the
f2':ltllre
.2
P.Sing, Or
2
P.
Plur '''C'.
Oll
the:
cori t ra r y
t h c structure: of
Gia is u s e d in direct speEch as weIl a s in indirect s p ce ch , and
NP may b (3 { ...1 P,»;<~2 ~i (<.3 pJ {«S in g; <~p lu r>1 .
Nou,
lJe
t ur n
to
ünother aspect
found
ln 9-12
;::Jnd 9a-12él.
9
dëY3 : mnL
ca
j-e
ba
9a
dëB m
fil
._--_.__...
go
(S (')
to market
go
(S g)
there
11]
[.1 03 : ml dG : n
Ca
JE bè\\
,rJd
dae :m
léS :m
fa
_
..
..
-- - -
_-~
ço
( Pl)
to m::-rket
'0 (Plur) t [-lGrf-?
1 1
1'2)? :12:~ è\\ l
c œ ;p
bi
11:]
103 :kl<
k:>
._- ._-._,_.- - -
c.Sjt (sd
the
r ic e
ea t
(S q)
i t
1 2
la; :l<klêJ? ; n
c~· : p
bi
12a
lèB : k k 12!8 : n
k")
' - "
,
ea t
( Pl)
the ricF
edt ( Pl)
it
lJe
ccn
note t.h a t
r:;
C]ncl 9é\\ are
J'clatecJ by
the substitution of
à n a cl v
for a
PP.
f a r cp J-<3 ces ~~ j 8\\~tl.
On
the
0 t Il 'T
hé: ne;
11
i s
r ~"c lat ccl t 0 1 '1 a
b y è:l P r Cl n 0 fi' i n a l .i z é\\t i Cln 0 f
the
1\\] P • 0 b j r:: ct .
k )
r c: pla c ',S
C a3
: p
Il i •
TIl cc: s a rn e r (3 L: t i 0 lflIshi p i s
fou n cl

---

383
b e t ue c n 10 and
1(Ja,
and 12 and
12a.
El
In thc obovc operation~/~emorkoble syntactic pheno-
men on oc cU:S,
I t
is
as
f o Ll ows ~
In imporativE sontenccs lik6 10, ~n whieh the va has 8S its
right sister Githcr 0 pp or an
NP, the substitutio~ of an
adv for pp or the substitution cf Pn fo~ NP obj.
will entail
a
d cI e t i on tré'nsforrnation
LJiliJ:!-,
will affect t h c Per,s.af., if
i t
ha s t h 8 f 8 a t ure :.< + Sin Q ,>, •
9i
NP
--------------
-----
, Pd. ~ P
---
VP
- --------
v
!\\
Pers.af
/ \\
l
' \\
\\
1
c-
-
daem
9ii
s
------' -----------~------
\\
f'JP
Pel. P
----- ---
VP
Ad\\)
.-~ .-
-
1/
Pcrs.2Î:"
cl é:C [Tl
9iii
C'
,:J
,-----,-------------
\\
NP
P~.p
------ ---
VP
I~ d IJ
\\
\\
.0
cl ac m
fa

---

10 i
s
')8'
UP
o
't
L do t>
i
IlP
1
i
__-VS
"-'~' ........
Il
- ............ ~ ----,
»>:
"--
-.
..
Vs t
1\\1 ~IJ
/\\
i
.1
\\
,
al
\\
Ccc::P
b,l
10 .1. i
._-~-- _.~._------.. ·I.S
Pd.J=
IJp
t
Iii] ._------.
li
.---
----~-
.~,
:\\!P
..--~---
10 iii
0 - ' -
S
Pc:. P
iJP
!
~. ilB.
~.H.
' .. "-..
il
i
ilst
1
l aeo.!<k
Pn
!

---

385
, ,
Let us now analysE one morE Case uith t Il C:'
This vcrb is
excluE1v~ly u5cd in imp~r3tive and
GSPEcially in direct speech.
I!~ 15 n c v cr us e d for (..1. p8rs.~;é)rid
,~3. Pors .'.)
for singular.
f'lorc:over,
k a t v cannat OCClh' '.Jith the fcaturc; ... ncç'~)
Thus W2 have 11··12.
11
ka:y
Come (plu::::,)
b e e
1'~ L", ~
[',':, '
') 'j r ,
1 " - '
....
') 1 a
c-
:
[J
: .,//
.'.
1
-
\\ , t
.i,
t ri: l'':;~'I
L'"
. ".l

---

1 1 b
38b
._._._ S
-----
...-----
...
----.
I,i ·i
i~P
Pel. P
.
Il.;
\\
I~~+
ka:y
!\\ -: +
i:' + Sing -;;i
l ' -
Emph .-> J
----'" S
1 1
c
-
...
..
fJP
ka~Y
Command·;;U· + Sing
17.- + Sing,.,
! J.
1
i ~
Emph "
Po s i t·
1"
-
'>
il':" -
Em ph">
Command /,1
_!
.......
1"+ Posit >:.
1
of-
11
d
S ----____---- Pcl.P
\\
\\
k3~Y
r.(,'+ Conmand-,»
.
( '
<'.+
) JJ, J y.
1
r , -
[Cl,:::: 1 ,.'.
J
1... +
Posit
!
/ .
COLln"2 r ,c!
,',
0'J~'.: t:
!
______- 1
NP
Pd. P
1
\\
r:/J
1< El ; Y
[---
i,+ Sing
,'-
Em!'Jh
'.')
'. + Comliland~'
PO: ::..:
LJ e
s hou l d
n 0 tic c
t li a t
i< a : y 1"
.~ h c cm 1)' IJ C :L 'J, t 0 oLI:: :; ri 0 :J .'. e ci Çj C' .
that is
not Found in
contexts
other
thah ImperativE.
Ar, i, "
s
o
h v
l r
j:
- , rJ
j. t. 0 c cU r son l ';1
.i n d i r [ c t
s pcc c r, c·-'., n Id
Wc
8
C
a
CaL)
53101
.
c _
h a V E
. i 2
P r. r s •.

---

11.2.13.16
NOU r'J PHR AS E Cor~PLnlE l'JT
38,'
One of the d e v.i c os
useel
for
sent~ncC'-recur::>ioV"\\ 1.9
the conjuncti~n of sentences
For instencG' consiclcr
1 ~
10
')mar
el a? rnria
2.
ace ~ttna
mu s a ;
(it) s ur pr Ls cd
musa:
and
the rcsult
uuuld bc 3:
3 •
om ,:'1r
d 2C m
b a: : ttn8
musa:
)mar
1eft surprisGd
musa:
3 can bE rCprGscntcd as in ths
follouing
P.marker
3a.
3a·
_-.-,.- S
___--0
-._--
VP
---.
\\f
i'H'
,/"".......
iliP
VP
,1
i
!
)mar
dar:: rn
musa:
The
ab
if:' ornb c rld ed
in
the' ~JP of .: •
L.O u
o. ve.. :J ·.,.,·:,r!/L"T'
• 1.1 L
_
' "
';nd]'
.~.
...l.,.
_ "
r'~~)-(·.s ' I
'-_ ,::J
•
_
't: l l ::'1
..
t
Th i s s t r uc t ur c .i n di ca t e s
that thG sentence 1
functions
as 8',
NP com!Jlement.

---

Now consider 4 and 5 givsn bolow:
388
( )-1
1
UJ
dé3m
bi
).mar
da:?rIi
b œ :ttna
musa:
~1)
(t>
-
Q~
+
t h= -', ')rrn T -\\- r 0
+ s uz pr Ls sd + mUsa~
for
':! ma r toI Ga v G sur pris 8 d mus a :
5.
déS rn
u
:>rn a r
b a3 : t t n a
mu Ela ~
....,
gO
of )mar
su r pr-i s ad musa:
,':m a r I s
l ca vin Ci sur p ris cd mus a :
3,
4 and 5 convey the sam2 meaning: )ma~
dOer of a fact
and this
fact surprisos musa:
This
commits us to say théJt
3 , 4 and 5 a:'2 ',I:lCJc:!I'-
Theil' un d cr Ly Lrq
F.miJ:ck2r c o u ld b a r epr es en t.e d as urrd nf :
..'_ S
-------
---. --- --- IJ ',"::
---..~ .------.~
.......
Il
NP
1
1
NP
Pil
.
l i
) r,1.~'~
cid:' m
b
.
é:3 ; t t
rn~S8
( it
')mal:'
00
SUTp::':~S Co
. mUs '1~')
Î .
The
fi.'.·;::'~ dCë,3mis a verba1-noun,
wherGa~; the s e c ond

---

389
From the 8boVG d88P structure P.marker we can gencrate 5 by
applying CsnitivG-C18usG transformation and li-dclstion
5a.
___--------.--..--..-S
.
...
N
s
rJP
- I\\J P
.~...
r'J
pp
'-.........
------------
<,
P
NP
li
d cr m
u
)mar
bé.G :tt
Sh.
VP
.--------------
-------.-
--
N
v
dae m
u
béB :tt
mu sa :
, ... ~.'
The gcnGration of 4 implies a type of transformation that
formation.
CrJÇJr1ate:-obj cet transform;]tion r e qu i r as
the'
f oll owing opc:r"Li.OïlS .i , ii, iii which r r-s p oc t i vo Ly will
Qeneratc the P.morkcrs 4a -
c given bclow:

---

390
i.
Verb Segment transformation
il.
Vorb Copying transformation
i i i .
Nominalization
4a.
..' S
.... _._----
--- ..-------
j\\J p
'---
. i - > :---
'---.......----
N ---
s
v
.~
VP
v
v
Pn
1
\\
li
dffi m
b as :tt
musa:
4b.
._-_._._--.--- .-------V'J
»> ..------------
/
V
r~ P
1
li
dao m
d 32 m
béE' :tt
mu S a ;
4c.
s -
----_.
.-
» > :
. s - > ---
---
-........-
s
v
. __ VP-J.....
V
1\\1
1
\\
li
d~m
déB m
b ze :tt
mus a ~

---

391
Now wehavE to app~y topicalization transformation to the
P.marker 4c.
This
operation uill rno vc tho
rNP,
vr:.J of the
8 mb e d ded
sen ton c e r 0 und [~\\IP, SJ ,] f t h G r:i mb 8 d d E d sen t 8 ne 8 ,
pr oduc i n o
4d.
4d.
--\\)P
~--~ -
<,,-
V
NP
\\
li
dac m
')11 a r
baJ : tt
1'(,+ ~j
- 1
..
\\
!
~'I + dGm
1
j
k,+
d Gt ;') i
L.
i
Assuming that aIl transformations have b8En applisd,
wc apply
li-doletion transformation,
pr o duc Ln ,
40.
L~ o ,
---_._-----------
~J P
VP
.>
-----
.>: ---------
~J P
If
NP
.---------- \\
i~
T
~JP
VP
\\
!
If
;
i
\\\\
\\
i
..
1
,.l.."
-...;..
1
dao m
bi
'omar
déB m
bao :ttna
musa:

---

'19')
,-)
...
Now let us analysc somc moro oxamplcs,taking the
following sentencES 6, 7, ~
and 9.
6.
musa:
gOémul
néC1mar
d ar rnn a
musa: bclicve-not that~mar gOo3~ers.Sg.Past
musa: docsn't bclicVG th~t )mar lcft
7.
musa:
~dggna )mar
now
mUsa:
want-3 P[~~,5g. )mar
come
musa:
wants ~mar to cOme
8.
musa:
b·c"ggna
mu
now
musa: want-3 Pcrs.Sg.
he cOme
(musa: uants he/she/it/comes)
9.
musa~
b~ggna now
(musa: WantS coma)
mUSa: uants to como.
of the h::::ad ~JP-Objcct
in uh i c h the clauses !n~
/.Jrnar rîou/;/munou /, ,3nd /hOlei /
have b e cn
cmbcJdcd has
t ak e n
placo ..-
Thus Llr.:: c a n statc t hat thosc s cn t oric c s ~1ivLrl ;-,bovc
sharc the following com~nn structure
.._----~-
VP
......
v
".
---.
N
s
6 and 9 il 0 ~ c v 0 r
h é1 V e a s l i ç; h t l Y d i f for c n t
s t ru c tu r Cl COin P,3 r ~ ci J, C

---

393
7 and 8 actually have the same undcrlying structure.
In 8 the NP )msr has bcen pronominalized.
NOLJ c cns Ld nr the underlying structure of 9 given b c Lo ut
9a. * mUSa:
bëggna
musa:
nOLJ
For the sake of simplificatlon wc have dclcted the
he a d- no un 0 f [N P ,
VP '] •
Suppose wc 8Pply pronominalization transformatl on
to 9a as we did for 7.
This would gcnEratc the ungrammatical
string 9b.
9b. * mUSa:
bëggna
mu
now
.....__/
Notice that wc say ungrammatical,assuming that 9b
wcrc
dcrivcci
from 9a.
Wc notice that in 7,[V,
V~jand V of the e~~Gddcd S
hav c d is t i nc t
fGfcrcnts,
LJhcro3S ln 9a the r c f er cn t s of the
r os '~!J te
t WO verbe; ar c: id2ntical.
This commits Us toi
t h at wh en
the two NPs are distinct a pronominalization can tak~ placs.
But uh cil t hGY arc id C? nt i cal, n 0 ton l Y pro nom in a l i z a t ion i s
blockcd, but dclction of the idcntical NP is a must.
This trans-
formation i5 knoLJn as
Equi-NP delction transformatior.
Now let us turn to 6.
Th0 underlying P.markcr of 6 is 68 givcn bclow.
Pu r po s nI y
WB
have aimplifiod this
P.markcr.

---

1)9'
o 't
68 •.
5
- . ....
..............
< ,
-
I\\J P
, vP
-: "<,
V
}~P
....-
/ /
<,
. /
<,
ii
f,1
/,5
i\\
. /
-,
Nr
,VP
/~
'-.,
.-'
<,
V
NF
1\\
/
<,
~.-'
N
S
/
/
.......<, -,
NP
VP
.,
\\
\\
/\\
g'cmul
1
--------.'
mUSa:
li
~';,
Il éD
li
)mar
d ac rnn a
mUSa: + bclievos • not + this +Û + says + this + ~mar + left
The dummy symbol 6 stands for nit ~ 'someone'
Contrary to what the surface structure suggcsts the
constituent 'nao'
is not a cnmp Lom sn t i.z c r , but a rc.::siduallV,
VI=J
of an
cmbc:ddGd s c n t oric c uho s c hcad-noun has b ccn d cLc t cd ,
Morc-
o vr r the clause
)maI' d as mn a is an N~ .... Complcmcnt
,:JS
it cari b c
S Ge n i n
the und or I yin gr:::. rna r k cr 6a •
The rll Pin L,lhic h i t. wa s
omboddcd has b c cn d oI c t od ,
Thus, in order to Qcn€ratc
6 , wc have to apply to
the P,m~rkcr Ga li-dcletion transformation Qoncrating the
P.markcr Gb givcn bc:low:

---

'19 c'
o J
6b.
N
/5
, -,
1
/ /
NP
vp
1
1
1\\
1
l
'
' - _ . 1
1
L\\\\
1
mUSa:
g"àmu l
,0
r.
na:
~
Jmar
d a.;: mil a
musa:
+ bclicvc.not+,0+L\\ +~hat) + ~ + ')mar
+
has
gonc
Thc n,
Wc apply
to
6b
8
delotion
transformation
ln
ordGr
to
r cmo va the dummy
symbo l
l~ .
Th is
op erat ion
Qonet' at8 s
t ho
tc;rminal
P.markeT
Ge whieh r cpr cs c r t s
6.
6e"
NP
'----------------._.Vr:
- - -
< ,
-------
~
v
NP
1
"
S
n
1
/'
vr
1\\
1
\\
l
'
1
\\
/~
NP
vP
t
\\
L _ _ \\
1
g"àrTlul
nEC
:;lmar
da:: mna
mUSa:
+
b e Li e vcv n o t
+

---

'1Q6
Vu
ThcSG examples abovc indicate that NP complements
may apPQar in [NP, SJ as LJeU as in LNP, vp-l.
They shoLJ morcoVcr that in Wolof, the NP complement
is not introducGd by a complcmcntizer.
NOLJ lot us roconsidcr
~n assumption LJO have mado
earlicr in OUI' unulysis.
Wc have said that sentences 3 , 4 and 5 arc undGrlincd
by
the ~.markGr A.
Let us repeat hore 3, 4 and 5 and A.
3.
">m 8 r
Li ac m
b ao : t t na
mus a ~
.../
- ;
the foct that )mar loft surpriscd mU3a:
4 •
d éD m
b i
) mal'
d E8 m
b 20 : t~ na
mus a :
for~)mar ta Lcav c s ur nr Ls od musa:
5.
da::m
LI
-.iIlar
b ar c t t n a
rnu s a :
jmar's lcaving surpriscd musa:
A
s
-_..------
--...._-
.....-.-
--------
. _.I\\J E___
VP
._----.--------
._--------.
.----
----
-------~-
5
v
NP
vr
Pn
1
1
\\
li
)mar
da:: m
ba:::tt
musa~
i t
+
Jmar
+
go
+ s u r pri se
+
musa:
In saying SG, LJE arc dcclaring that li is a constitutcnt of
Dcop structure LJhich may bc dclctcd in Surface structure.

---

Mhat are the considerations that commit us ta say sa?
397
Consider the follouing sentence 10
10.
)rr:::r
d a. m,
musa:
da::;s
ja:xalna
go:r
gi
(That) 3mar lcrt, musa: rcmained astonishBs
the man
If wc argue that thcrc is numbcr-agrecmcnt bctwc~n
frlain
Vcrb
and 5ubject-I\\JP, .s Lnc c rNF, S-\\ in 10 has the s t r-o c t ur c
l . .
"._ .
NP
~JP + r~p which cntéJi~ plural numb cr y] V, VP] should
L ..
normally bear a plural markor.
But, ~f it wcrc SOj the
gcneratcd sentence 10a lJould be dcclared ungrammatical,
* )mar lcft, mUSa: rcmaincd astonish the man
Notice that 11 is normally predictablc.
11 , . , ma r
Elk
mus Cl :
je:xa1nanu
go:r
qi
I\\J P
+
NP
+
Thcr~fore, thE grammaticality of 10 and Lhe ungrammaticality
of 1 0 a load us
ta say that the vcrb
jo:xal observes El sclcc-
tiona 1 rcstrictio~ not in ~m8r d éD m, III Usa : da? 5 but in scrn c
,)
)
othcr NP which occurs in D.S and that wc rcprcscntcd by mcans
of the' dummy symbol ~rcplacEd lat;cr by the pronoun li.
..,
l i
ha s
the f C 3 t ur c s
.+
demonstrat ive >~ 1
1
1
\\
+
PrOnoun -,'
i1i
!
« +
ind cf ini t c ...,.
J
1
,
<' 0
I\\J umb cr
i
.>
.J
This Explains the
grammaticality of 10 and the ungrammati-
ca lit y of 10a.··

---

398
Thus wc can now say that the matrix sentence is
l i
j-il:xalna
o o r r
gi
this astonishcs the man
uhor e li s t a nd s for Jmar da: m, musa:
dao s
It appo ar s now t.hc t
omar
d a; rn ,
mu s a :
da: s is c orn p Lrmr nt
of
the ~J ~ li.
II. 2 .D • 1 8
COORD IN:n l dN
A Co-ordinHtion-transFormation is the operation by
which tu o or more s nn t cnc r.s , or t uo or mor e NPs arc IJrought
under the immediato do~ination of one single node Nr or S.
Considcr thc following sentences 1 -
4 bclow:
1 •
n : 9 .)y
ak
n daJ w
tê1:ccunanu
n) g; y
éJ nd
ndéE w ha vc c La pp c d their hands.
.....
2.
n -) 9 .'y
ak
ndée w
w)ynanu
~-
n'QJY and ndêC LJ
ha vc sung
n; IJ •. y a k
nÇ] 0 : r
ta :gg):nal1u
r)go:r has ploughcd his field and his ~n-lawfs
~ ..
f' i c l d ,
In 1,
obviously, t h or e arc t uo pro!JOsitiorls,
each
having a sep8rate main verb rcfcrring to a diffcrcnt refercnt.
iJ0
cou Ids a y
n. Q~' Y
ta: ~C; un c: -
nd éD W
t; 2 : c cu n a
wi t hOu t
con s ide r i n g wh ct h e r n -,gJ y a n d n da: w
d i d t ho a ct i cm
of clapping simultancously or et diffcront moments.

---

3 S~,
1 a.
-.. --------
-_._--
. 5 _
..--------
----
-----
Conjoin
s
5
/ / -.
»>: ~.<;
NP
\\JP
NP
VP
j'\\
/
,
\\
/ /\\
\\
,
/
\\
1
_/
,
1
'.
ta:ccuna
ndâ:' LJ
ta:ccuna
.......~'
In or d ar to generate
,1 from 1 a)
a
co-ordination-joining trans-
formation
LJill apply
to
I a ,
The r as u I t Ln q P.markcr
uill be t o •
'1 b •
_ . - - - - S
5 - - - - - - -
1
-------- '---............
Conj.P
NP
VP
r~ p
1
1
1
1
ta:ccuna
a k
n dre LJ
ta:l;cona
.........,
----
The n WB apply
the duplicate-deletion rule
to ~~
This
operation
will
C)er'8I'ate tlbe P .marker " c ,
1 c.
s ------
._
---
~-- ------_._--
---
\\
s
--S
1
---
~.. '''--'''
->
Conj.P
<,
.'
---...,
~IP
VP
r~p
VP
;'
',,--
\\
/
.
,
/
-,
t~ _ _ --->·
1
nJg)y
ta:ccuna
ak
n déB LJ
N0 W we a p ply
the r e s i du 8 - S wi te h r 0 ]. 8
t 0
1 c •
T h i s
operation cOnsists of moving the residUal
NP along
with the
conjunOture co-ordination as right-sisters of the NP n~"g;y.
This produce9 1d
uhere
the first
node ha~ to be removed.

---

1d ,
~oo
s
~.----
~JP
VP
/
1 .---------
NP Conj.P ~JP
,
/
l i
f
1
i
/
1
1
L
.:.
1
n ~,gJY ak
nd as w
ta: c cun anu
Concerning the transformation of agreement, refer to
the Chapter on
Now let us
consider 2.
2 may have t uo .i n t r r prn t g t.i on s i
One in lJhich n:Jg.JY and ~.sJêiB LJ
are considered as singing one and the S8me song in chorus;
and
the 0 the r
one in u hic h n, g ) y and ~S! ES w are con s ide r ed as sin gin g
separataly.
In the latter case, they may not necessarily sing
the same song.
These semantic informations
will be conveyeJ respec-
tively by the P.matkefs 2a and 2b
which Taprssent the deep-
structures of 2.
2a.
______. S ___
.i->
~
~.NP___
VP
J 0 i -
n
~! ./
P
---------NP l
.
\\
/
,
,/
\\.
nd éB W
u ay nanu
.~

---

2b.
_
.__ . S ..._
-
---
..-_.....
..-
_-
.-- - -
-----..........
_ . '
.. '
..
Join
S
S
401
---
--.------
...
NP
VP
---VP
/'\\
//'\\
l
,
1
\\
.l
._\\
-_
"-'
...._".
n·'gJY
w ~y na
ndre w
While 2b will undergo the 3ame transrormation Qiven For 1,
2a
will undergo only the cu-ordination-joining-rule transforma-
tion.
But 2a and 20 will produce the Follo~~ng surfnce
"
s truc tu r e 2c •
2 c ,
..___- S ....
___
»>:
- - - - - . .
_ _ _ _ .NP--------.......
--
\\--------
1
. .
r~p
Conj.P
NP
1
)
ak
ndéB w
.~
In order to avoid such ambiguity we could make use
of distributional syntactic markor, saY
ku~ci~nffi~:kk (sach).
1
'--'
'-"'"
"-""
...._-"
Now IGt us analyse anothor oxample through 3.
A
verb may express a process which, by
its very nature, sntails
the Lnvo Lvem an t of d.i f f ar e nt referents.
Such is the case of
verbs like ta:g9~; moaning to divorce in 3.
'-_o'
}
3 •
n ..~ g,)yak
ngo rr
ta: 9 9 ):nari u
n)g~y and 8Qo:r have divorced
The event of ta:ggp;
(divercing) involves necessarily
the p ar s ons uh i ch
form the couple.

---

~02
Civen
t b e t
n)g-)y is
the
LJi. fe of n qo i r ,
i t
is
not
possible to
en v.i s a q o a separate act
of
ta:gq):
_. where n)g~)y only
is implicated
but not ~go:r, or
the other
way
around.
--
In other
uo r d s ,
3 has
only
one interpretation,
which is
represented in
the underlying
P.marker
3.1.
3. 1 •
s
~~--
.x->', ~J P -----------
-__________
-_._--
Pd. P
.------
---.
join
l'JP
I\\lP
1\\
\\
\\
N
N
/
\\
\\
\\
r;go:r
To
gEnerate
3 from 3.1
we will apply
sim ply
the cO-
ordination-joining-rule transfOrmation.
The result'~ng P.marker
3 •. 2 r apr es an t s
the surface structure string
3.
3.2
s
---------
---
NP
Pd. P
--~~.- \\ "-----------.
/"
NP
Conj.P
NP
/
\\
/
\\
1
i
/
1\\1
I~
\\
;'
\\
/
'
\\
l.<------
"-
n')g;y
'"
ak
ta:gg):nanu
'--
Cons ider
4 nriu ,
4.
fJf)<:l~r
beyna
t~):'1am
ak
t ) : l
u
g')r:;:m
~go:r has ploughed his field and his
...... -..""
in-law! s
field.

---

~ 0~i
In this sentence there are two distinct prOC8sses refsrring to
the same referent,
That is to say we could reformulate 4 as
in 4.1
4.1
1JQo:r
b eyrra
t):lam
ngo: r bey na t~j : l u g"'; r ': : m
'----'
~go~r has ploughed his field -
~go:r has plougheo
<:»
his in-~awls field.
us
This enables;to say that 4 is underlined by 4a.
4a.
__-.-------~_. S . __
-_._----
-------
---
--------.
join
S'
S
. .>: <,
'-------
.
»>
""'"
/
------
~J P
Pd. P
NP
Pd. P
l
)
\\
vp
VP
1
rJ
va
V8
/
",-
/ / / /
'--"-"-,
-~/' ""'-\\
..•.-'
v
~jP
v
NP
\\
»<>.
---
'-
--
-
'\\
f
r~ .---
PP
1 \\
l
,
\\
/ \\
f
\\
i
i
\\
Pr ep
NP
1
\\
/ \\
1;
\\
!
\\
,
1
L
_
'1
i
fJgo:r beyn;)
t_~:lam
ngo:r beyna
'"--'"
Now, in order to gcnerate 4, we have to apply to 4a the co-
ordination-joining-rule-transformation.
This
will pr o duc o
the P.marker 4b.

---

4b.
_.- S
_______
- - - - - - -
i
--- _______
s
Conj.P
s
'<, <.
<,
VP
----------
NP
VP
1
1
\\
va
va
.>: <,
»>:
/
v
V
I~P
.1\\
»>: ~,
N
pp
/\\
/ \\
1
\\
1
\\
~~
Pr Ep
NP
1 \\
/
\\
1
\\
/ \\
1
r>:
,-_.'
1
,1
j .
t-,::":lam ak
ngo:r
u
g:>r -:-; ~m
j
..... _--"
The n,
we apply to 4b the duplicate-deletion-rule-transforma-
tion.
This operation will remove the NP and the V in the
SecOnd clause.
The resulting P.marker 4c will be th en aS
follows:
4c.
s "
_____--------- 1 ---------
.--/
---
S'-------
Conj. P
--------- S
._____-- i
NP
VP
--
'
fJ P
VP
\\
!
VB
va
.------.
,.-
..___--î
-----
.
V
I\\lP
v
NP
/.~---
!
.
N
pp
//'~"-
/ 1\\
../
Pr cp
1\\1 P
/\\
1
1 \\
1
\\
/
\\
/ \\,
~ - - -
r;go:r
b eyna
t~:lam ak
t):l
u
g) r ..! : m
------

---

40~j
Then the fesidue-s~itch-ru1e-transformationapp1ied
to 4c ~ill move the residua1 NP a10ng ~ith the conjunctive cO-
ordination as 1eft-sister of the NP-object of the first c1auso.
This operation resu1ts in producing the P.marker 4d~
~hi~h is the representation of the surface structure string 4:
4d.
_ _ _ S
__________
~
NP ------
------VP
\\
VG
1\\1 P
--"'. ---------
\\
1
NP
Corjj.P
NP
»> ~.
1
r,JP
pp
/~
Pr8!J
I\\lP
1 /\\
1
\\
_1__.1
L_ _
L~\\
1
beyna
t,:lam
a k
u
The above C2n be represented aS under:
A
x
y
'r,
X
y
(2)
S.O.
(Join((Join (Np)+(~jp) + (V/.::-NP/)
)+((Join(NP)+(r~P)+(V/=-NP/))
/1 S
S ~J P
~J P VP
VP S S NP
NP VP
NPS
1
:2
3
{j
5
6
7
8
9
abOvL Vs
uh s r e X and Y above r·; Ps , and 1 and 2/sho~ t hat NPs ar~ not
cor o f' er ent ia1 and that Vs ar e distinct.
S . C. 1 + 2- .:- 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 --9
- -
3 + 2 + 4 + 5 + ·1 + 9

---

D
x
(1 )
x
(2)
~,D.
(J 0 in (
( NP) + ( ( V)+(Nf'V)
+ (
( NP) + ( (V)+(NP) ) )
,
Ils
S
NP 1\\] P vP
VP 5
5 NP NP
VP
VP S S #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
S.C. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 ====y 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 + 7
E
x
1
1
Y
(11
11 )
S .D •
(Jo in ( (NP) + ((V)+(NP))) + ( ( ~J p) +( (V)2:.(NP)
) )
1/ s
s r·J P
f··jp
VP
VPS
5 NP ~J P
VP
VP
S S
1/
1
2
3
1.:
+
5
6(7)
uhar o + s t and s
for op t.i oria L,
This do es not mean intrar.sitive
-
anyho u,
S. Co
t
+ 2 + 3 + ( 4) + 5 + 6 + (7 ) ===ji? 2 + 1 + 5 + 3 + (4 )
F
x
( 1)
h)
y
r 1)
: 2'1
5.0.
(Jain (
( r\\1 p)
+ (
(V)+(NP)
) ) + ( ( NP) +( (V)+(NP) ) )
1/ 5
S
I\\IP NP
VP
: VP 5
5 NP NP .UP
vP 5 5 #
2
3
4
5
6 7
5 • Co
l
+ 2 + :3 + 4 + 5 -11- 6 + 7 ----~
- - - - -
2 + 1 + 5 + 3 + 4 + 4' + 7

---

In or d e r
to pr ev erit a mb i qu i t y in s orn e sentences on~07
can make use of syntactic distributional mafker like the
ph ras e k u c in éB ( c a c h) •
For example consider the
following sentences 5-8
5.
s: xna
a k
n déB W
k u ci. n ae
w')Y na,
féB c c o ,
" -
s:. x~a and ndae w each has sung (and) d aric sd ,
6.
*s)xna
ak
ndéE w
W')y na,
_.
......
féB:C:;_C.
s)xna and f29éBW has 3U ng ( and) d an c ad .
7.
s')xna
ak
ndae w
w)yna-nu,
feat.:;c.
<::»
s ox na
o.nc\\
"CkVQ 5~Y\\dlo. ....J) ~"'c..Clj
~d2W
8. *" s:)xna ak
n ae w
ku c.i n œ
w)ynanu,
fae :cc.
--
. ~
s)xna and nd ae w each ha ve sung (a nd) dan c ed •
\\.....--
The Occurrence of ku c i nas in 5 makes it cl o a r that
we are dseling with a sentential conjunction.
It makes the
distribution possible in such manner that either V8Tbs have
both ~lPs as referent in distinct prOceSSGS.
This is confirmed by
the v s r b aGreement llJ.:·~+ 5g'>3.
The ungrammaticality of 6 comPared with 7 shows that
whe n ku c i n as d o e s not o c c u r , the verb necessarily a qr e as
with
both NPs and takes a Plural Pcrson-maker.
This fact
then makes
the sentence an ambiguous one, since it may be interr~8ted as
a
S-Gn t enti al con jun cti ori., 'r
S j x n a
w') y ri a,
f CE ~s:
1") .dee LJ
LJ:W na,
f 83 cc.
_.
.......
'--'
s~xna
sung,
danced
f}2 ae w sun g, dan c 8 d •
as ~81I as a phrasaI conjunction, that is :
S)xna a~ ndae w are doing in common an action which
'--
should be considered as a single process:

---

~08
On the othor, hand,
s i n c e kucinae~s a d i s t r j bu t i on j I
matker i~ follows that 8, whrrE the verb app2ars with plural
marker,
is absolutely un~rammatical.
The cooccurrrnce of the
distributional marker with plural marker on the verb
violates
the s81ec~ional restriction rules.
But consider sentencE 9-10
9.
s: xria
ak
ndae w
w::y na nu
kucinae
-.'
s ': xna and
rrdœ w
ha ve sung ea ch
-----
1 0 . *s :cxna
ak
nd sa w
wWna
ku c i n ae
-
*s:)xna and ndae w h a s sung each
' ... /
I t
a p Pears t ha t
l.jh En the dis tri but ion a l
mar 1< e r
f oLl o us
the verb,
the agreement between verb and subject is
.
15
no mOre b Loc ks d ,
Th i s due t o t h s fact that ku c i nze
stands as
<
an indefinite pronoun.
When it occurs beforE the verb it
assumes the subject-verb relation with the verbe
occurs after the verb,
the N~ fOr
which it stands assumes the
Subject-verb relation as usual.
11.2.0.20
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES
Our rcason for not having dealt with comparatives in
the Chapter Co-ordination is that in doing sO,
we coWld
sep a rat eth e Ver y pro CES S
0 f
c 0 - 0 r d i na t ion f r orn the s e ries 0 f
transformations involvcd particularly in .t.h e cornpa r i s on prOCESS.
However
convenient our attitude may be,
one should
not lose sight of the fact that comparative sentences are
included in the type of conjoined sentences.

---

We could distinguish as many as five tyPes of relations
in comparative sentences.
Co ,1 par i s o n ma Y in~roduc8 a notion
of
of
equality, or a notion of superiority or a n Dt i on Ji n fer i or i t y.
It may also introduce a notion of sUP2rlati ve or a notion of
similarity of manner.
In this study we arc mainly concerned with the process
of generating cOmparative sentences.
This being said, let us consider the following
sen tan c es.
1- 6 •
1 •
:)mar
m::>:
gëna
nj :):1
xa Las yi
_)~ar
is taller than the
children
2 .
.)rr.ar
m).jsu t
xa l aa y L
.lmo r is
tall er than the children
3.
.orn a r
m):
sut
ci
xa la:
yi
)~ar
is the t a Ll e s t
among the children
4.
-,mar
ak
n q o i r
n'):
t):ll):
~mar and ~go:r arc equally tall (have equal height)
-)r1ar anc; rio xo r
resemble each o t hnr ,
6 •
w zr
d a f a t 'è p
n i
l ·èk
)ffiar
jumped as a rabbit
Superficiously it may app e ar t ha t
1
and 2 express the
same meaning.
But a c Loa or 2nalysis .i n di.c a t e s
that 1 and 2
have diffbrent interpretations.

---

~lD
Actua11y 1,
presupposes
propositions indicating that
)ma r
d 3 f CI n):): 1 (-) mar i s ta n ; 0 n the 0 n e h Cln d ,
and
,
x a 1 é8
Yi
danu nj--l:1
(the children are ta11)
on the other hand.
A notion
'-.-.
of comparison is
introduccd then.
en the contrary,
in ?, i t
i s sim ply
EXp r es s e d
t ha t. the h o i Ç! ht
0 f )ma r i s
s u PEI' i 0 r
t 0
t h a t
of xa l œ
yi.
Both\\)mar and
x a l ze
yi
(the chi1dren)
cou1d
be ta11
or
short or
EVEn
)mar cou1d br:
ta11
and xa1ae
yi
short,
vice versa.
We cou1d represent this by means of a diagram which is
as
fo~lows:
P-marker A i3
under1ying 1 and
P-marker 8 is
undcrlying 2.
A
_ _-5
---_.-
------
---'--'- -~----
------
Com~
s
-----------s
~------.- -----..._-
-----------.
NP
'VP
VP
,
/ "''-.
1
/
-,
1
!
1
;'
\\
. : - - - . - -
com~)'-i )mar
n j:> :1
xaléE
yi
-..
~:: sup-,
1:<+ adv-,) ')mar
tall
the children
ta11
L -
8
has
a
certain height the children
haDE a certain
2
3
4
6
5
7
8
height
9

---

411
Assumino that A and G are the respectiV8 underlying
P- ma r k ('r s 0 f 1 and 2 ~e CCl n n 0 tic eth CIt 1 and 2 don 0 t con vey
the same meaning,
Let us
Qive now the dsrivational history of 2.
First
WB
apply nominalization transformation to B.
This produces 81.
~------=-----:=
-------_.
.--
--
Comp
NP
»>:--.- ------..
--
1
PP
'1
'--"
~
.--------
--
1
NP
P
NP
1
1
1
1
li
i!
/
1
1
. <'.+
comp))]taxawa: y u
taxawa:y
u
xalae
yi
«+ Su p » i
h
. ht
1
/
elg
of
)mar
h8ight
of
the children
t+· Prcd»]
Second, Ws 8Pply ~hat ~E will cali comParativB-predicatG movement.
B.2
-~--
.----------
..-NP
Camp. P
.
-----
>
--........<,
i
N -
pp
»>:
'-----.. -
----
I\\JP
1
taxa wa : y u
ta xa wa: y
u
xalEE
yi
height
of
Jmar excGeds height
of
the children

---

412
Third, now wc apply Chomsky-adjunction.
This operation will
mOve the compnr a t i vc pI"cdicCl!-.[, a s Lr f t; s i s t r r
of the second I\\JP
of the first lovc15 introducing at the seme time a new node VP.
This gEnerate3 8.3
---- ---
.--
p
NP
t ;:J X ,'J Lei,'] : y
u
sut taxawa:y
u
xa lœ yi
of
jrn ar
e x c c cd s height
of
the ch i l dr en
Faurth,
wc apply identical-deletian transformation ta 8.3.
Th i sap cr a t i an will d ol et G t h8 n au n t a.; a wây and the :Jr e pO)i t i a n
LI
from the (N?,S), ç;eneratin-J 8.4.
8.4
--
s -
-_.---- ------.
----------. VP
-----------
Camp.P
<.NP_____.
\\
- - - - - -
<,
\\
N
»>: pp~.
V
P
N~
\\
. :
,./
~
/ '
\\
--'--_._-- \\
)ma:L
sut
t a xa ua t y
u
xéllœ
yi
e xc e ad s
height
of
the children

---

Fifth,
WE
apply
permutation-transformation,
in order to mOVE
the: constituent Xal33
yi round the 1\\1 t ax a ua l y .
This generatE'S
8.5
8.5
__.--.--.:------- S ______
_.--.-...
NP
--~------._-VP_________
--
»->:
Comp.P
NP
» - > : --,
-------.
1
~.---
---._-
V'6
NP
rJ
P
1
/\\
1
!
\\
1
--..~ /\\\\
1
sut
xa1EE'
yi
t.a xa ua t y
u
)mar
excEeds the children
height
of
SL,th,we apply a delstion-transfbrmation in arder to rem O V8
the preposition u From thE tree.
This generates 8.6.
8.6
N
T
\\
)mé.JI'
sut
xaLn
yi
taxawa:y
:Jmar
exce~ds
childI'en
the
h 8 igh t

---

The string generated now is quite grammatical.
Vat
we could apply one more deletion transformation in order to
generatc
2.
This operation wi~l generate B.?
B.?
----------- s-_------------
~JP --
·VP-..
.>: '-------,.
---------
r,J
Pn
Comp.P
-----------NP
1
~~~,
v~
N
T
m ~.):
sut
xa Las
yi
exceeds
children
the
The derivation of 1 is different from
that of 2 as we can
SE:E
it LH,low.
Assume t ha t
the un d er Ly i n q P.marker of 1 t s A.
Civ5n this assumption,
WE:
apply to A comparitive-P"t5dicate_
movement-transflD'rmation •.
This operation q on or a t as A.1
A .1
s _._--------------
--
-----------
s
s
. / / ' 1 --------~
/ /
i
~.
NP
Cor;: p • ~'
Vr:-
f\\1 P
VP
I!
ad v.
.'
.-)mar
ggna
-;:; j') : l
mcr o
tall
children the
tall

---

- - - - - - - - - .
-------------------
~15
Th~n wc 3Pply idcntical-ds10tion tTansformatioh~
This
A.2
s
---_.-
---------
.s->::
--.~-
{~
....
S
;
..._.
i
I~P
VP
f'JP
1
1\\
i
i
/ \\.
1
i
/ \\
1
o.
f] L:n:J
xaléB
yi
tall
Then we app~y
ChD~skY-adjunction.
Hco r e,
t hi 8
0 PEI' Cl t ion
brings th~: c"--ilp.Il~:rcJ unccr the domination of the nodc VP,
genG'I'ating ri" 3
s -"-"--- ---
.--------
------- s
I~P
vr..
NP
..-"
<,
/
1\\
C']::1 p • P
V8
1
/
\\
8GV
'
1
,
\\_J
gene
xaL:e
yi
)mô T
more
tall
children the

---

~16
No'.J: '.Je apply t b c l'esidual shift transformation.
node under the dominAtion of VS
of thE first sentenCE.
This
e n t a ils
a
t ~~ c: ..~ .. p .L uni n C] ,e-, n d ÇJ c ri e r .J tes ,Cl. 4
['.!P
vp .
.
...-----
"''-''
---
~---
N
iJn
Comp.p
1
i
adv
)ma!:'
xal œ
yi
:Jeti.cc: tr-I:J~: .i n i
tll~ com?,pred, onc c introdL1cGd aS a
sEgment,
is always
f o Ll o u c d by
2
vr ta \\Jhich .i t is fina11y
Chomskv-adjoinEd,
whercas in 2 the comp.pred when introduced
)
)
a s
<.:1
s c nm L r.;
i s r 0 2. I C W t; d b Y éJn ~,J P, e VEn a ft er i t i s Ch0 ms k y -
.'
.J
a d j o I n r d ,
r.
?act
!,_!CJrth n o t i n o tua is that in 1, the cCrnp-pred
functiDns ~s On ~uxilia!YI
in thE SEnSG that i t bcars tensG
and
In 2 th~: c ompe pr e d ac t s 83 [V, vp].
:\\j 0 u
1. cc'~ 'J S
CCl;'] s id [ r
3.
Its underlying P.markEr C,
givEn bElow, diffcI's
Prom that of 2 by the nodEs comp-prsd in
2
VEr sUS
s u p., r -; éJ t iVE" Pr 2 die a t c
5. n 3 •

---

! 1"1
'j
i
C
- - - - - - - - - - - s
----._--
---~-
--------
----------
Comp
s
The historical dnivation .of '3 is the Sams aS for 2/
but for a prcpositional-phrasd-transformation ~hich t~kcs
p1élCE and generates C.1
given belo~:
C. 1
._-----------
»>: _ ~J P
_.----
<,-, <,
.c->: .----
r~
Pn
Comp.P
sut
ci
x a I éD
yi
.)ma r
he
e xc or d s
among
cb i Ldr en
The prcposition~l-phrase-transformationis a
specific fc~tur[ oF thE compBrison introducing 3
notion of
s up s r Ln t i vr".
It is worth notinq that it intervEnss only
after the pErmutation transformation has taken placE and
after the prEPOsition
lU'
is deleted.

---

~18
We now turn to another case.
Consider 4,
given
ear1iGl.
If WB assume thot 4 means Jrnar and 9go:r have the
'-
SamE height,
then wc arc s~ying that one ~lement of th2
sentenCE is missing.
Actually
the undEr1ying string of 4 is 42.
t ~) : 11_ :
taxawa:y
~/
( '\\.rna r and 9SJ O,T the y e qua l hE' i 9 ht )
and this means 4b.
4b.
t a xa ue t y
u
.m a r
ak
t a x a ua : y
u
IJgo:r n o :
tJ:l1)
height
of
mar and h e i ght
o f ' 'tifg 0 : l
the y e 9li ~ l
As wc: c;"n SEC it,
{rb.
is gensrated
from ,J d cr pe r
structure which has undergone nominalization transformation.
We could rcpresentJ that d22pcr stt~ctU~~-~5 found in ~.markcr O.
W'p 8 5S umè th a t
t.he
corn par Clt i v~o-;'2.1f?m en t-mo vem c n t
t r a ns f orm a ti on
has been pcrformed.
o
5
---------
--------.._------
NP ____
vP
----. s
~JP
1
\\ ,
.imar
amna
taxawa:y
fl g 0 er
3mniJ--trn-;;~:-y
)mar
height
equa 1

---

419
As said abovc,
the 8prIlcation of nomin aii2ation
transformation to 0 generéltes the "tring 4b which i5 r8prEsEntcd
in P.mélrkcr 0.1.
D. 1
5
--,._--------VP
»>
1
NP
1
1
1
. - - - - -
<,< ,
pp
1
N
pp
-> -,
~ -.
r
P
f~
N
1
i
1
1
,
1
J
t a x a l,ja : y
u
xna r
t.a x aua t y
U
fJQo:r
t J:1I ') :
'-...--
h Bi ght
of
Jmar
height
of
ngo :r
cqual
Tot Ile P • mar k er 9 i v ['n a b 0 v e ,
LJ 2
h ElV G t 0
3 P ply
c ori-
JUnction-transformation.
This generates P.marksr D.2
0.2
~ ----_._--------------
NP ,
»>: 1 -------
f'l
~~P
Con j. r
P
----------
..
.
pp
N
' \\
/ '
\\
pp
P
r~
\\
----------
'---,
i
r.-
1
1
1
\\
IJgoa
u ~.mar
ak taxawa:y u
hEight
of;mar
and
h s i oh t
of
Equa l

---

420
Now in ordsr ta generate the string 4, wc apply a
transformation that WE have ta caU in our WJ r k SynecdochG-
transformation.
This oPEratian remOves bath the identical
h e a d- n 0 uns t a x a Wa : yan d b ot h the pr e po s i t ion s 1 u 1 suc h t ha t
J
""
the Ns ~mar and mUsa: stand respactively for the whole NPs in
which they wsrs only constituants,
The application of the synecdoche-transformation
willgsnerate the P.marker 0.3 given b~low:
D,.3
s
NP
---"
_---~ ,1 -------
~ , ----
---------VP/\\
.
NP
Conj.P
~jP
1 \\
./
\\
1
1
/
\\
N
N
.1
\\
1
1
\\
1
/
i
1
\\
1
1
/ _ - - - - -
:)mar
ak
rlQo:r
~ ,
.)mar
and
IJÇJo:r
thEY oqu a l
'--'
As could bG noticsd, WB have considered that the
other transformations which 2rs not in direct connection
with the comparison trans€o~mation hava bEEn applied without
any explanation.
No w con s i d Er, 5.
5
implics the two
following propositions Sa and Sb .
. J
_5a.
jmar
niro:
nJx~r
5b.
'"
n~x~r
niro:
~mar

---

We can say SB and
5b
cntails
cach other.
~21
Cive n t h i s,
\\Jc: C é) n
s a y t ha t
5 i sun L! r:: r lin 0 LI b Y the ~~markcr
E giVCll bclo\\J:
E
s ". -.... --._------
Con~.
5.b)
---
------ --------
-~
v
NP
v
1\\1 P
jmar
niro:
n-:-:x)r niro:
:-'~mar
jma r r cs (" mb les
n .»; -~Ir
n-xr.r r os ornbLes
_:,m êJr
In 0 rd [r t 0
g en er ;3 t e S ,
\\J cha v c t 0
éJ P ply
:l
t Lan s f en-
mat ion
th,::, t
\\JC lJ i 11 C El 11 i n t h i S
\\Jor k R G pli c 3 - d E let ion - t r ans -
fOL~ation.
This
Operation consists of jcl otion of ~ha second
n o d cS.
This
genl.:;rates
the P.markcr
E.1
givcn
bclou;
E. 1
s
-~-
-----
,"
---~-
----
------
Con .i-
.>:
»>:
NP
JJr-
v
~,J P
n i r o :
r e s ornb Lcs

---

Thc n wC' aPply
Cho~lc3ky-adjunction tr3nsformation in o r d rr to
b r .i li ~ï t il i.:. con s t i t u co nt-Il) XJ r u.: J c: r
t il c S;:1 rn Lo il 0 d e t h a t
dom i n El tES
E.2
_______----,.:::
5
.-~_._-----------------
Conj.
S'al
-_._- VP
\\
V
n ir o :
J m.rr
n .,x..:r
r r s crnbI.o
Nou l''é;
apply
the
conjoinin~J-transformationgEilcTating the
P.markcr
E.3 givcn bclow:
r
'7
1:.. ••J
s
--------_
----
..
---
. -----------~
[\\J P
vr
------
.,--....
.-----------
\\!
..-
---
NP
Conj.P
1
/
/
1
/
./ --- - - ---_._--
ak
n :X :-r
niro:
and
r os ornb Lc

---

HElPE'
êJgaln LJC a s surn e that aIl
ether
tr3nS~(Hmations ha vc b c r n
6.
Intuitivcly a Volof 5pcakcr knows that
6
is dcriv~d From the
following string Ga,
68.
~;iïl '-' r
daPa
t· .
cjl
ni
l'c'k
di
t·80 CG
~::;;,:H
j ump cd 1iko a rabbit jumps.
Th c: LI il
: r 1 y i îl G
i'. [~- ,-:1 r k co r
0 f
Ga.
c n n
b ç
rg: ive n a s i n
F.
,- ,
:J
. --_._-_.-----~-,-~ .
.-~
S C;~1
VP
VP
)
t'e"p
él d v, ,,"
-r:::,ma r
to·p
Simila::>
Come v
1
't-
1
If
ue c,lant to o cn cr a t c 6 f r orn F,
lie have to apply
first an advcrbiol-phrasc tr3nsfor~atiDn.
This
trF\\nsform,J-
t5.on,will"li:t uch the nodc c omp.s r a t i vr to the s r c orrd nodrè 3,
ClcnGI'ocinQ
F,Î
g:Î.\\Jcn
bclow~

---

F. 1
.. _-- ---------~
S fa)
f\\JP
vr
COI:Jp. P
vP
\\
1
j "
+:,::i Il . ':
'\\ re'k
Siî11ilc]f "1
1
'.'. ~
Comp;~
.1
jump
rabbit
jump
Theil wc ap pl y ta
F.1
.i d cn t.Lc a l, -
d r Lo t i ori -
transfufl]l,Jtion.
This operation uill
rcmDvE thE VP of the second sentencE
From the trcc.
TiF
rcsultinq P.markcr
l.Jil1
be
F.2 o i vc n bclcJu':
F.2
s --____...
-_.--
-----.. ---..-----
s {3)
-.
S (b)
/ / / /
/ / !
~/
1
i'JP
Vr::
CDm p. p
rJP
_',ma r
jump
1ikc
rabbit
This operation
will mo v c
the rcsi~al S undor the domination
of vr of the first sentence.
This will genoratc the
P.markdr
F.3 Qlv~n bclow:
",

---

F.]
__--------- __ S
---
._-----~­ ----
---------;~.~,., - ----.,
.--------
.
"-- '----,:~dv.P
adv.
i
1
!!r
dafa
t·cp
n.i
l"ëk
hé)S
jumpcd
like
rabbit
~E arc assuming that the transformation which
introduCŒ the segment êux.C has bccn applicd.
It a~pEars from this analysis th~t compal~tivc
s~ntenccs arc constituted by tu D clauses of whic h G~c i5 tho
rn ai n cl,élus6 ;:lnd the
o t h cr
one the! comparinQ clause.
tian of comparison i5 establishcd by
thu incorporation of a
pr0dicatc of comparison or an
advcrb of comparison w~ich is
the cOmpafing clement.
iJo u let us list the EtÜc43 ~f transformations applied
ln
the aboue an~lysis.
S.D.
( Ac: \\1- Corn p • G l cm)
( Np) + (I.lP))
+(
( NP)
+ ( V~ )
/1
5
s
S
S
S 5
ii
1
2
3
c
{:
,C
s.c. 1 + 2 + J + 4 + 5
=====/
2
+ 1 + 3 + If

---

2 als o has a relation of sUPEriority but the comparative clement
h cr c .i s
a frcc!icaJ:e contrary t: 1 whrrc it i5 an advorbial com-
Parativc clement.
Thus the rule hD~C 15 :
S .0.
( Fr ul. Co mp •
cIe m
( 1\\1 r ) + (V r ) ) + (
(r~ nt' VP) ) )
#=S
S
s
s
5 S #
1
2
3
4
5
5 . C.
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
=======>
2 +
1
+ 4
3 has a superlative value and
Can be exprcsscd
with an adv-comp-
818~. as weIl as uith prcd.comp.
Thus wc have
5.0.
5 2(h~ ~ c o[,1P: l: le1.1 7, ( (~JP) + (V P) + ( (N P) + (V p) J )
l~r~J.com~.clcm), .
1/ s
s
5
S
S 5 Il
3
s. C.
± 2 + :3 +
"i
== zz: c ='~
~ 2 + '1 + :5 +
t '2 + 1 + c i
4 has a relation of cquality.
The tyPe of relation is alwa~
1 n t r 0 cl u c Ed b Y é:l
pre: cl. co mp •
For t hi s
t y pet h c ru ll? 1 S
s.o
UT ,:; c: • co mp. l: l CfT! ( ([\\j p) + (( V) + (!,W))) + (( r~ P) + (( 'U) +( r,1 p)) ) )
#- s
s rH'· NP
V~
Vç; 5
S r,i ~ ['] p
V~
VP S sil
1
2
5
6
7
S. C.
1
+ 2 + 3 -i- !~ + ::; + 6 + 7 == ==;:) 2 + ak + 5 +- 1 + (ù)
The last 2xamplc with 1-6 ~ivcs a relation of manncr.
The cOm~­
c=lcmcnt .i s an a d v c r b of rTlé)nncr.
TIF: rule herc 15
S.O.
(ac!\\J.
man ..
cor;;p.
cl cm ( (i..1f=)
+ ( Vp)
) + ((f\\IP) + ( Vp) ) )
11= S
S
S
S
5 S
1/:
r .
2
3
4
5
5 • C.
'j +
::: + :3 +
4 + 5
---=~
'/
L
+ 3 + 1 + q

---

l2'
'j
II.2,0.19
SUBORDINATION AND ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
-_._- __
..
.~-~--_ .._--- ..._------._._-' _._" ..
The
relations of SubOTdination bctwocn twa sentences
arc oF
lWG
difFcfcnt types.
One is the tyPe of relation exist-
s en t cne C LI hcre i t
i s
c rn b C'ri cJ ccl.
The
othcr one is
the type of
relation ExistinCJ bctuec n a sentence A and Cl Scnt8nc~ 0)
whcn
Brno d i Fi 8 s
the ln Cli n v c: r bof A.
Il cre
uc
arc' ci cal i n Cl u i U: t il c
latter type.
Whcn 2
sentence modiFies
the main-vcrb
oF
onoLhcr
sen ter> =c, i t i 'i :c, ~ -1d t: 0
b c ;:1Il:J cl\\/ r,'r h i a l e l a li Sc.
L;.:t
LJ~ ilCJu .~Jn;~lJ.ysC·' tht:
procoss oF ~cncrating
a d v r.: rh i (" I c I ,3 u ~; e ::i •
Considcr tho following sentence
5.
1 •
~)m ar
dina
jcnd
gana:r,
bu
gan;::l:r
y) : rnb ao :
'--'
'--'
.ima r
will
buy chicken,
if c hi c k en s c r c chcap.
2 •
.m ar
jcrljna
qana : rr- ,
atta:
qana:r
j a f <JC
]mar has
bought a chickcn,
a1though chickcns
a r r: costly
3.
..__"mEl l'
gana:r
y-.:mb<::J'ê'
' - '
~mar has bought a chicken, whcn chickc~s 3rc chcaP.
j~~r h2S not hought a chickcn, bcCaus[ muSa: has
n CJ t
co m lé' •
,--J.
rjgir
n d eo I.J
bck
Yi! e r
il :JS tJ 0 u oh t. a
chi c 1< en in 0 rd cr tep l '_1 s ;
il cl X
,"-1.

---

1 ? IJ
't ... ()
The c Laus c s
1.1
bu
qa n a t r
y):mbm:=
if chi'c:~e.-':3 arc ch:..:ap
'-"
2 • 1
j~f5
~ ~lthough chickcns ar~ CGstly
bi ÇJarian y o rmb eo :
::: uh o n chickons
arc che,"}i']
'--'
=
b ccnu s c
mu s a. lias
n o t
c om o
f]gir
=
i il 0 r der t CJ P1 C iJ sen d ae LJ
cannot stand alone out of contexte
This is
to proue that they
arc subordinatcd ta the rcmaining Part of thcir resPective
ernb ed di nj sentences.
The undcrlying P.markGrs ~ -
E of the rGsPdctiuc
surface: structure strings 1 -
5 shoLJS t h a t
the s ub o r oi r.a t od
strings 1.1
-
5.1
modify the V of the: scntcnccs
LJhc1't:, t:1CY arc
ernb edd c d ,
A.
_ - - - - - - - - - -
S --
_
NP
Pd.~
»>:
» >
C\\ux.C
NP
Conj.sl'b
/
1\\1 P
Pel. P
,.
,
.L_- 1
dina
bu ÇJon:l:r y):mbac
' -

---

8 •
s
--------_ _---.
...
NP
Pd.F
VP
-----.~dv.cl
~~~"
v
~J P
Conj.sub
S
- : ~
Il! P
Pd. P
gana:r
atta:
ganël: r
ja féD
c,
Pd.P
\\
Vr-: ----------_...
»>:
VF'--
.)
S
,\\
/~.
i\\
r~P
V~
J \\
l
,
"\\
l
'.\\\\\\
i:--_.
·cn
ndax
rnus·:-J:
nOl.Jul
.:1
dul
___

---

l '.' ri
".t ,J
VP ~.
Adv.cl
///~
<,
Conj.sub
S
/ '
1"
/
~
I~ P
VP
/ \\
i/
\\
.:--~~.
:=;mé1r
gana:r
ndax
mUSa:
~owul
t....
IIJ P
Pd. P
Conj.sub
i
NP
i
CJana:r
rfgir
bc;k
<::»:
Adverbial clauses can .
o pt i on a l Ly bc movcd
ta the
f~ont Gf the sentence by advcrb-clausc-movEmcnt-transformêlti~n.

---

~31
The transformation would Qcneratc the set mf scntcncc~,
1 -3 -
c or r t.s p on di n q to tho set 'i
5.
1 a.
bu
i f
chi c ken s
Ci r c
che a p ,
.:i ma r
wi li b u y chi c k' n
although chickcns
arc costly,
jmsr h~s
bDught a chicken.
whcn chickcns aré cheap,
)mar has
bou9~t
a
chi cl: en
h cc:; LIS é:
mu S'J: has
no t, COm (' ,:omar h èJS n o t
houc]ht
chickcn.
5 2 •
n Cl i r
n cl CC-I"i b c k,
::-J rn a r
j en d n a g a n;j : r
~
"-_...--
in orcier t o plcasc ndac w,
,nîar has b o u q hi. a chickcn
--..
'1- h c
t r c c:: - dia Qr <J [Tl r 0 f t il c sur f a C? S t rue tu r e s t r i n ç
1a s ho L.I S
that the adv.clausc is, in fact,
a subordinatod proposition.
F •
s ----------. s
r-d.r-
.-------- '--------
:~LJx. C
V,P
1
VB
!\\
i \\
/
1
\\
/
V
) \\
i
L__ \\
\\
1
bu
')mar
dina
je nd
gana:r

---

;
(
,f
/ 1"
~1 '.' G
Th c structural d os c r i
tLo n of an S omb cdri.i n q arl adv.
clause .i s
â
5.0.
(Conj.(flIP)
+
(
( VS)
+ (Conj.sub; +
( s )
)
)
su b.
IJ 5
~I P
NP P.DP VS Vs
cl
cl
Pd .p
S #=
&
2
3
4
5 • C.
is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
====.",=>
2 + 3 + 1 + 4
lJhcn the P.markErs underlying 1 - 5 undGrgo an ad v. claus:::-
mOvcment
transformation
the structural
change
is
thcn as
Follows=
5 • C•
+ 2 ..j.. 3 + L:
====9
1 + 4 + 2 + 3
P~SSIVIZATIOI\\J
Passivization in English or
Fr r-ri c h is
knOL''-' 8S the
pro c es s
b y whi c h th c f\\W ob j c ct
0 f
a s C n t c n c c i S
p G ne uc l, c d wi t h
the
N~ subjcct without adultcrating tho doc:p relation subject-
vcrb-obj(ct.
F'or
c: x a r.: pl o 1 -
2 arc rel a t c cl b Y p:J S s i vi z a t ion,
but
n 0 t
3 -..
(1.•
1.
The man
is
p::1inting the
hous e
2.
The housc i8 bcinq paintcd by
the man
3.
~ctcr bcat's John
4.
John bcats
Peter
3 and
4 arc not rclatrod by
passivization msinly
b c c au s c of t b o absence of the
particlc
' b y '
b e f o r c Peter and
the s c q u '" nec' ' b co
•••
En'
in whi ch b ca t
s ho u l d b c in sel' t e d ,

---

, 0 'J
(j ,) l i
Now let us
considcr the sentencGs 5 and 6 given bclow:
5.
Ir
arbre M
p.l o i s s oic
la
force du
vcnt (French)
The troe bends
under
the
force
of the
wind.
6.
Enfin,
le Paquet comm~nca ~ bouqGr sous J2 tr~ction
>
-
dl
une
puissante machine
(FrGnch)
At
Last ,
the p ar c c I
s t ar t ou moving duc to the
pull of a p ouo r f u I
IlldChinG.
It i8 obvious
tnat
5 -
6 arc PaSsiVE scntcncc~ and
arc l' cs pcc t i V El y rel
a t e d t 0
5 a;
6 a.
5 ,c:' •
l a
for c c: d u Vc n t
plo i ::c' l ' ,c: r h T' G •
the
r cr c c of t h e wind bcnds the
t r c c ,
...
GLl •
~OmmC')ncé:',
,]
J
mouvoir
le
pacuot enfin
T il c fJ LJ Il
c f a POLI c r f u l
rn (J C hi n e s t 2 l' t p,-j ri) 0 vin g
the
porccl
~t last.
~Jevcrthclcss thc~L .i s no o c r-u r-r e n c r of l!:le ••• • en'
and
rby'(or
' ê t r e .
•
terminaison
du
particip~
Pa 056
a nel
'Par').
Our
first
rcm:=:.rk
i:J:1L.,n .i s
l:h3t'bc:
•••
on'
:]nc
o y '
are not obligatory in
the syntax oF a
passive sontoncc ~nd
wh a t i s mOI' C l' cIe van t i n 0 u r
a n al y;:. i s,
i s
th a t
t il c y ne ed
no t
i
c
in
t
languages.
ConsequEntl y
ib~-:
h a v e
c q u
v e
l
c r c
o
h
e
r
. c
n
'
and
"b y '
ar;:: not uo i vc r s a I
fCJtuI'cS
of Pas:3iviz..ation.
Notice that-.wcinsist upon this
b o c au s o
'be ••. ocn'
and
"b v '
impliGs
neccssarily an
agent at
the syntactic lcuel.

---

5 in ccp a s s i vi z a t ion i s
5 ur f ace
ph en Clmc; non,
the 0 c c LJ r -
nco of agent may not be a uniVrrs~l facto
Thus,
cUen if WB
could Say that in English or French the agent is optionally
d c I c t a b let
i n lJ0 lof the d r I ct ion 0 f
èJ CJ en t
i s a Il' us t
~ nd th Gl' e
could be nO altcrnation.
Considcr the following sentences 7 -
9
7.
~Qo:r ~3~tna pax bi
~go:r has fillcd up the hele.
'".' , ;
8.
ua r G : w mi
f a ln anLJ f) go: r
the citizcns have clcctcd ngo:r
9.
bant bi s):kkna ~~o:r
'----"
- -~
.~ .~.
the s pLi n t r-r nos driven und or
the nail of ngCJ;r
7 -
9
a l' C a Il a c t i \\1 C sen t :::: nec s , \\,'j h cr cc 1 n go: r ,
warc : w rn i 1 1
arc rEspcctively agent and
'ba~ bi'instrument
Evidcntly 7 -
9
arr. rdatccl to 10 -
12.
10.
pax
bi
(:3 ... lI l ' ,"' .-,
.lJ
~.;"".)
....
.~_
the hole has bccn fillcd up
11 •
faluna
!JQo:r i5 rLcc t cd
s ~•• : k k u n a
.......
~gD:r has a splintcr drivcn undcr his nail
The NP objects in 7 -
9 have bccome NP subjccts in
10 -
12.

---

13
( ;
(.'\\
:.t t.
\\ )
The relation between 7 -
9 and 10 - 12 is traditionally
knoun aS fêlgtion of erg~ti~~ty.
8~t ergativity is first of ~11
a semantic notion.
Thus discarding it, WB refer to the relation
existing betwecn 7 -
9
and 10 - 12 as a relation of pa!siviza-
tion,
sincc it reflEcts syntactic maniFestation, namelYl
abject bccoming surf~cG subject.
Now let us
note t hn t
in 11J -
12 the aÇ)ents c2'lnot
have a syntactic manifestation.
The mor~ adjustable tr~nslation
of the English SGnt~nces 13 - 15 could bc given only by means
of tcrtca1ization as shawn in 13a - 15a.
13.
the ho Ln has been filled up by I)go:r
132. fjQo:r m:;: la~K. pax bi
=
Tt is 1]Qo::;,,' who ••.
14.
~g~:r is elected by the citilens.
~.-,~.
"."
1 4a.
.•
\\,J8
r e: w mi n ,. fal n Cl 0 ~ l' -
l·t
is t~ls =itizBns
\\,Ih 0
• • • • •
rJ
1 5.
~s!0:r has a s pLit nr uri de r his n a i l
1 Sa.
ban t
b i
m ';:
s): k k
nCJo:r == Tt is the :J~int8r
<
'--'
which ....
wher e
noo~r
...
and
wa r8:W mi 8re still NP subjects and
bant bi
-"
<:»
instrument; on the other hand
pax bi;
IJQo:r
IJç~ot.r
still
'-'"
'-_/
NP Ob j ec t s respectively
in 1:;a -
15a.
as
in 7 -
9.
Thus in the Passive form of Wolof sentences there
is no aC;Gnt.
We come nOL,J to the n ax t
point.
HOLJ
arc pas5illf'
sentenCGs Qeneratedin Wolof?

---

/ 3 .-
'1
b
Suppose that the underlying P.marker of 7 is A
-----------
s
---------- -
PcJ.p
t
VP
VB _
----_/
-~ ~p
- :
/\\
1
\\.
. , ; . - -
filJl.ecJ u p
tl->e
holo
If wc want to
generate 10 from 7, ws haVE te 2Pply a
r a i s Lriq
transform2tioll.
This oper3ticn will brinr:; (i'IP)
lü
tl:5
next
upper Ls v r I
and acijoin it to ~jP' Jinar as ri q o t s Ls t e r .
This
lJil1
C!r:ncoI'atc the
P.
markel.' 8.
5
'
.-------
------------- PdP
VP
vs
,
\\
v
/\\\\
/
/
\\
!
\\
.
.
1
L------
- "- . - - - - ,
pa x bi

---

13 '
ln the o ox t
s t s p LIe apply
to 8,
the NP -deletion- 'j\\. i
transformation,
rGm~ving the NP ~mar from the tree.
This opera-
tion will generato C as folluw~:
c.
_.._------........
~"
Pd.P
\\
,- \\
1
\\
VP
1 \\\\
\\
va
i
v
\\,
r-;
. ,
i
,/
\\
.._ ..
1
- :..------_.
pax bi
$akbn;::;
.~
The n , wc apply ta C ~ tronsformation that wc will calI u-Passi-
This will generatc the surface structure
s tri n q 7 and i t::3 P. in:H'/< cr 0
Li'? l 0 lJ :
D.
._-~ -----
NP
Pd.P
/\\
VP
1 \\
1 \\
\\/8
\\\\
v
\\
1
!
\\
/.
!
\\
\\,
//
\\.
,~-----'
Pax bi
S'akkuna
At the closr of Dur
3nalysis WE suggest that
the
process of Passivization may be ~8intcrpret8d, and distinctions
likc wGak-passivz transformation and strong-P2ssivc
transFor ~-
t ion C;::1 n b e i n t r 0 duc E d i n t he the 0 r y 0 f s yn t a x 0 f n 3 t ur al

---

languagE3. strong-passivE transformation ~ould bc a Passiviz a-
tion where t ne r c .is no tract of cJON as s e.en in Wolof.
lJo c an now f o r mu l a t r, th c r u Lo of strong-Oassive:-
transformation in lJolof by giving ~n 8xample:
7 .
S .0.
(
r~ p~) ) + (
\\f )
+
(
r~~~) ) )
s
NP
~; P
Pd. P V V
NP
NP Pd.P S
1
+ 2
+
3
S • C.
1 + 2 + 3
===::::====:'>
3 + 2 -l- U
Ir.2.D.~2
NP- T!.JHJNHJG- TR ANS FOR MAT l ON.
This transformation consists of changinq a sentence
which has the structure A into.a sen~cnc8 having t~8
S trcutur 5-8.
A
=
NP1
+
V
+
Prept :csociat», <, inst oj +
~J Pr")
L
B
==
NP1
+
Î~ P2
+
V
+ Cas 8-a f fi x
l SociativC?o); " inst.,]
NcC?dlcss to saY that ~ form having th~ structure 8
c an b c c on s i o cr cd as d'Orive:! from A if and only if thE
structure A i8 rccovcrablc.
For EX,:':l:plc c ons i d or the ~ocntence'...1 -
3

---

2.
njg::y
a ridn a
ak
ndéJG LJ
n\\ q .:y h a s
[) 0 n 83 I 0 n ç-; u i t h n d _8 LJ
nj goy
i s ma r l' i cc cl
t Cl IJ CJ 0 : r
All thcsc sentencES have the structuro NP, + V + ak +
f\\IP
r8prGSEnted
in the P.marker
;~.A. given b s Lo u:
2
A.A.
___- - - - . , - - - - - S ------
~
NP --'
Pd.P
i
1
1
VP
1
va
1
v
--------
.----
1
-----------pp
1
.>
1
~
1
Prep
1
1
1
NP1
C" +V ','. \\
NP')L
By applying tréJnsformations
to thesc strings,
tnEir
structures
can be altcroc:! in s u c h ;:1
LJaY
thar.
the ;-'i~P, 5) .rnd
,--
the
\\_r~p, Vp'\\ a r o t u i nn e d uncicr-tlnc single n o d r, I~P.
Tho t.r ans f o r-mn t.Len s
to bC' app Li r o he r c a r c ,
first
Chomsky-adjunction
transformation.
This operation LJill move
the PP bac k l.Ja r d s
;:; s r i g ht - sis t 8 r
0 r !
__ NP, SJan d gGn 8 r ;:; t e t Il[='
P.merkers 1a -
33
:

---

s
Pd.P
.>: .----
.
_._--
.NP
\\lI='
pç:
1
NP
~.//-"'\\
\\JO
../
'
î!P
\\j
-v
n 'X;T
al<
- Pd.P
\\
\\J~
pp
1
\\JB
...../-
. \\
\\-"T C P
f~P
v
n.:,! 33 U
gO.togctl>CT
n. g".:·Y
ndec \\,}
Pd,P
....,.-.,.
~
vP
\\
\\18
\\
Il
\\
l ) X)
r:go:r
ok
bGa t
~'--'

---

, l
'l'
~ ~; .
Then wc aPply the twinning-affix addition
transforma-
tion.
This Operation will affix the pr o pcr t ui nn i n q partic1e.
on the '-I,=:rb and Ql::nerates 1b -
3t
:
,,_,...-' S
f'J P
Pd. P
~--
, / ' , / "
\\
NP
pp
V~~
/',/./~
\\
1
~'
\\
va
Pr ep
NP
\\
v
»>: ~~"
Vst
,,;:)f
t .
i
..
1
1
~go:r
ak
n:x~r
0] l
fJ CJ 0 : r
;" Q ;:J in st
n ~,x )1'
ui th
20.
'------....--------------t-d.~
//-//"-~-
i
~JP
H'
ur'
li G
v
Vst
af
n 'j9W"
ak
ndac w
a: n d
al
'----
' - - '
ndaow
go
Lli t 1;
'~~

---

3b.
___- S
.------------------Pd.F
\\
NP
VP
)
V8
Pr c p
NP
\\
1
V
///'~~
1
IJs t
2 F
\\
IJgo:r
a k
L)x::.
tOo"g 9
ëE :
~-
IJgo:r
wi th
hand
"---'
Now,
If wc apply a dEIBtion transformation in order t~ rGmovc the
Pr ep
ak,
thon,
t h o transformations
uh i c h .i n t r co uc e t.r.c ,t;~xoC.
and,
the rcl~vant morphophonemic transformations wG gGn~ratc
./
1 c -
3e 0
1 Co
__ S
_.-
.
-----
.-.--
------------
NP
NP
NP
Au x , C
VP
va
\\f
rJqo:r
b "cOr aB : l
fJgo:r
/n'Jx~.·r
ur (Ost l r?-agai ns t

---

,
l
'-)
' - ' - 4 '
.. .. ~
2c.
- - - - - ----- --- --~------~
Pd.P
~
"'---~
NP
.>
.---
.nUX.C
VP
l
\\
II
vs
'\\
1 \\
\\(
1
n :C1.,Y
nd ar u
l ay
a:ndal
.../
n dae LJ
s h (' (b et 0 )
go - \\Ji th
,_...-'
_ 5
. i - >
------- Pc!.~
l'II)
VP
V8
v
f)go~T-'
J )X
lay
t'Ë Qc;:.ce
' - '
rl9. 0 :r
h;clnd
h c( b etO)
bca t
[-) u~ COll S i d [;r Ir.
.
/",.
rlqo:r cultivots8 for ~~x~r.

---

Notic~ that 4 is ambiguous in the
sense that it could
rn E',? n IJ 9 0 : r
cul t. i vat E:S
\\.LI i t h n. x-j r
': êJl 0 ~ lJ ~ th) .
But lEt us
.........
discard this intGfprctation.
Sc,
lJO rio t i r s that
(~has t~E structure NfJ
-;' NP2
+ V
1
+ al
I n t hi s
S (3 nt 8 n c lc
lJ r~
C a n n 0 t I c C C \\J !?r
the s t r uc t ure
NP
IJ P
1
2
011
thE: o t ho r
hand~fHhas t'le meaning ~~o:r cIJ'_tivatos
with ~~x'jr, then thE structura NP1 + V + ak + NP
is YQcovGfablo.
2
NP1 + \\1 -l- a 1 :
-1-
,\\1 P2
i s n 0 t r C'c 0 V cfa b 1Gb E: C ClU S G NP2 h Cls
the
Th~JS, :Cl structuré' 1"~P1 + NP2 + V + CaSE 18 not
n e c cs s ar LLy l'lèlatcd to L1 e Lr uc t u r«
NP1
+ V + a k -t
~\\~P2
J. l , 2 • lJ • 2 3
Elliptical sentEnces arc ::.>entoncos lJhich at t ho
synt~ctic lcvpl arE constitutG~ only by the residuo of an
oritj~~~ sentence whcrc one or more major catGgo~i8s havG
Thus
olliptical sent@nC05 cannat but be
2 CC'"" II t: ci
f' Cl l'
co u r f a Cle P h c: Il0 fi] 1"." n;l •
agr'C3
to rGfdr to thom as sentences.
i.
BIJ:r
i<ing

---

t 0
go
3.
ni lœ rn
like honey
fi •
LJ3 : n t 38
j i ~_~~; j a
but t hc tcmpn.
5.
lJa:LJ
Yes
In nrdcr tD int[rprGt thosc sentonccs
wc h0VC to
aSsume that the) 8rc the residue
of complete sentencos,
for
oxamplc rospcctivcly,
1a -
Sa.
1a.
b u z r
m--l:
It is the monarch who callod.
l
LJant to go
.];:1.
s~~\\:\\.J
ma:
G9l
mxl
ni
1.:::C;;i.
the curd i8 lik~ honcy.
l,a.
'.Jm3r
ba :xna
ln: nt ae
ji~_~ .>
ja.
jma r i2
ni cc bu t
hi':) tlJrnpc r
( .i s
n Dt good).
Sa.
'.Ja~LJ 'jrnar
ba:xna
y es.
,mar 1s ni ce.
,.
'l a , 2a,
3a,
5a
Ciln br: tho ans o cr s
of the conctilI'n::;cj quo s t i oris
likc 1b, 2b,
3b and 5b.
'l b ,
ku
~~j:té3G
?
LJho
call cd?

---

1b .
l Cln .r:}g éJ
b'c' 9 g 7
What do you want?
=) b •
n Cl k a l a s ~) : w
mi
mct:.' l
?
How L" t ho cur d ?
5j.
QE.3X Jmar
b a t xn a 7
ls
)mar
nicc?
Thu31
- 5 arc o bv i ous Ly obtainod b y lJay of tr;]n::;form:::l-
tion,
as
excmplifiod in the histotiea l dcrivati8n of ~:giucn bEIolJ:
A•
s
-------------
----~--.
_.--
---
_ Î~P
Pd,P
-----~'-~.--
~,
..--------- ,
T
Aux.G
VP
------
va
'--------Adv.cI
1
' - - -
\\/
Ad v. CDm p
3
->
NP
S):w
mi
afJgi
mm l
ni
Id] rn
IiI (:JO 1
---'
euro
thG
is
is
Li k G
honcy
is

---

,
1 ..-t
':1 '1 i
s
ri 'J
T
Aux.C
1
- - - '<, -
v
/ / ' " - .
-----
.>
AeJv. Cornp ,
.s
ni
1:cc rn
mi
a n.g i
mEB l
hon cy
is
is
li k ['
['Fei
th o
r
s
,i-Id\\J.Cl
s
ClcJv.Comp.
NP
1
1
léG m
I I I
ho n cy
lik c

---

, 4(',
4
,~
A
V
**
PPJn
III
***
PHO'HJL OGY
**
*

---

**
II 1. Î
i.HAPTEI~ E
*"*
PllC:JOLC;[;rCAL
SYSTEf1
*
'*

---

450
IIL1.!
The fact that wc start ou~ analysis with vowcls
is mcrcly strategie.
Vowcls are numerically Lcs s c r
th8n
consonants, and,
ta some o xt cn t , Lr rid themsclvcs mor::: easily
to a description.
The classificatioll of vowels will b c baSe:d, on the
one h;:'ind,
on a c r i t r-r Lon of a p or t ur c , on the o t hr r
hand, on
the POsition of the lips and the shape of buccal cdvity as
d i v.i dr-d by the t ori oo o .
Wc will also makc USG of a physica l
f oa t.ur r , namcly,
Cjuélntity (or duration).
Compare the morphGmGS of the following s~t:
tis
-,"
t 0 s pl as h
ti :s
=::
moral pain
tus
=::
nothing
tu :s
==
te play the drums for the
wrcstlor's making rcady~
tas
ta sc at t cr
flattoring, short and rhythmical
prose said by
1 t.r ouv c r e '
in
ceremonies of joyfulncss and l
gcncrally followGd by a sr.ort
da ne c .

---

451
It ls obvious that the mcaninQS of these words diffcr
only bccausc of the vDwols
i ,
.i t , li.
u i , a a nd a:
•
Discarding a c ou s t i c fr::Qturcs,
l,}c
c an Oppose i, .i :
on
the? one hand,
and u,
u: on th;: other ~:)ncl as front vO:,Jels and
.l .
beck vowcls respcctively.
Morcovcr wc Can oppOse the group i,
• ,
u, u: to thc group a,
a: as high vowcls and low voucls resrcctivcly.
The pairs i/i:; U /
u:
; a /
a:
als o show an in~Ernal
opposition laying on a critcrion of dUration.
Thc set i, u,
a
is
formcd by s h or t; vcuc.l s , uhr r c as i:, u:, a: arc: long vOwGls.
This could be pointed out- throuçh
the diag r"1m-I.
DiaQrarn-I
____.... v
--
----------..-._-_.
10\\,1
\\\\.
/
short
lông
5 ho r t
long
.... short
long
1
!i!
i
u
u:
a
a:
Now considcr the set given bclow:
wi :r
--
wc :r
=
to lay 30mcthing against somcthing
tJ GE' :r
=
ta stretch something in arder ta
dry it.
wa:r
ta lecture;
t o s r-r rnoni z o ,

---

1 r: ")
'1.)(,
Herc again the d i f f e r c nc cs
of mos rd nç .i s to bc ascribed
ta the variation or vowels.
AlI of them are front vowels,
but
.
for a: .
We have alreadY SGen a diffcroncc betwccn il and a·
.
Vtt it s a e rns that if we:r (jnd wa:::r 2r2 opposed ta wi:r and ua:r
it rn s a ns t ha t
t he r c e xi s t s another r e rio c or anothcr
rcature
aPart
From high and low ta distinguish w~:r and wœ :r from wi:r
and wa:r.
Actually if we pay sOmG i::Jttention to the mOvf"le1lt
of
the tangue,
while making an articulated reading of the ~8t in
the o r d or given abovG,
We no t Lc c a progressive dQunw:::J::'cJ motiun
of the tongue Gach phase corrssponding to the vo~el WB are
.
ut t er in g.
It can bc noticod then that wc:r ls clos ""f to wi: r
than to wa:r as far the fcaturc of aperture is conccrnp.d.
On
the c or.t r r.r y WéE:r is
c l os ar
to wa~r t han ta wi:r in the s ame
consideration,
\\Jo
c an
n o i., say
that wo:r Ls
h i q h-rni r: and
WEB:r
i8 low-mid.
This IGads us ta cOmplete our previous classifica-
tien as describdd bElow:
Vowels may be high Or r.igh-mid, 1,JW or Lo u-rn i d,
Conscqucntly wc have tG improvc the abovc diagra m as in the
IÜagram- Il.
.-
.,- .. ".
H
L ----.
~ -.......
»>:
h
------
.
h-m i d
l
l.mid
..
..
.>
-,
"
»<
-,
.>
-'
'~'---
/ '
---~---
sh
Ig.
sh
19
sh
19
sh
19
\\
./ . /
'.
/,,,,/\\
/ / \\
" '"\\
./'\\
"
".
/ " \\
F
B
r
B
F
B
F
B
F
B
F
B
F
8
F
B
\\
i
1
i
1
!
1
1
1
1
!
!
. ,
,
i
u
l
•
u:
e
0
8 :
0:
~
5!J
ft
0 E.8
)
éD
..
.: :
"

---

~53
Yet
compare the
next sato
==
rccovcry cç
onels
h aa Lt.h
==
to gO around
==
werm
Hore aDain the diffErcnccs of meanings dcpend on the
VOL1['1
un i t s ,
Wc have Li s t od
c
as «hj.. gh-mid
+ short + Fr-Jnt»)
that ·t:." has at Lc as t
on r
fCaturc
LJhich ri i s t i n qu i s hos it. fr:Jm Cl
and ae
Actuolly
uh cn uo
pr onunc o uc r,
w'dr,
wacr,
wC
notice
t ha t
for
w'ch
the ton 9 u o i s a t
a
me dia l
p 0 s i t ion bot we e n t h C?
r
position
of wor and uar r .
Morcuvcr
the tangue retro5~d~s
slightly but sUfficicnt1y
tu makc sensitive thG looscncss of the
contact of the
aPex against the low2r
tocth.
The samc rctrogra-
dation
could bc noticcei
f o r
a and a:
(U",ough wc- did rvo t
mcllti-'n
i t) •
Thus comparee}
tel
ur r
and
uac r
on th~ basis of a p c r t ur o ,
wëtr
s h 0 LJS the
c X i s t o n c e
Cl f
a
mc d L:J1
3 p cr t u Fe
v 0 weI .
On the
other h and , oc' op pus r s
.it s c l f
te a
in the èJenSC that
a
io: low
aperture
vOuel but,
i t
s har es
u i t h
a
its p os i t i on
of rather
c c nf r a I
v o ur L,
i r LJG t ak r. c cn t r e I é15 o pp os cd ta front a n d b a ck •
Moreover,
if Wc considEr t~c SEt
i
i:
e
c:
œ
ffi
·0'
a
a:
on
the one:" h2nd,
and
the sot
u
u :
0
0:
on
the other hand,
wc can
easily
notice that
the lips
arc
unroundsd during
the a~ticu13tion of the first S0t of vowcls
but h a v c a r 0 und cds h 8 P o du ri Il 9 t h 8
art i cul a t ion 0 f soc 0 n d ~;::" t ~
Thus
vowcls
arc also dividcd into unrounded
vowc1s
end roundEd
va weI s.

---

The abovc sub-classificatiQns
can be summarizcd in the
follouing Chart-A
;
Chart-A:
-~~--~-_._- .
Place of articul~~ion
1'" -- ._ •... - . - - .•.- - - ' - -
.._
.. _ ..__••_.
.._.. '_"""_'
i
!
'
1
· .
". ~
Ap c r t ur G ! Fr ont
: Centr al
Back
1
1
,
1
._--;---- --i-·-..--- ..·.. ....-.-1-- -------... -- _1__.. ---..---·....·--f..-· ....-----·- ..·· ..
.. .... ---."--" ...
:
i
i
i
1
i
u
1
-
H
High
...
v
+
~-------.
i
cJ
i 1:
L
i .
1
u : : 1
+
o
l
··-·-·..---·--f·--------- t------· i - -- ..- .-----+--..
u
w
h~mid' !.__~_._.-+----~-_O------f-=--i
G
r
E
H I E : '
!
0:
+
;
1
L
---f~e~~al
!
..---1--··o:--t------- --:-=-j :
. - - - ,- - - - - _ i _
1
.~-------_ .. _.-.+--!
L
r
i
CD
j
i )
1
-
\\
i
o 1 l-mid
i" --ac-~--i- .....---- -l---)~----- r-;-'
o
w r"- -.-----t-------t -a--' -T---------- ---i '-
n
1
low
t--
a :---~----...--...-----!--.~.-
j
1
1
._---.--!__.~-_._------_.;- .. _ - - - - _ . _.._--_._-._-_ ... - ---- .. __ . - ---_.+-
._-~
j
+
1
,------------
1
·-------1
1
i
Roundntss of Li p s ,
Th~ follouing i3 the distributional rattern of the vowsls:
Initial
j"ÎcdL"l
Final
i
----)
.i no i ;
ni t
Ji
,--.
ta brin!]
2
p cr sOn
to SOu

---

455
i:
f ·l •
te; (ocalizc: .,
he r e .
li ght
c
tG:tc:
hcal t h
boOk
Id
to lay s orn c-
t ha t
(elEmons'-'
thing against
-Lrativc)
••
o
to stitch in
ta .b r oak
a J e~thQI'
(of classes)
nao n
to arrivE:'
cgg
tu fotbid
(h crr~)
r éD ;
.• ' ••
1
tCl arriv5
to stop mO\\Jing
ta lauQh
( th el' C \\
fat
nGthing
fa: t
xéina:
é3 du l t
~!~ :.'8 8~
perhaps
n o t
c :L,., CU,:1 C ::."
< c d ,
u
ut
.': U r
tD c' "... , .1,.-
. .
namc
t 0 dt CSS
,-}
oncsc 1 f
kU;f
l' U :
Cob6L~r
b o ct I r:
Soul
o
boli
n di mO
t hr cat
ma t cI' i a l
.
(of clr:Jth)

---

~56
ib :
- --';>
o:m
do: rn
s cd do:
- - '
knc::c::
aS h
tCJ s har c
_
.)
.... ~
t o put 3
dish on
;] Id il c\\ a f
f qj i t
a trivt?t for
r cd u ci n Ç]
t il che ~t
):rn
IJ ~): L J:
ta bc rcduccd
fi cid
cause
to s oc ak
(of body)
The
s yn t.aqm a t i c
occurrence of t hc s c vOlJcls c a n bc pr r-s an t.cd
in Chart-B:
Chart-B:
_
.._.
C=-=..-=~~~=·=~i~~~~:ib_u~t i~O.~_ ._~==_-~.
1
VOlJcl
! Initial
Medial
i
Final
.. ---_.._-_ .._.!- ..~_. -----.-- -"-"- -._- ...__._'-. ---- ._---~---_.._-----_._- ~--
i
\\
,
i
i
+
+
+
. .- - - --
~ --------- _ 1._.-.-- -.-----._..-..-.--1---- .
i : !
' +
i
+
-----1--:---····--t---··--·----~····-·-·---·--·-
e
. 1
-
!
+
;
+
l
'
1
C :·---·---·--I··--·---·-·---·~-· ··-·--~----l·- -- +
-'--'i----' ..
. -_. ;------ ....-- _._----
..e
1
+
+
+
1
1
". _.._------+--_._. .-.-.~---------__i---
-,-
a::
+
+
i
,
_._---_....~.._.....;._-_. ----------_..!
---~._-~
+
+
i
1
.._-_ .._._.__ .-----4-------- -+----- -:----
<::
'
+
+
+
.. -- --.-. ----+-..- -.-.------+----- ---.. ._-._-- i---"- .
a:
+
!
+
......--_. ---.-- t--·_····_-- .~---.-.-.
T-·-------+··- ...
U
i
+
:
+
i
i
.
. - ... - - - - - r . - ..... --... - - _.._.~- - - - " .._ .. __.__.__ ..._..L.
•. _ _
-~:.._-_._.__.+- -~:_'-_._-_.~
+
.~-- +
_1
'
+ !
.l..
)
+
~
!
..
.l.
_ L .
-_ ..
l
i
t
0:
i
i
+
!
+
. _.. .
.
J.
i
;
....__. _ - - - ---i-·-------·-···- _.... -;--...._ ..
.:-
i
+
+
-}
+

---

1. ,... "
.1 ~j /
This
an81ysis
has
pcrmittcd us
to sec that
cvary
IJowcl i5 disLinç,ui::d:,]b1r"
f r orr the
othl2i's
by 5'Jmc f c a t u r c that
oppOsès,
i t
t o o t hcr
v cuc l s ,
In the: mc ar-t.Lrne ,
wc S82 a l.s c that
i t shares wit~ them.
FD~ cxomplc /il ond lui shar~ the featurc
o f
hi g h 2 pc r tu r e
but
are 0 pp 0 s cc! h y
f €.8 t ure suc h a s
p lac. lé? and
o r 9 a Il
c f a r tic u lat i D n •
ThUG
i t appcars that a
pho no Lo q i c a I
dr-s c r kp t i on has
ta assiçn to (Bch and
[very
phoncmc
the fcaturcs
that
cn8ble it
ta c:nter
one or
the ether
qr nup of p ho n crnes ,
and als;'] cJiffcrcn-
ciate it
From other
phoncmcs.
In
0 r der
t o ru1 f:lll
Ut L~ .è' C q ui r Lm c n t
GJ C
C El n
g ive
the
d cs cr i p t i on
bclcw:
i
.i :
<
0
8
e
: + V
If .:.
v
'1+\\/
\\/
+'J
+v
1
i
i'
1
:
,
, + Fr [J nc
11 -:.
'+
Fr 0 nt: 1 .',
;."r CJ n t
1
+ r'i c d Ïé] l
,
,
'1
.1
1
1
!
i +
h ig::
-l-
h 5_S ~ "
,'.. ~=. ~;h" m.~·.d
1 + ContraI
rn iG
1
il
+ Short
1
,1 +
lCl'lQ
1
+ S hart
!i
1
1
....
round
l'ouild
r ~J un d
1 -
round
li -
r
:..If
'-II
L.
.i>
~
'1":' '"
l~#(-J ~,_:
e:
êC
u
l'
, + V
1
,
::,. \\1
il
1
+ Fra nt
!! + Fr n~ t;
Ccntr<Jl
"r
[jack
;1
+ lOL_iAmid;·~
.,. l='LJ
+high
1
1
i+ J.Dn~~: i
+ lsng
+ S hcr t
1
;
round
l' DU [') dl;
:!:'Clund
+ T ound
)
,1
/!/
C\\!
r'l
+ (P
( J I
1 .
,~ 1
..,
(.
1
/!
,'1
i
_ i

---

~58
u :
o
o :
i+ V
-,
" V
+ 'v'
1 -i-
\\j
1+ v
i
1
i
i + B:-:1ck
1+
Ba ck
1
1
+ hî:r;;h
+ hiu;h-r;lidl
+ hic:;h-mid
+ low-mid
1+ lOu-mi d
1
,
1+ long
+ s h.ir t
+ long
+ short
i+
10'l9
1
!
i
i
round
+ rouod
+ round
+ round
1 +
round
1
1+
1
i
'+
:
(#
+(
--.J.C + (#-_
IJ
....) C
) C
1+ (# __JCI
_.- '-
1.._
i
- :
Uith these informatiuns wc ca n give 3 phonetic
r r p r ,:s .:n t at: ion of any LJJ r d , say,
fa :tta:: l ik~ , if :] .~
t li is s ta IJ E
- - '
WE"
3r cc
allowcd LJ 1:' f::p r Cf, ;::n t
consDn'J nt s , sir"ply by + C.
Thus
for fa:tta::;liku wc woulcJ have:
f
El
r
t
cD
l
i
k
u
(
)
((-: V
_)(+
+ C
c)
(+ C)(+ V
)(+ C)(+ V
) (±c) ( +'J
!
!
-.,,
+ centra).!
+ Fr'lnt
1
+
Fror*:
i,+82 Ck
1
,
1
i
.
+ Lou
+ L 01"1-.
-,
+ hioh
i+ h i([:h
mi d
j
round
round
r our J
i -r ound
+ long
+ Short
+ s n o r t
i+short
l,
III.1.E.8.Consona nt s:
~ - -~. ~"",-,."y .....• - .• - ' -
CCi n s ide l'
t il c f 0 Il :]If i n C' set s Cl f hl 0 r cl s i~ Cl n d 8
A)
[J3I
=
[)éJrtncI'
b Cl l'
=
br i c: f
f:"lD:;:'
~
thirsty
mpëlI
-=
variety of hors c
.......
mbar
=
s h e at h
.......,
tar
on'=matCJpr::ia
of El slap

---

~59
dar:
::::
cê'lloUs
nar
::::
t: 0
ly.]
noar
::::
namc of 3
ta LJn in Scncgal
~
car
::::
brench
jar
==
p r. Z Gd
nar
:::
fully
(Iain on on e' s lcngth)
nJar
::::
curd Or juice-solutiofl mur c
or l css LJate.ry.
k ar
::::
to li e in LJait for
gar
::::
a
varicty Gf dish
fJar
::::
to trumpet ( 0 f o.l c pb a rit s )
xar
::::
shcdp
far
::::
lover
s ar
::::
ta Qct ahc a d of (of a line)
yar
::::
ta cducate, ta '
'
orl.ng up
LJar
::::
ta ride
8)
sant
::::
riarn o
....
S8nc
==
tG s ott l c
S3~
==
ta bi u i Ld e r
~3 ,] IJ Ci
==
ta bathc
SElnx
==
sometimo
c....--
s ,]r
=
-r.o PaS~
It i5 obvi~U5 that but for their initial consonants
all t h os o LJords in t hr, set A a r ;
.i.d cr t i c s l ,
That i5 te say
that thcir diffcrcnccs of m~8ning arc te bc ascribcd t~
thoir rC5p~ctivc initial consonants.
It mcans thet cach

---

~GO
of thcse initial consonants be2rs a distinctive fr:aturc,
one at lcast,
that ~pposes it t~ the other consonants Df the
initial cons~nant
set.
Muta~i5 mutandis the Same cxplanations
hold go~d for the set G.
On the other hand,
considcr the Pairs given bclow:
••
n8p
=
pu tr i d
n·opp
to caver Gntircly with a
---
picce of clath
=
b\\3t t
=
t:J dr ill
na:c
=
Sun
=
ta blcc:d
S'ck
=
gravcYard
=
ta fill
up a hclc made on
t he gr nurid
riere.
als~, if wc apply the Same proc~ss of investigation
wc have t~ concludc that P and p~ arc twc scparato c~nsonants,
li k cui s e t and U' c a ncl c.C?' k :J n ci k ~: i" l s o COll S t i t !j teP air s
oF scParatc phoncmcs.
Vot considor th3 follouing Pairs:
a:pp
deley;
extension oF timc
....._-"
=
te b cr r-ou
le'tt
=
t~ tear
'--"
=
ta cover a ~oof; breakfast,
s p e c ,
during r amz an
mba:cc
=
thr eshing
mba:jj
"'-
=
b Larik c t
..............

---

~61
==
ta fill up a hale made on
the ground
s·êgg
==
ta b s nd
cn cs c l f
..-'
X él : l
:::
l,la tOT':-m cl on
Ka :11
0:=
to mak c a uay
'----
·.
:::
gom
bclievc
o·d'mm
==
c l o s o
cy e s
-"
~
·.
gon
:::
b ett cr
• •
gcnn
-
'---
U)n
:::
tc! sqUC:':ZG
'-
w)nn
==
te'
cuun t
'- -'
tex
:::
to caus Cc'
tex >~
==
staincd
'---
The Same type of analysis LJould lcad us ~o thG
~nnclusiDn that p and b are sGparate phonemos and, similarly
t
versus d , c \\/crsus
j; k Vl~r2US g ; xx vr r s us x;
fil
JerSUS
mm;
<;»
'--..J
-.,/
~"-'
n versus nn; n versus nn ; l
vrs us 11 gl e all s np a r a t «
<:»
"'-'
'---'
phoncmes.
This o ria bLos
us
te; ~i\\j::: the f'n Ll cu i n q list 8.a
eonstituting the sot of cuns::Jnants:
ConsDilants:
p
b
m
~f?
m b

---

';62
t
n
nt
'"'"
nd
-..../
e
j
<w
n
ne
'-~
g
x
s
r
l
y
w
mm
'-"
nn

---

~63
" , -
nn
<:»:
Xx
'--'"
pp
bb
tt
,j:i
.;»:
CC
--J
j j
kk
'--"
gg
According to their articulatory modes, thcsc consonants
ca n b o dividccJ .i n t o t uo main sub-groups, v i z , one subgroup that
includcs all the consonants during the rcalizati~n of lJhich,
thcrc i5 a tomporary complete closure at some point 8f the
buccal channel; a second subgroup including aIl ths consonants
during t hc roàtization of lJhich, thcre is obs t ru ct i cn in the
buccal channel, y s t the stream of air can f i n d its waY and is
~t nD timc intcrruptcd.
The first subgroup constitutcs the
group of o c cLu s i v cs , the othcr on c , thc group of fricatives.
They a r ,' rcspcetivcly givc: n in Li s t s 81 - 82.
B • 1
OCCLUSIVES:
P
b
m
mo.~
mb

---

t
cl
n
nt..
~
nd
c
J
n
ne
, - '
~
k
g
fJX
nn
nn
bb
-., J
tt
'--
dd
kk
gg
, ~
ce
5j
.. /

---

8.2
FR 1 C,~ T IV ES :
f
s
r
l
y
W
x
I l
For s~m[ Gcclusiv~s, part of the air-strpam is
c harin oLi z o d thrcugh the' nasal Ca vi ty and t.h o
T e:nainJ.ng part
t hr o uc, the bu c c n I channel.
On the contrary,
ro r
SOme othcrs,
the total amount o f air qo cs
thrcugh the:: buccal cb ann c L,
This 2rticulatory phEnomcnon crcatGs a division of occlusives
into ti:o s ub qr o u ps ,
The first one includcs the occlusives
for uhich Wc nced to set th~ nasal caVity to worki
Thes c
occlusives arc called nasal occlusives.
The secGnd subgroup
comprises the remaining occlusivEs
callcd otal occlusives.
The first ones Jre listed in 8.1-3 and the Second ones in 8.2-a
9 i tI en
~j c l Clw:
m
mp
'~--'
mb

---

n
nt
nd
, .~"
fiC
n,
nk
''--'~
IJX
mm
-----.
nn
nn
B.2-a
P
b
t
ci
c
j
k
9
xx
pp
bb
tt

---

dd
gg
cç
j j
NQW, rcconsidcr the set 8.i~nothcr distincti~n
could bc made among consonants,
bascd on whcthcr the vocal
c o r os arc set
tG l<Jork or not.
The ph~ncmcs durinç lhG
uttcrd~se of which wc ca n notice a vibration of vocal cords
arc s a i d L; br: v.r i c e d ;
IJhereas the o t h er j, arc Lab r Lc d un vo i c c o ,
Th,;! f c .'l tu r (3 :J f
v0 i c e i s
n 0 t
P eCU lia r
t o t h '-" con S 0-
nants.
N e v er t h c l Gs s , LJi:' n:-::tc th.3t it is
n o t
3
distinctive ~catur5
for
vowcls sinee thcY aIl
Rre
voiccd.
C~minQ baek ta cü~sOn3nts, wc say that vOLccd
conSDnants arc those of the set 8a.1
; and voiceloss conso-
nant.s
include thosc C1f the set 8.':].2 gj'JE'n b cLo u t
8 • .'1-1 :
b
[il
mb
d
n
nd
j

---

nj
n
r
l
y
\\J
11
mm
nn
~',
nn
--..'
bb
,--,'
gg
j j
8 (J'. 2
VoicElcss Consonants
t
nt
C
ne
k

---

x
X',
nx
r:
1
s
pp
\\.....--
tt
kk
-0_1
cc
SOm 1..' C CJ n c, 'm 3 n t s
r Ggui r e t h eus c Clf
t h G l i p') •
For
this r cc s':n the)' arc labc1G[-J labial.
This group .i n cj uo cs
C IJn son a nt s
of t il c: I Îé)c S;l.:3 bel ClU :
Ba.3
Labiality cf [cnsonants
p
b
iT!
hl;
min
nll
nn
..../

---

Conson~nts proscnt diffGrenco and rolationship alsQ
with rQQard
to
that
Part
of th~ tangue which constitutcs the
point
of Qbstructi~n by its mOst closeness to specific zone
of the
vocal tract.
Thus
for
s om c consonants,
this
Part of
the t oriç u c is
the do r aurn (or center);
fOr
othor
consonants
i t is the t i p ;
for
s orn c o t hc r s i t
is the b La d e ,
Thcse sub-
groups
are r e pr e s o n tcd rdsPll?ctive1y
in the sets Ba.4-G bdow:
8a.4
c
j
n
nc
y
k
n
kk
....--'
nk
' .../
w
nn
x
xx

---

~71
cc
"--"
j j
---,'
Anical
C:JflSOn(Jnts:
~--_...__... _---
.
"--"--"--.-
11
r
l
d
n
nt
---
nd
\\~
tt
~
dei
------,
8a .. 6
s
LJe
c;::Jn
8150 rna k c a
d i s t i n c t i cn as to
lJh8theT the
tip of the tangue points downward
~r uPward~
Th c f o.I Lowing
sots Ca·.. 7-8 IJil~, list the c oris on nnt s
o f
thosc group.
Ba,.7
p
b
m

---

, 7r)
mm
"j
~
'-
mp
-mb
f
s
c
j
n
ne
~
n)
v
w
k
nn
Q
n
?~
fJg
x
'l~
pp
~'
bb
kk
gg
' - -
cc
Ji
..........-
xx
\\.....--

---

Ba.8
t
d
n
nn
nt
nd
I l
'--'
r
l
tt
dd
'-../
The distin: tiV2 f ca t ur e ~)f a consonant may be duc t o
the part of vocal trac.t I.Jhich is set te) ucr k ,
For oxample C and
k aT~ 0pposed by the Tact that the f8rmer is produccd in the
arG8 sf the dame, I.Jh~?cas the latter is producGd in the velum
aroa.
The Parts thstare rcquircd according to the consonants
ar ~ the f~Jllol.Jing o a es : velum, domo, alvcolar and/or t.c c t h ,
li ps ,
On this base consonants arc subdividGd as givcn in the
sots 8a.9 - 14 b c.l c u ;
k
9
n
fJQ

---

x
474
XX
LJ
kk
CJ C;
" . .,..
Ba.1CJ
e
j
.~.
n
-~
le
nj
,
nn
y
cc
j j
. , _ J
Ba.11
s
r
l
11
cJ
n

---

nn
-
"-..
nt
nd
tt
dd
Ba.13
f
P
b
m
mm
pp
bb
Now let Us turn
to
the set 8.2.
::-';r aIl but on c fricative:,
thcair-stroam h3 s
orjly
one uay ,
t hat is
the tunnel,
SC;
to s p o ak , dclimitad b c t ur-cn
thc pal 2 te: and the-' t cn qu r ,
For
the
fricative that constitutcs
the o x c cp t i cn ,
the s oc a l Lcd tunnel is
b Lo ok cd by
the tip of
the tangue rais~d uD~ide ?Qainst the alvcolar.
In this manncr,
tho air-stream is
div~rteJ towafds both lateral aides of thE
mouth simultaneously.

---

~'? l>
Thus
the first
group CJf Consonants
Li s t c r: in 8a.15
bel 0 LJ i 5 ::.2 b c: l c d mc dia L,
LJ h ~r e;::, s the sin 9 l latOn s c cori d gr 0 u p
8a.16 is
labclcd latoral.
8a.15
~ediê!
f
s
.r
y
LJ
X
8a.16
L é!.~_gI.9l
11
.......
l
Still nn
th c base Qf articulatClry
pncnClmeoa the: set
Ga. 15 c a n furthcr b[' d i v.i d s d into conscmaflts f' or
LJhiCh thorc
arc b c s t Ln qs of the t.on qu o aq a.i ns t
th:::
palate,
and t hos o f o r
which thcre arc no bostings.
The latter ç~oop includos tho
con s :J n a nt s
9 ive n in the Sot Ba. 1 7 bel 0 LJ •
Th c for mo r
cam pr i ses
t ho s c oi vcn in 83.18 bclCJLJ.
rkcliAl
uithout
b co t i n qs ,
f
s
y
W
8 a. 1 8
Mcdi~l with bcalings.
x
r
Th os c e t a t.orn on t.s
c a n bc bricfcd
3S
un oor inChart-C:

---

CHAR T- C
477
- - - - - - - - - ~ - - -- - - .... -
['1 ann gr
Dt'
Ton-
sc
ar t Lcu-
nos s
lat ion
C
+
L
u
+
s
l
v
+
E
+
+
i
"' •.J
i!r . -- ."
1
1
;i
1
1
+
1
1

---

The féJllCJwing is the distributional
p a t t cr n of 478
Con sCJnarts:
p
- - -J
nap
gamc
whose hoad skin is
o IJGr sens i t iv G
b
--~
bOat
oy c
to lcnd
m
--...;?
rnar
xamadi
lam
ta lick
impolitc
mp
---)
rnpa r :.? .
sUrrp
'--
~
"
.......
varicty
of
un c Lc l s
wifc
v ar Lc t y
of
fruit
hors c
- '- ':'7
mt: ;:1 : x
l'a:mba:t}..J
'c'mb
ta s c ck
LJith
poI'ccl
t
- - -"7
at
ta
f a s t cn
ycar
self bcino
s oa t cc!
an
onc's
b3Ck
s .i d c
d
---/"
daw
r è :c!u
...
run
n
--~>
nit
wanak
ban
backyard
argil
li:f>lJr.ltu
sant
~
- "
alphabet
family namo

---

-......~----
lrdtiai
Media:/..
Final
--.y
~.sJ am
binduko:y
succoss
a ny t:J ~Il tu
littlc argil pot usod for
wri t Ci wi th
burning incC'1I3~
c
Car
n ac
small
smalllQin-1
to wedge
branch
cloth us cd as
undcrltIGar by
lad i es
_ _ .l>-
niJa:Y
action
matErnaI unclc
- --'-:
nay
batansëû
brinjai
ta r o f us u
ne
cJw Î"Tcuk a : y
xanc
"--"
'-"
- "
a
place
to
Filament (from troc :::r
k cr p somcthing
plant)
..."
---:/
n ja x as
ma'il j a :y
v
-~
mixture
k
kili fô"
da :kË! :ndéB
a k
.• ~.t!
authority
gum arabic
with
g
.... _-.::-
go:r
sa:g3
man
tu Ln su l t
11
-~-/
s·dl1 u
,..- '
<:»
calf
shoe
daflar
lafJ
jaLJ
venorn
tG go somewh8re and
stay thorc for
ever

---

48U
Final
s8r"}ku
'--"
t'J refuse
f}9
- - -">
og,m
'-'"
'-"
fami1y nome
to but ho
hot
x
-_ ..... -)
xam
bêlxa 1
nax
t::J know
te boil
tel cheat
'Jx
- .....'""?
sal)x~l
.........
--
Flour
somctimo qQG
_._
f
....."'"/
fî t
taufa::s
1 a f
co ur 39 c:
b 03 ch
panc:l
's
... -~>
s a ":
kësit
'tas
fi'Grncnt
r es id u c:
ta scatt cr
:r
'- ..->
rdC
CJarap
l ) T
ta l ;:1'U ç; h
tr GC
toh,?Tm
l
-.... -_:.:-
Larn
ma::: 1)
bra c cl ct
t 0 l o ok
y
- - -;>
,/2I'
tee Yé):f
s sy
te; sdu CClt
to
L
,j~]n t: on
pur-
b c roar ricm
pus c:
(fOT ladies)
w
-.-.--'>
\\Jz;l
te: F1Dw
ta c1ri vc
thin
pp
.._~.-
oippCtx
'.~
,_..-'"
pr ewn
:toCCJ,vCT
on:tir t?Î'y
l.Ji th
a :pi oCC; of cloth
-_. ~7
faJ. :t t ax
' , , " ,
to spring
ta drill

---

481
Initial
Medial
Final
- - - - - - - .
bb
y 0: bbu
0,_--'
-...J
hi de
dd
---',.
'
bic)de:LJ
....._...
lay ch lJn
cc
---'>
.:ël./cc::tFlti
'-'"
0 _ ° °
. . . . . .
ta makc some-
t~ escape
b c dy
o vor corn o
a
feeling of
shamo
j j
---';J
sujj'J :tu
0'-'"
toprDstratc
Li (scarify)
- - - )
s Cl: k kw' t
t élkk
fence
t~ fasten
t o bec Clrel es s t 0 b ca t
(f ur cg. Dru ri) S )
0_-.>,
s·!J::x·ét
taxx
----
. _../
bJ
co u o h
stainod
-'--)
xauiiléJliku
nn
0
/
dënnu
'---'
t 'J t hun d or
rn ort ar
~ .- ~ ok
-_.:.)
W)1ll.~
U
°
w.)~
te: run back
t 0 count,
MakinC' use
of the
abélvc
data
lJe
c an
pr c d.i ct the distribution
of cach consonant
as
givenin Chart-D.

---

~82
CHriRT-D
_ _ •
~u~ . . . . . .
... ........
-
-
-
-
;
~
- - - - . - - - - - - -
Distribution
i
iccJnsonants
1
-
1
...- - - - - - - - - - - •• - - - - ,- - - ~ - - - - - - - - -,- - - - - - - - - - - -!
Initial
:
;'lcJial
Fin;:ll
•
1
;
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
,
1-
_
_
_
-
_
,
~
_
_
_
_
_
J
;
t
1
1
2
_ i_ _
3
J _
J
!+
.
1
p
+
- ---- - -- -
--- -- - --.- ------- "-----_. -----:~-
,
b
;
+
1
+
i
-\\
i
._-; .----ur -----~-----.---ll- --- -~-----t------~-- --J
""-.- ,;~-------I
- -
;
+
--1-- -~-----l
-- ~---------t-·----~----t--~--- 1 -~------l
1---+.--
-~--t
1
+
1-- ~~---I
1
· - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i - - - - -
.
~--- - ------1
1
d
1
+
- I - !
+
In= =-_-=- i~_
T--
~~
n
-...
+
+
..
- - -
.1
1
i . --~-- --
i
+~--- -- +
-~ +-: ~: u~_~~+~J
-+---
.
.
1____
1
!
+
1
+
'
+
I
i
i
- - - - - - - -
, - - -
1
-------, -,----------i-----------------+
1
1
+
1
+
1
1 - -'--'~~-~--
----1
..------
1
+
,
+
i
+
- - - - - - , . - _ . _ - - -
--------,--------,-------- ~---- ---------------
k
+
+
--+---
Q
+
+
i
1
f
---------- ---l-'- --, -------- - ------- --------j- - . - - - - - - - - ,-------------. ---- --
+
+
+
i
1
- - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - t - - - - - . - ."._-_._--"...--------- - - - -..- -' ~,
1] k
+
+
!
0 - _ "
•
.,". _ _ •
_ _
" - " • • • •
---~~~----.- -1-------- +
+
+
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - -

---

CH,\\ R T·- D (C ~lfl t d • )
483
1
2
3
... -
-1
1
x
+
+
i
...
+
t
i
,
,
f
:
+
,
+
+
- - - - - - - -!
j - -
'l
_
s
1
i
1
+ .
+
~
0__'
._. 0_' ,_'0'_ .__.
.'.
- - - . - - - - _ - : - _ . . .
...
•._
..•••.
.. C _ _ ._. _o~ ••
r
i
+
i
+
+
.------j---... ---.-.--.-.---- ..- - -..----r-------.-.. ----.--.0-.... i_
l
i
+
1
+
,
+
:----=--~=r-=~=;=-f==-~-~i=~
1
,
t
.__o .~-_----..--_-_--..__--~--------
~.o-----.!
p~
i
+
!
.- .. -'- -- ---. --_.- -_.- .~-_.- --- -~----- ..-----t- ~-.--.- --_.- ----·-·-η·-~-·-·-
b b
1
-
1
+
1
t
'-"'" .--.. ---..---.-.... -.:-.-- .... --.-.-----...--.---.----J-"0. O
.. __._...
._~__._...
t t
1
+
1
t
l
,
.. -----.-.--- _.-- -,--- --. o------------t-----------.
~---.._-
d d
1
+
1
_. __..
1.
i
1
.. _-- ..
..__._.....
~._------_ .. _'--,- - - --_._- - - ' - -_.__..__.~._-_._
cc
+
t
----
+
+
1
,
1
__1-__
' - - ' - - - .- - - - - - .. - - - - - - . - . . - - _ . _
__-L._
1
!< k
+
+
--_..__.. _------+-.._._-_._._.-._------
+
+
i
._-._ _
..
.. _--\\-- --_ .... _ - "
.. __ .._.
--- - _ ... ------ - "1--'-
x x
---.
+
+
1
- ' - - " ] ' - - ' - -
-_.-.. _.-.
m
1
ln
+
+
. __ .
.L._ _. __. _
-+--_ ...
n n
+
+
-..-
i
.
-
.- ------·r-~·---··--·---
!
......
n n
+
+
"'-.~'
l l
+
+

---

484
R t th,
(]o ~c c
:: f
t Il :L ~
'! na ly sis
',~ f IJ'] lof fJ h CJ n o l 0 Qi C QI
f if t Cenv 0 lJé l s
.'"; n cl' f:j r t v- Cl ncc:::: n s Cl n.Q r:t s •
bel i L ',j r:
t C,' b e ,'Cl fi:, l: ive s p e31< cr CJ F Wu l :: fla n g u iJ r,:; Q •
Il:
Ç'tJct,
oet a-1 *
p
Pa:x
(P::lX)
hole
t
(tE.:n)
\\JC 11
k
b uk i
(!Jukki)
hYGniJ
(dloa: r)
pass
s
(séJ:rnm)
shaphercJ
n eck La c e
Ci
s t 3 r o
1,
ç~ o :JcJ
,:1 e : ITib é'
yest'lrday
[~il n
*-'jU:l t~,
1) Y [:' ct cr' [~;[Jcf D è:-,'ë~-'Îï;:\\-P-h;:'fl~Ti ë" St: U:!y -ci{'"GJc'-sI--
:\\fric2n Li3nçuac,:cs"
SGcnncl
cc~iti::n 1968, p.
L~6.

---

485
n
n o rn
dl' ink
naD
Jl iJ Ci
s GIUJt
.-
,
n
n o : n
Open the m:Juth
-'
f
f a ~;
h o r s i
l
If.m
lJcnd
r
l' ,3xaS
Glél s h
1
rl 0 l' C :J V cr
t h ~: s Pcc t :J gr amrn G c; i vi: n i n pla t c li
5C'C Il:S
to cDrrub~ratc our suspicion.
III fact the spcctoçra~~c for
whcreas
in
the spcctD~rammc for
IfirewD~dl the final CJ~SDn~nt
This
i8
not an accidentaI
phenomenon
f l' 0 rilIb ur'
v i z ,
m3 t
= i n 1.':1 [1r; ur (f 0 l' the d el i \\1 ~ r y 'J f chi l cl) •
y et
LI h El t
i ~3 n 0 d o LIli t mn r c in t f:' l' I?S tin Q f CH
CJ U l'
oo s i t Lon t h cr s ;:11'C c un t r as t s
uh i c h ar s
phonetically
p-b,
t-d,
g-k-9
(é.Jr,
d ia ph cn.i c a Ll y , X insleélcl of q };
in
fina}
p ns i t Lon
t hc r c é1re the s arn a numbcr of s Lrni l a r s ouri ds , but none o f thcm
arc vo i c so .
Tt Ls rio t
d i f f Lcu Lt
tu rnake a ph on crni c s t a t crn cn t
ab 0 u t
th 2'3 e rh ta;
LI~
nec cl r ~ c o g n i z con l y the ph 0 n I2r1H? ~ P b t
d
g k q.
8~t the pr nb Lom CJf t h .
phonctic nature
uf
the contI'ast
,
".
.
"l'
in
f i n a I
pè~iti.,n rLmalnS - .
Th~n quotinc U 3 r J , h~ aJds:
" ward
(19393) s t a f e s
t b o t
t h ,
:in?l s t n ps
in wolof c on t r xs t
in
/1 ?
that s om;
.':1rc.'
(~xl'lui'co,
uh cr c as
o t hcr s
arc
LJnrLl[':éJsc;c~.~
1
L
' f
' ( . te • ·1
•
a.je
=Jr~cc
l
.' r o ,
P.
in b c t ur cn (j2-43)
2.
II
ibid.
P. 1 5.

---

48b
M'OT~nver,
t h o u r-h lJard chcs
n o t
s p c c i f y
uh c t h cr
t.h ;
curit r o s t
hé: unc:1crlincs
is
phCJllCmic
or s ub ph on crni c ,
his s t at.cm c n t
DistinctiVG Fcaturo composition of Phont.mE:,
lHAR T- E
Vowcls
. - - - - _ . - - - - - - - - _..._.--- . --- _.. _-
----".-
.~_._,-----_._--
,
..
.
.
l
i i :
. := :
0:
?
7)",
c
. a •
;
! !
1
~--._.. _-_ .__;-+--~-i-._..J.-----_
... L_._ ..
!
:Po13rity
i
i-'~--', --~+-.~--i~
;High
+
+
~-
-!---.- ..~--.-:--- ---1--'·-
,
;
,1 _
, +
: Hi Cl h- niL:
!
+
+
+
..J.... "
l- ... _ .. _
.-----L--;--~-~-- -'---- ..----'-.-- ...------.-j-.--~--+-.-_t_.-- ;--_. i
l
','
l
'
l
'
i r1c d i.J l
" .
,
+
----__ !..__ .-L
. _~_.-._.... _-.-- J._
... _-_J __ .--- -,,,_.
,
i
: .
,
i
!
,
1
1 .
! ; ! .
r I ;
-- -- ".--1---.--,---- --'-----.----'---,------- --.-- ---'-------+-~----!-------(----
i
: V8 i c l' L~
j
J
1
;
,
l---+-..+--~. -;------,~ --".
1
__ .
_ 1 _ - - - - - .. - 1 -
....L~_~
.~.->-. _.__
T~~~_~ ~~~----t--~-_·--,---~---,- ~~-~ 1
__
+
l-~~, +:- TH~+
L ;J ,] l;] Il t Y I '
:
,
l ,
;
i
1
i
:
1
~
; ..
l R--- --.-:-- --- . --.----T--~.-r---;------ll-----T--~-~-~:--+l---+--·-r+-~~-:·-·
r
I
ouni:.,n,.,.sc;
, -
• -
- ' -
- ' ' ' ' " , . ,
.
"
'
, ---" .. ------.~---~--__l----O-- -~·--i----+----,----i-------~--t··-----+--"------t---+--·+-
Pr~néJs~lizQd,
!
1
!
:
. _. - - > - .
. - .~-- .~----+---""" -~-'-----'-
VibratieJl1
i
" 1
i
, j
, ; ,
Ti p
--- ---7--+---~I---'----;
-. -'-.--'------t--.--L-----r-----:-.---;--~.--.~---
-'-
~~---_.- -_.~-.-
---.---._-----~--._-~ ---~------ .......-._- -_..

---

CHI-\\RT -F.
~
00
-,J

---

488
Distinctive
f8aturc
r-u-npns Lt i on of Pho n c.a c s ,
CHAR T- C
Fr i c ,c'1 ii v',S
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . .
w
•
.;..;
-
_
-
-
...
_
f
s
1
i
!
-
r
y
'JJ
x
!
--------- -- -- --"'1- --w_ +- -- --:------ -~- --- _J. -- -- --i--'"
1
1
1
•
V~C_3]_: -.
r
!
-~
1 _
..~_
1
1
;
CDntinu,:'!ilt
!
+
i
+,
+
i
+
, +
+
+
-- f--------J----- ---+-------!
.1
1
Polarity
i
+;
1
•
+
+
-l ---- ---L--- --L------- -~-.. L -
!
i
: l' i r: il
: . ;
- ------- -~J
!Hi r: h- mi c i l ;
1
1
,
1
-------------------+------_-+__.
L
--- -:----,~-------------_t_-- --r- -------f- -..-
1
M0dial
i
-
I
! '
i
._".- ". _._-- .-----+ .._._- -. -_.
- 1
i
1
,
1
••••. " - -.•
---~--.- ••
+ 1
. ' f - -
-1-- ----1 ..
+
+
+
+
1
-- --.. _--j -
-+
;
1
+
~+-- .
1--
1
i
-
1
L ë' b i <:: l j t Y
+
1
_ . '
_
_~--... l
--- ------+-...
:R ouncin C~ s
1
-- -!~
:P r (_ n .:::-' :J li z C LI
1
,
.
-\\-
-- -1----
1
+
i-
-t '
;T ip
+
__
. - --- --- -------- -- ------- ----- --- -- ._----_..
.~ ----- - _.- -- -'- -'--'--~---

---

490
'*
*'
'*
*
*
l l 1. 2
CHA P TER
r
'*
~
*"
*
*'1."

---

~91
III.2.Fl
PHONOLoCIC~L RULES
l~ l (3 n C' LI :J r: c.' il a s
Cl
set
~l f c CJ 1::b i n a t 0 r i Cl l
r ul 8 s
t Cl
u hic h l t;~ P h '::.Hl c n-, c 5 a r L
C CJ r1 S t: r Cli n C iJ •
For
c x a rn p 1 t. ,
the s c Cl u cne c-
C + C + C o c rur s
in Enç:lish ahd
Fr on ch ,
uhcreos
in Wolof' s u ch
Combinatorial rules
or
phonotactic rulcs
arc m~rcQv~r
rEinfo~ccd by intcrsccmental c~nstraints applyinC ~n the
featurcs
of a clust~r, and by
illtras~çmcntal rulcs that arc
relevant on Lv t:J
the
fc:atures
uithin Olle
phon ern e ,
Thcsc
é:1rnéjlr:amati~ns o f c cn s t r a.i n t s u p on the s e qrne n t s 1
within and beyond a r~·t are knCJwn respectively 85 ~orphcmc struc-
t ure r u l Q t,
(0 r
ri • S.
r u les)
2 n c!
m0 r ph CJ fi ho Il cm i c r Li l g s •
r"i • S • r u l ~
an d Pl:Jrpho[JhrmcITic rules
c nns t i t u t o the
ph on o Lo ri c o I
Iules.
f':.5.
rulcs m8kc unneceSSé.,rv
the specification o f
featL!ICS
uh i ch arc
predictable From Cl r~iven
envirOrlment.
f':.5.
r u l c s
themsclvE.'S
(Jill é'CC8U[lt f:Jr
thé: uns p c ci f Lcd
fcatLJrcs.
Rule 1
Th C C ,::J n ~: il .l C Cl l
r .:
t '
:~
l S
rD:Jt
----~ (c:) + V + (c) + CC) + (V) + (c)
This rule states
implicitly
th~t the short est morphomic construc-
t i on is consti tut::__ c.i by ;) s com cn t
uhich Ls
a
VOL-Fl.

---

~ 92
g ive r1 L.Jr:'"Ln.J:
U
:::
~f
V
fU
:::
h e r e
C + V
12 1
_.
bpc{
C + V + C
jarC'')h --
s p i d ar
C + V+ C + C + \\1 + C
Rule> 2
~t any part ~f a m~rphcmc, if a givcn s~5mcnt i5
a v8~cl, the f~llowing, if any, is ~bliQat~rily a
c on s :JniJnt.
R ul ( J
H," t r. r
,"]
~ PC! U cne e C + C, Clr, l Y V c i) n i mr; =cli 3 t ~ l Y
=
t:)
l u r n up
p os .i t i:1n.
n am r: o f a ç;amc
oskan
=
r a c;
R ul c ri
Any c~nsC)nallt Can 8~pc~r in the initial r~siti~n,
if it is ncithcr
"<"+
Pr ~:nas al i z cch>
<1... -
IJo ic cc:1 ')lt
<<..
+tiP));,<",+p a l a t é1 h ); <.<. + V 12r»~

---

~93
n ut
fw- Cons onant ')~
r tenscness >.J
in the initial p os i.t Lcn .
11 ,
b i: t
PPt
~,
g Q ,
ki<;
xx,
dei ,
tt.
~,
........
......"
- . ;
......,
--,.,,'\\.1
-- - ~
_.
j j ,
CCl
1]k ,
i2.9'
IJX,
nt
ne
'-"
'-'"
' - '
.........
' - '
Rule 6
cr
«(+ -!terlSQnf2ss'7)'
)
b ac orn as
v:JicQd)if it precetl~s
;] v~;iced cJns'JnéJnt.
<0'..+
VCJ j ce d '»
c:.r:-+ Oréll))
_ _/
<..< + 'JI' Cl1
,.')
{«,.f- b i 1
{.tH
é1 b i
bdabiéJl""t
,C' I ~) ;
«+ P
. 4.+
[Ja1.:)tah,;
êJ l c: té.! l >~
<.t + Ve.l 3 r »
~
.
",+
Ve1ar)')J
Rul [ 7
Any
v~wcl can appcar in the initial position,
if it i8 ri pi ther
say
i :
<.<.+ V'Jcalic-.
<,+ Frej nt '>~
.+ hi~h,»
«.+ 1 :J il .;; ')')
- ,
'.

---

nor
S 2Y
,,~+ V:Jc)licn':
(<..+
h i:~ hrn i .' '»
Ex x.
cC :~~
(J::! ksi;
in il .i :
ut;
u : 1;
,'lt;
:'1 : t ~
) r 1
':1';
-- '
:J : m:
'll'!'~4li e
CHrive;
;:11'1 ive;
br in l,:;
'ocClJ:"c.h;
'~L
,
u~ci1'cIJn;cisnd .
1
.
fru it ,
YC;Jr' jbct1'2Y;
f(Jst~;
k nGZe;
YéJv.Kl.)
Rul:- fj
i ,,;J h li r; éJ I:.J r i l.Y "c. - :3 t 0 rJ.,') J nc' pur e
t
C,.; n" '.1 n :::' I1 .
Ex/.
f
+
L~·l ~-:)
in t:Jfsir
"',)
+
0 8
in "isksn
l
+
83
in 'c'lb 7::"t i
1J
+
.:J ~-:-;
in c a Ll L),T :1'
'-'
r
+
.~
L-'
,;1
-
in
ja1'r;)n
X
+
,lS
in
r'~I:' X f u : s
R u1 c 9
I f t l' [
r·'i r ~~ t
~.' ;/01" 1 rt
tilt
fj11'llJir'r::
scç;r:',eJli.:
is
cit,hcr
'JI" the
ro11:..:ui'lL; f'l:',t1'ix;
a 1
<.<..+
v cU C' c nt»
pl' enile: ,1 i z c
!<.<. -
t eQs e ~>

---

[xx. Rcspcctivr.ly~
S é1 r x )1 l é.C
- 3rméC:i firhc'aJ
.......
é1
scrE'am
c sm riilt cr y
si (]!laI
Rule
10
If the
f i r s t
se',:rTlcnt
'J f;
a
c lus ter i s \\ e: + l;]~ e r éoJ. ,>y ,
, (- t c fi s e '0-,
the f :J l l J LJi n r~ s ~ ç~ ru c n t
i s 8 n y cm c él f
t h c: f 0 110 l,6.. n ç:
ma t r i c c s t
«:+ b i l o b i.:ll.» -1 [<+ 1a !J i Cl Li en t "., -) 1- ~<, + Vela!' ~
«, +
v 0 j, C r.el -,';
1
\\ <~+ Vo i c cc! '»
1
,,'-. + c r a l -,':
i<:', -
)
i
>:
Ic..<:\\ -
nas''llit, -»
Ex x.
P-cspcctivdy:
•el. bOét i
al runni
~
t urn u p
mi I l ian!
Rule 11
If the
first
s~CJrncnt o f a clustcr is ,'+ v c l ar >s ,
Ex,.
rn ax fu~
R ul c 1 7
1 f t il t:
n r s t s c gmen t :J f éJ C Lu g ter i s',, + l a b i éJden t 3 l ':l;t./
th r: f 0 11:J 1d n r: i s "+ S p i r CIn t. >: •
EX,\\.
tafs Ur
a namc

---

Rule 13
t hl.
r
J
i s
+ Vcl a r . ,
•
l + labiality>-'
Ex .•
CQlllJéE
:r
-./
Rule 1 (~
1 f t h c
f i r s t
s co ~.) rn c: n t
CJ f
El
cl us ter
i s «: + S i i r êJnt» ,
the
r~) 11 iJ l.j in c: s rr~ rn c fi t
i s ... + Vc lat
.+ VoLc o Lc s s
<
+ st:Jp c-·
<. -
t onso··
Ex
•
race
Thcsc
c Lus t.cr s
8r~
pru~-ntcc: in the Ch8rt
H

---

~98
IIIi2~F.i)i
III.?F;b.1.
.S u p r ,:"'.S : ,:: Hi ,~ n t a i
rn o r p h c ni C
/
1 /
- - - - ->
[/ -r • i i d: 01"1 /
/
r.intun /
----~-) 7. /~I ntg .)~
,
l/«txc1.'»J
Rulc-2
/f.intCJn /
---~.. -') .
kan
rn ') :
cl 0 wU l
:
whCJ
h~s n~t run (sin~)
=
uh:J h n v c not
r u n (Plur)
(the
fact
is
that)
I
have n o t
sp:~kln
;lal)Q:)
IJ2Xul
=
(
-clC1-
)
YCJu
hûVé:
not
~
s p ck e.n (Sirv:)
-[1 c-
) hdshrJ ho s
n o t
e pok r n
lJt=
have n:.:.;t
sp-;k",rl
dalJç;éJc : n
LJ:Jxul
y ou
have n o t
......
- d 'J-
s p ck r n
(Plur~
-c':)-
they
ha\\J'è. nct
S pCJk en
I..IBXna:
-=1
l
h2V(~ s pck c n

---

499
IJa x 1.IITJ.~
=
.I
h8vc il ct s p ok r n
l,j::J X r~~~ ,1
_.
YCIIJ hJVC; sp:JkCh
l.d2xLI1):
...
Y ~'u hCJ~Ie. no t
spCl\\«~n
w,c-:XIl2
1:
h::
( :3 he)
ha5 sp'Jkr.n
LdJ XLII
E
Il,
(s he)
has n ot Sp·:i<cll
l,i:" xn
-
31ll!
-
Wc (th.:,>,)
have S P'J!< en
l~"axunu
-.
:Je
(thcy)
hal1c:
hot
D p ok en
R ul C .
3
n C Q a t i ~ n p rJr tic l c
- - _. ~::
u
/S .\\UX1
l V ) - F: cr '3 af
0
LJ1IPc.ro:.
n f
+ 5V
l
.. t"":'-:__ J
+\\1
-
t .
h
h
~u~s
~On-m~rp
Erne
~n
GS
i
:C1re
c0rnrlernf"ntary
i
t r i
t
it
o
u h
c
h
i n
r t
s
b u
i . o n
,
a
s
c
n
h e
s
s - c n
i n t h p
1 c: x .i C on •
t h en k -
[J ecu r ri n r;
in f Lill. -
.'3 C 'J Ile
lllJ l8 t i ons,
3 Il
8 r1 a il cl n El k éJ i n
..,
l ' - .
R ul .•·
.II
/ Qu .-:s t 5. or 1 /
- .. - - )
é~n a /
NP
é' c n t c n. ,:0
1
f;,n
/
r-crs.aP.
+ <~'l:ir::c ')")
n",ko /
-
L'ln /

---

50U
i
.ê il
/
Lê); ~5 a; { la; fJ p') ; l a nu;
2.S'~ ;n 3
..
'-
nu
u"':,~.:::_~.::".:::u;f'JP Q..SéI
3
:n)
~
/
-, f'la n ner.,
II 1.2. r . b' (1
pr_~c.E?s_~.m.~qJ.h.E!.m(3.
r'ICJdal~~iJec:c
morphç:me lias
bCE;n
subcé:1tG~'oriz2d in
S U /J c a t 12 9 o r Lz a tic n
r li l c
3 :3 a'S As p - - ..;> t Pro c ; P I?r f ; Un r l?al}, a nci
s u b e 2 t CQ ::1 ri Z (J t i {j n T:' u l 1.: 3 4 r ~a d s P: o c . - - ~~ ( Pune t. Pr é:1 C ; H8 h • Pr oc') •
The
fol1oLJ.inQ r u l c
:; and G rli/sflee1ively 9ivè."·che c!iFfQ.''('~f1t:r:
allomc:~;'h,
O~:::'e. Proc.ltsp r',orphclï~L,anJ that of tiret.::' P",rf.Asp ,.,
mor rd, cr," r ,
Rule-C::'
)tF ln C t ~ ~ a I~ Pr ::e ~, s s
1- Perl.HspJ
Rulc-6
+ Pcrf.~sp
----~ ~
I I 1. ? • F, b •S
_.
to cl'Jsc
ubbi
=
ta o p r.n
ubuk~.l:Y
=
s hu t t cr
ubbikéJ:Y
=
Dpcncr
tee
=
tu el :15 C
t i j j i
---
==
tG Open
tc~uk,J:Y
=
s hut cr
tiJd-iko:y
-
t ~ cll' ive (:3 n .3 i l
for
,:; - g )
i fi t ,1
c.la:jJi
te
unnail
..........
Î .
/
y /SllCJilTd not b r cOil~l,s8c-··l.Jltil thevcrb y (=' t o IJE) L.lhCl~G
allomcr',h
i~3 .::! ):n.
~!E'nCI', P:.lst tl?il::e d):n+):n ? d):n')~n.
ThF
vprb
y CiceurS
ui th (<.-P;:Jst-n.
y and
ci':}:n
ar:ë in fr c e,
v;:) ria t i ' ~ Il LJIl :: n t h r Y .'] r ~ <<. - f:' ;:) st>,> •
T h r: y
arE
i n
co rn p Lr li: C i'l~
tary dist~ibution slscLJherE.

---

501
c':'1 ~ j u 1< 2 : y
instrument for driving (h~il)
(hafi1n1c t )
cl;:;jjlk-l:Y
;
instrument for unnailihc
'-"'
= instrument for washinG clothes
=
instrument usec; by lacJie!! t ;
c'i. v .i ri ch,· i r
in t '.J \\,)i.s p
joLlJUka:y
=
instrument for sowinc
It ap~car5 that whcn the suffix ~ka:Y i8 oEfixcd t8
In other word~)wc Can ~aY that the instrume n tn 1 - m~rph~me
SU fi' i x
Il 'l S t 1,10 é\\ Il om 0 r ph 5,
vL:.
- k é") : y é1n C - ü k El : y •
foll Gwillç; rule-Ol! :
Ru 112-7.
/
l n s t r , 5 u f f i x ,1 - - - ~ [ u k ~ Y /
L-"
Cen 8 •] #
_
l<ay !. [. .... Vow] /1
'-
l l I r , F ,-,
L
. • ..' • • 1_,.1i)
~rticlE morphcmc
. -
...-- ,
~.. ..".
R ul :>- 8
/
T /
... _--_.)
:
II I. "I. • r- b.7
I c ,'l :~~ C . fil :J reJ2 cm.c.
Ru I c-
9
r-
<(. + p _, "J..
r , .".J L
>'>
-_._--?
'): n
«.- p n8 t .,')
-----;
~

---

502
III.7;F;IJ.~
Pcr9~n-affix ~orphcmE
~ic tu r n n o 1.; t ~~ Pc r s . ,,) fs •
15 pr e s on t
th", c'if~[rc:nt éJlJ,'.Jrrnrphs of the Pcrs.,':)f.
mo r ph ctns ,
Rule-··
10
I.Pcrs.Sin~ --,'
méJ:/
(NP)
,+ (,4 u x. C) + V
l(
la; /
r~ p)
, (NP,
.i nv c r s ivn
(r'JP) -i- V
( r~ 1=) + (t c n sc) +
+ 'J
d2
+ future
+ V
cl::)
+
~:a bit Ua l { Pres c n t ï
PastJ
+ V
\\ (f\\JP)
+ du +
+ (tc;nsc) +
as p. V + V
1
rnê:l/
+V
R r p et i t ive Pr :::1 CES S
CD n j • p ._.....__ ... V
(NP)
+ 8SP.V + ncc· P +
(tcnsd
-1-
V
Irrp + n cn v F
V
'~ (ilIF) + ci 3 t
+ 3S [le V +
. /
(NCr.p)+(tEnSe)+V

---

503
R ul E'-
11
l l
P C'r 3- Sin Q
JI a : 1 (r.J p)
(Aux.C)
+'V
( ~J p) + 1/
•
Conj.P
(NrJ)
+ C!a-futuro-héJbitLJiJ1
l i
S(imPBc;tiVc)+ v ..
l ImPerativE + hEg~P
l):I/(CQnj.p)_
._
C1
1/'2
l' i s t i C }1
(NP)
+ ;1uX.C;-neC' __ . . V .
. ( N)
+ V·:· ne Ci • P
.
Rule-
12
III.Pers.Sinr,---,.'ml!/
Conj.p
\\I.notl
aéJristic.
( r\\1 p) __- _.. ClIJ g i
'--
Rc:pctitive Pr oc s s s
S.üicitatiQn
imp+neç.p
V
I{
1 Cl
[,1 P
+ f',J 0 m• Pd. P ._ .._.' __
[r'JP 9l/PJ in\\'ersiJn
n'''/lC\\!P) + V
dA + futur
+ V
da + h Clbit ua l {Pr es E nt 1 Pas g_V .
fal
(NP)
+ da~futurehabituiJl
+V
m):
(NP)
(A.u x. G) + V
Cori j s P
1/.a'Jri5tiC }
(r'~p) + Aux.C.+nc:g
v
(NP)
+ V + nEç;.p

---

Ru l (='-'
13
II.P~r~.plur --~ ye:n/ (NP)
(Aux.C.)
+ V
CCJnj.P
v • • • •
(NP)
+ Carr + nE'g. p_.Pé3st -
habi t u a I
+\\.'
(r-!p)
+ da-future-habitual
+V
( i\\: p)
+ Cop
+ n E Q • P + P.::I S t
hab i t
V
.i mp cr at i v e + V
(NP) + V + neg. P
V
/
Rule-
14
P ~ r s . Plu r
- - ._)
Ï
'il:>,:/ (i~P)
l an uf( rlJ p)
+ ~II orn • P ci. P
\\
{DiP, VP]inversion._
nanuA( i\\JP)
+
V
cl:::: +
futur
+V
d a + habituaI {Pres~nt; PesJcL V
-;;-LI/
(NP)+.
a.f1CJi +
(bense)
+
-_.. - Ta s pe ct) + (V)
(f'JP)
+ d3-futurc-habit
+V
RepetitivE: p r uc cs s
s o l i c i t at i cn
Conj.P
V
( Î'J P)
+ Cop
+ n s g • P
V
(NP)
+ V + nEÇ1. P
imp + neg. P
V
)
/

---

505
III Pers.plur --~ nul. (NP) +
:~onj.p
v
,
+V
i
(NP)+ca-future-habit
1
1
!
RepetitivE pr~cGss
1
( NP)
+ Cnp _ + n E' 9 .._....._' IJ
Soli ci t at i'ln
~,,
;
(
~
f1anu/ ([IJP) + V
+V
( NP) + da + future
(N))
+ da + habit {Prc8t:r~t~
Pas t }
+V
la-nuiS (NP)
+ Nom. Pd. P._--
( [~J P, VpJ. in ver si' n
_
1
III,2.r.b.9
Co PlJ1éJ
SornE of the abov[ Pers.af. morphs may und6rQ~
a1ternations according to th2
~ontext. RulE 1 -- 4 prcdict
thE2E pos~ibilitiE3.
Ru L:: 1
l
al 1
[0 . . . ". CJ 1/ 1.< + i mp <: r » '-
Rule 2
): I{ bu
su
da
_ _ ~4_ ••
· · "
. " .
•
• • ,.----~-_•• ~.-
• • • '
-
• • • •
-~-••. _ ••-
- - _ • • •
- .
•
• • • • • -
- _
• •
,~.~
1.
Plcé)sC rcfer
rage '52.7

---

506
Rul"
';~
'.
-)
Ji /
Cl;,]
+ u
- - ..')
:Jf a
v r r b
ui t h c'Jnf;Oné:~nt r::ncJinc, having featur E: «irnpr:'l'ati'u'E: ».
In F~ule L+
the
s v r..b o I
/\\,
standE
for
8 1l Y
item
Qccur··
,
.L
rin"
I.·~ c lue en
y c ~ :1
the ri: Cli il
Ver !J •
1 f th E:
rn Dr ph
f Cl 11 éJ v i m;
[·!Cltic;·
th<:1t
l
in Rule
1 and 1 in Rule: 3 s huu l d rnl:
bec: 'J r. f ur: r::: (j
I.Ù t li
e a c il eth 8 r .
The
f o r mer
i s <<. 2 P Ers.
5 i n g » ~
LIh Er e a 'c th:'
l éJ t t [ r
i'3
(<. 3
~'.: r s • Sin Q ")r:).
III.2.F.c,2
A
t D lJr es t lE
rn!J·fi r
==
ur 6 S t let
=
t: cdrry on
mb:>: t u :::
c1sthr for
carry-
the
bac!>:.
i n~ :=;n the bé) c k .
mba sLa : = 3 s s L mb l y
rn 08 :x ==
Q:Joc1n(?ss
:;') n
:::
C., é~ cl
f1l~b) n
=
naughtinESS

---

S07
b t:g~
t '1 l ik F
' ·
bincJ
Il,',11 ihd
==
s cr iptLjt E
=
a
IJéJ r m
:=
t G fJ r s d
\\,1 in d
i ri' i
1.1 CE
1,n..!J :J : y 0 :
in f12ml::8t i on
tab.nq the skin
b -.,;/(k
=
t o f3harG
= relative
bo:cc
::: thr~shlng
==
to thrcsh
mba: c c
~f grai r
b c;!
~b sy
::: cul t ur G
B
==
cr Lie]
s:;> p
:::i:urbulent
sa:C C
t:J s to a l
ca:C~
cafk a
t
love
c")fœ :1
::: love
t
== nuptial
IJ
9
cGrGm:Jny
J. V E
a b r i ri 0
Cr:' :t
f' 'JI
the mi ~ t i Ell
c cr ::offi:lny
su :s
eus
= niippls
s sr
::: b ouqn
=:
t~j SUT'PaS
(rameau:
S
car
Fr G ne h)
:::
S har e
[.
d I n b 'G'l i
::: t;
::: he1p
0
h El P
fldimbi=:'l
C!')X
'.-
::: pal.Jn
da:xx
==
t'.:;
c has o
nd a: x x
==
victary (in a ça~
, -'
:::
t~) h roC: in
dik
==
-CCI
nr-om i s s
n d.i k t a' :1 ;= a pr om i s e
:=
prCJvisicm (of
food
prodU et s )
d'spp
nd'éppe
~ special t8r~ in
g~mblinÇ}

---

508
.- ::') r c- ma i n
ndEBsit
=
r cs i due
D
jé):Y
=:
t o s ol I
nja:y
S a lr.:
"il .ilo +-
•
d
" V
j lJ : m
=
t:-)
n ju : n; t éB
:::: rnist(}!<e:'
:::: t '.1 br:
=
c .i r i~ u rn sei s i ~J n
ja:xx
pcrplExcd
_.0-
~ J a : x x t éB == Pt:r p I exit y
j~:~g
:::: ta study
- . /
j pnet
:::: t o buy
n'j r:::nd
==
pu r c ha s .i n q
"- .......
jik
:::: to bring good luck
nj i k r;"J -s f: n =
'._'
~
j i
:::: t
-'0
C1
s ~J IJ
nJl
= S DL) in g
= SC2--Si3LJ
j d
"""" '··1
nJ8
= pr is c
........
E
-
c h i ld
'JÇJ} naB
-
= childhQ~d
go :r
mail
==
rn c r i t o r i o us
act
-
t o h e Li c ve
:::: t o p 2 Y Cl vis H:
Il i sit
(D f
sOr;: E
( f '::11'
S Dm c
CJJ ys)
days)
98 n t LJ
==
t 0
r r: Fli S 8
fluant
= refusaI
::.. :'
"'--
nç-;a:: • n t
==
dcsc:rtion
."
' - -
==
O\\l::niil~;
unr k
=
t o ;;,~U
rlC;O:P
= rn~JLJing
cis
to SEC
rJ~istal
:::: show

---

50~J
F
to trust i.n
I<CJ:lut~Q
.. trust
ump
.- u nkn o un to
kump'ê
= ::"ecrr::t
\\J
(Clf
f a c t e )
==
ta fast
= fastinC
-
to l'cply Clral!y
ka:ddu
= u tt cr anc n
'-'
==
tG cJrr.:ss LJith
= cl Dlh cs of lady
l '-1 .i ri - C l (1 th
Di: f
-. t::J havE somtbody
kilif'f!
= authCJrity(ies)
unrt cr
on(ols
C3r"
up
kube:r
-- s hu t ter
a: :nclu
'- t
s t
y
kec : ndtf."
=
f8Ct
Qf stayinQ
n
a
s
c m n -
loJhcl'r aIl
-"
délY·
somEwherc aIl day
long
r :..:) ~~)
-= t :."
Ü. 0
POIS
= kn'Jt
- ; . '.1
pl Cl Y
:=:
came
feE XêC
::: d c v i c c
fu : r
~Jur i t
=:
fGam
f::J:t
- t Cl \\.i.[) S h (c [J.!J the s ) P ',) : t
-
u8shinç;
::::
t o cLJ/lcr:,
PEC
r c c
== d anc e
' -
-
to
ChOLJ
tobaCco
po:n
== t iJ ll.J ccc
Pal
f ':(; y
pae y
==
pay
AP2 r t frC1rr~ the: ~,.,t
F
WG
notice that invariabU:y, the:
ini~ial consonants have undcr~one an altcrnation in the nominal
f:Jrms c'lrrcspondinC' ta the: vc:;rlJnl f o rrna ,
This
altcrnation scc:n:s
.
,
to
folloLJ certain rulas such as.
;4 .Lri i ':-i 81
b
bEC 0 mes mb:
in
8 s
i Il i li al :5 LJ c-: co mE3 'C'
in
tC
' -
initial
d b r c orn r: nd~
'in D,
initial
j
b c corn cs nj; I n E, initi:ü
' . J
c
bccor.:::s
n q ;
in
C i'litl;;J!
f
bccOrnœ P.
that is
:

---

51G
b = l~bial oral voic~d st~p --~ mb = labial nasQl VOiCEd
pr en a so Li z cd 'S t op
d = 31 v , CH é11 VCJiCEC] ~3 t CI P
--~
nd =: nos,]1 vo ic u: p:fEnasaliz cd
st on
j
= Pal. oral \\/0 .i c ed stop
.. _~
"nj ::; PaL n:Cj s.]l vc ie Ed cr Enas ci li
1.8d st:Jp
9
::;
\\/cl,
'Jf3 1
vo ,i,CE d stop
- - --;>
IJ c;: :;; vclor n'J saI vo i c cd p r r n a-
s81izEd stcp
f
= labio-dcntal oral voieclass --~
p = labial voicslsss stop
This indlcotcs that thcrE i5 homorganic harmony rule
Ho LJ Eve r ;
i t
i 3
n Clt
thE COSc that 011 Verbal-Nouns manifcs+ this consonant altcr-
n a t ion.
Sc:;
fo r
c xarnp Lc :
faP
::;
t ':~! c2rry
faP
=:
c;:jrr ioge
f') rnp
:::
tu l,iÎpC Cl \\_-.!ay
f)f1lp
=
uipinç;
'-
-
~; ac : cl d
:::
to r [ f u s t: f (JL
ç; DG :cJcI
::;
fact of refus,
d iS~3::Jt is f aC t' ':Jn
cl u c: to
cl .is 5 2, ti
faction
s')r
=
tCl eut l,Ji t h :l
Q")r
==
fùct of cut li r
s Llor d
with él S uor c'
j<5l1
to pi l :: ur-;
jai
=
oi Li n r;
jo:r
==
tJ élccumuL:Jtc
jo:r
==
maS s
c~ aQI~
to cut
clagQ
==
cutting
- - '
-
da·~ (é':
to Cl:-)
da:: rn
==
d s o a r t ur e
SilS
=
t.J i:S si f)fl ,-=]
sas
=
.'Js s i L~ n a t i ':m
r p co po n é; i!:J i lit Y
s') s
==
tn dcfaiT1(;'
s:;:> s
==
defamaticn
bax
==
t CJ b él 5.1
bax
==
cbu l Li t i on

---

511
In the CaSE of c~QnatE nouns thGrc ls nO consonant
ThuD WE c6uld brief our remarks as undGr:
Rul,
.5
('.
+ [ons
.....
." + [ons
."
Il
-',
,
1
'.'+ Or :JI
!
/
1
~-.\\
1
1
! 1
:-:'. ..;-
Voiccc: »;
1
\\
i '
i
').+
Prcn2~aliz8d-;
Rule
• G
f
Rule
7
~
~O
in i t i ,'}1 ,~
- - -:-
c / rJ L~ .- CC ç; n,ëlte»
j(
.8
·inH i<')l
k
/ '.1i"•
C,Jn t c:: x t
explan~tinn rGgardin~ thE ty~~s ~f affixation involvsd in the
1
dET i vat lems.
Actually thcy
s h CJ w t h 8C
the
il cri v'3 t i on
Il f a n Clund (J E S
n Dt c o ns i 3 t
Clfun
initial consonant altErnati~n only.
may b r. EJ I.Ihol c s oqu e n c e that s orne t i rn es a f f rc fs not only the
initial cun20nant ~ut 21so some othcr clements bf the besc
c ~ em [nt.
1.
flcrr
Uc
ure L1sinc; the L'rIT! cleril/éJti:Jn in its t r a d it i on a l
mC2 n i n c .

---

512
In s nrn r
CéJSE~ U1C variatiCJn occurs in the: Final
c o nr on arit
alenE,
tu d r:I
= t
=
Cl
na
ncJms
m(;'
tur
t~Jd
=
t~ lie duwn
t 'çr i : n
the: 'u),'1Y of
lying
Ru l G· • 9
+
/dErivéJe-i VE/
-->
(~~'.
whrcrc the durr.rry
symbol
( /j.
)
(
/\\
)
stands
<.---=-,
Far
t h [
cl cJ i v éJ~-i v E mo r p h c 11', c: •
The ei):Jv:
rulc a,jplics
b ot.n ta
verbal and o t h or Qrammatic"l
Ir1 this
r o n n cc t Lon
the: case of
diminéi:ivc
nouns
and ~O~C Bnt~nym vcrbs maY bE citEd.
SE"
r e s p E c: t ive: l y
set
1-1
a n cl I
F~, r c: x ::OrTi ple ,
H
b) p [J
=
h r:-:ae!
mu ):pfP'
'=3 mall
hcall
.....-
.........
........
Qa: ~a:y = ueaPCHl
r.lg a :nna:y =
sl1',a11 1,,) e..:J il Cln
- ......
j'ëkkÊ'r
=
hu sb iJ Ile]
njel:kËr
= srr:a11 hus b e n d
'-"
- '-"
ci (o"k k
=
t c'un
n d'ékk
= sl1l311 toun
.......
-.- '-
l
to rel cet
f;) : 11i
=
to d i srn i s s
" -
to ::~trctch a
lin 8
la :lli
=
to r omo ve
(-1
'-'
do th s t r ct-
'n
CflGc1
on, ..
cléJ~C
=
t l dr i v, in (nJi1)
ciD ~jji
to dr i V~ 'C' ~i t
'-"
(nail)
léC m
ta
fol d
léS : mmi
=
to unfold
---

---

513
:::
tG put
ta:: :qgi
==
ta carry off
up
=
t n clos G
ubhi
tu or' en
t akl~
= to ti c
t a8 : k ki
:::
to LJ n t le
._.....
:::
Fas
t ~, knot
féf]
: tc i
:::
to untie
= to bcnd
s i~; C'i
:::
ta hold up
onc' s heecl
saf
==
ta have t a s t 'e
sa:ppi
'"
to 1 ~JOs G t as tE
tec
to 10 ck
tiJji
= ta unlock
=
ta close (cyos)
gi~rni
=
ta open ( t'y 68 )
yx n
=
to lOari
y'è'fO :nni
::;
ta unload
..-
c· a rn fJ
=
t~J rIant
sa: :mpl
-
to dr i ve out
juki<
=
to inlr:?erSE some-
ju~_~ i
:::
tG br in 9 up tCJ
th .irlc:
surface of a
liquid.
nu r r
=
t o Lrnrn o r s r-
nukki
:::
to COmG upt o the
sur fac lE of a
Li qu i ri envi l' Dnm c
n,3."
:::
ta thrèa d
n~~gi
==
to unthrE'aci
t a p p
:::
ta st .i t c h
taJ :ppi
=
tD unstitch
"0.
-.0"
r~u =",
=
tu ~~ulp
Cl J :~~<i
--
ta c1isgorgc
aC
t'J put at
a :jji
-
te; rEITiOVE from a
o Lc vo t cd
place
c l c va t o d
place.
YéE :LJ
-
ta f as t en
Yê:f : wwi
=
to un f as t en
d ;_/p r~
=
t·
t4 :rn \\.\\~';)ià~ doUJ{)
d i p p i
:::
\\0 t",'N. v.~':)làe
mu=r
=
t ", co ver
mu ri
::
to unCOVCT
I\\Jol,j
'uJe:
con ~liuc the r ol l ou i r«: r n Los r
Rulc- ro
--'~)
f'):ll/

---

Ru 1 C>
1 Î
la l
- -~>
10 :11 /
i
--
Rule - 12
da :c
- -- -
d Cl : ,i j
/
l
-
R ul c-'
13
léE m
---.
léGmm / - i
-
Rul c-
~4
bL k
---~-
téS :ÇC/- i
--
R ul c-
~ rj
l! !.'
---
ubb /- i
.-
-
R ul c-' c. ~ 6
t;:l'<k
-_._)
tac :kk/-i
-
'""
Ru 1 c:
11 7
fas
- - _......
fa: :cc/-i
-
R ul c-
18
..
si sç/ - i
SEÇ)(]
---.."
--
.......-
Rul
.
r
1,0
:: - '
.:J
S 2.f
sa:PiP/- i
'-"
R u I c-
20
tee
- - ""'::}
tijj/-i
'-"
Ru 1 c:-
21
..
.
y' .
-
G
-
~ HGi,
- l
Ernl.;
- -;.~
...
"'"

---

-_._-----------------
515
Ru 1[0-'
22
_.. -)
YéB n
Rulc-
23
Sé0 .
.rnp/ '
S8 ln P
-
--~
-1.
.....
Rul
...
c-
• 2 L~
nu:r
---'>
nuk k/..d
-
Rui c"" .
25
n.,:cc/-i
haS
-- -'>
-
Ru lc-
26
tapP
---)
ta: : pp/-i
.....
Ru l c··'
27
gu:x
--~
Rul c-
·28
ae
Rul c-
-29
YéE :u
--~
y êB : lJ w/ - i
-
RU1c-
3D
--
dctpp
-)
diPP/-î
,-.
""'
Rulc-,
31
211otn:Jr:~.hs of t n . S3r"r: rr,orÎ~hcmc, one of l.Jhich occur s in thE

---

516
IIL?F.c.3
1 ..
mE1:~g.i
<
(ma • n9r'i)
:;::
h r rr
l
·
am
,~.
......
2 e-
Y'-;:9 n i
c
( ya : LlIJ,·i)
zz:
h Cl' C y c:u
arc:
---
......
'l.
rnu 9çi
<.
( rnu
,él fY; i )
:;::
h cr [
h~ is
.......
....,
(nu
-\\
~ .
nu IJ C)·
<-
d'pi 1
h r:r::
lJe
(thcY)
o r r
" -
5.
x él l 2C
Y3: lJc:i <. ( X;dT yi ':'12]:a:)
:::
h cr L
a r,~
the.' thildrcn
....
6.
nit '"'"
na:
-
~~i
(ni t
al) ç; i )
<
111
:;::
hct r.
a r ~.
th:
persans
--
7 .
nit
ka: [)C1i
e,
( nit
ki a2.,?i)
=
~Ete ls the p c r s on
--
'.
t..
l
.
rCJ:r
CJ a :
IJ c~ i
( gD "- Qi
<.
• 1-
é3!JQi)
:;::
h c r c is
th.e. man
---
" -
9.
b '" nt ba:
fJ oi
< (bant bi G f)Q i)
""
her ~: is th:: stie;k
-
-
-
10.
f:)s
lJa:
~i
( far,
LJi ,:')I]C i )
h cre. 1
the ho:rs~
<
:;::
18
1 ~~ •
rnu:s nI a :
lJ Q5.
-
< (rr:u ·~ mi E12.,?i)
hC2rc is the cat
• ::>
1 2.
S LI ~ f
sa
-Dgi <.(su:f si a~i) = hecre i c: thE sand
"
<;»
1 :3 •
1· .~
cr l (J :. [) o i
( l·c~f li
·,ryi)
h~Q is t j'e thinç;
<.
=
c'
.::
-....J
-
.
1 !~ •
~{~ ~n ::t-a :
(
Q5i
.ta: n j 1a fJ r: L)
h lé: c
th:: snake
<.
=
18
......
1 5.
k): c~J: ogi
<. (k 'J: ~il'
. \\
8IJQ 11
=
herc is k::>:ddu
..... _..
.
1
.
6 "
ab[ic:.
!]Qi
<.
( abi ruy:; -
i)
-
h cr c 15 abi -
.........
.........
17
si: ,': a:
')3 i
<.
(si :di èflCji)
=
h c r e i8 si :di
.......,
---
,
18.
ccc ri]?
f) ç; j.
( CEe roc
a 'Jc,; L)
=
h cr r. L:
2 0 m c
Ca::: r,q:: t
<
»<:»
-
1 S •
te: r~: IJ ,,, i
.,-
(
(te:rr: (J~ci)
=
herl
is a beJok
--
.......
20.
Ci)rJ:
IJ Cf i
c(
( ç~ Jr) i19gi)
-=
h cor c is
an in-laLJ
-.....
21 .
daba: I)lJi
<.
(c1aba
-
2l)gi)
==
hër c is
claba
'-'"
-
22.
ad a ~
l) ç; i
c ( "da éil)i]i)
=
h r r .:.= is ad a
'--"
........
23.
1)l; e : r
ccllç;i
<.
(Q.S0:r (lfJç,i)
=
her c is I}Qo:r
,
-
2 (. "
n CI(JC LJ a !Je'i
( nda
c:
LJ
3CHJi)
h o r c
is n cl ct:
==
lJ
.........
-

---

517
It appca r s From thi~ data that ~hcn aQQi occurs in
a
concc;,t the 8. l!hich .i s its Ln i t i al \\/owe..l. may b c subjcct to
a S sim il. C1 t i 'J n .
~h r n éJf1 ::::s sim i 12,t i an te.k cs p1a c c. 9 t LJ0 chanQ cs
c n a 1 cs c cne e 0 f ~ 1,1 i tilt Il Lê fin '3 1 v0 LJ~: 1 0 f the pr cc ed in g rn 0 r ph.
rnn r ph
uh ich pr o c e-de s é'll)c;i ie:: either of the flJllo\\din~i: rna:;ya:
- . . ;
mu; nu; th~
Uhen the morph which precede5 Gngi cnds by a consonant, the ~,
In other
Th CS C éJ n Cl lys r: s c 3 n b c pre s r-JI t c d 1. n the fol' rn 0 f the
f o l Lo o i ru; rul cc :
Rulc-
32
G - - - - iJ#
- - o_-~
y

---

518
Rulc:-
33
G --- u J /1
-- -- .. --;>
Rulc-·
3e!
[ -
-
-
éG JI/
----~
T
:/-anc i
Rulc-
35
---.::'
Rulz-
36
c..- - - )J Il
- -- -->
Rulc-
37
~--Pj#
---..:;>
Rulc-
30
.,
]
Il
- - -
.
--
,
-:;> {Cl 'J. Gi J (. .
-
[Dil
Ir
.
!Jçi
/
[
-
III.2.F.c.4
{d éj
+ u ; bu i su J J. M
J ::>:
u
1,1CJL.J c ons i.d cr the n r x t d at a C;lVCIl bl:lru:
1 .
duma WaX
I shÇlll
not s p c ak
:;; .
b;) :
lJ·é)xa-
:) u +1) : -+ I./a
=
If y o u
>(
-1-
CL
spcak(lJhc n
yeu spcak)
3.
d:) : . wq;(
c' cl + LJ +J.') : tua x
=
you do not spc~k
q .
s )~
=
l.J Ll XiL
~iu~l):+-u,"x + ::r
if you spcek
5.
du LJcY
ci?
+ ul+LJ3>(
=
he: liJilJ not s pc ak
b
'il L
LJél )i cr:
bU-t- l HJé1X
+ Cf'
'=
if (lJhE'Il)
h r s p c ak s
7
su
l,J,3 X;=C
SU-t-l+-iLiëJX
+
c:e
=
if he spcaks

---

519
If uc
have in m5J,d r u Lc s
28nd
3
wc r o aû i z « that
tlle C[)iJccu:rr~ncc 8i'
il U
,.Ji t h
cl a+u
su
r:J 3
+ LI
l
tu
l
sU
l
i mplie S
CI
mut uo I a s :ô' i mil a t Lon , Pi'J r t
0 f
wh ,1. ch h '3 S al r co a d y b c ('n
cc vr rr n by r u lc s
?
an d
~.
On th,,,-
bo s i s
of
Î
o f
the
ab o ve
data
wP
c an f o rrn u l s t r :
Ru1c-
3'1
da + U
----..;>
du
Now the complemcntary part can bc pointcd out 3S
u n Cl cc 1:' l ri r u l cs 4e - !'2.
bu
---- -~
:..~ \\.!
,- ---)
R LI l c··
.t~2
du
- - .. ,. -;>
.., 1
l ",.
L.:
-
J .

---

520
III.2.r.c.5
(-.--------.J + a k
f OC l ',' ( 1/)
, .' .:..J --'.
, ...
=
tc;
c ur c
(oncsclf)
with
f)tt;:1SLI
+ ak
......,
r a >~ Cl é) ::> : ( k )
=
ta wash (hQnds) with
< é:' <3 fJ gu -l- a k
t o b.3th u ith
xa:jjœ :(1<)
<
x a r j j i
Y"
ak
=
CCI divic!c
(hair) with
~ .- ..
r os oc : ( !< )
<
rosi -:- ak
=
t o Fry (anion) I,Jith
ubbéE :(1<)
<
ubbi -i- ak
=
t o op r n wi t Il
SUXXèT
:( 1<)
<
s ux x i
+ a k
=
to plume
with
=
to b r u s h u i t h
= to carry uith
jl:t;:c.
:k
"
j i: t Œ
+ ak
= ta officiate with
8')1132 :k
=
tu paya
visit ~ith
j LI :~~ CI : !< .
<
Jube:
+ al<
= to Qet tQucthcr with
;-:le : 9 9:' ~k
<
=
t o 9~·t t oo c t hcr
with
<
XUlCi: + 21<
t 0
qua l' l' C l
l,JÏtil
<
= toc a nec r t \\.,1 i t h
""
no:kk'):
~ a k
té) f i o h t with
=
"--
= tD eut all rB18ti~ns
with s o mr bo dy
te d i vur c r
f o Ll ou i ne:; r u I cs.

---

521
Rulc'-'
L~3
( __ .••• _ .. : L~ Il
+ 3 k
- - " - -) L-----,~ - J:J k /1
Ru le"
:~4
(_ ...._.__ Ü /1 + 8k -- .._--) [._ ..-_ ... - EL' Û 1< //-
l--.- ... cc] -II + ,".li< - - ..- ? [- - . -
éE Dk Il
Ru 1 -
46
L..-.' --- )J JI. + ak - - - -7 [_.- - - - ...-- J ~ k Il
Ru l c-
4 7[_-____ :~ JI +;:)1< -----") [------- J0 k 1/
t----,·" J1/ + :::k -----) l----·--- a:J k #
Rulc-
.L:9
l:'- ---
- ---~
L------ e: Jk Il
Rule·'
Si]
ak -'---7~+(IJ JI [_ - - -{u,i,ae, ,J:, 0:, a, iV~~rb~~:i.
l k
"lsct,}hc rc.
[ _ _ _ __... -] + é' \\11
. . .-.--
_. - . .._.
,
-_._.
C'l n s ici .: r
,,1::: ~: t l',c tl .-- t abc l ::; LJ :
s :> : ecU .,. .2' m
;::
his(hn)
tostil-pick
ri:ta:::m
r i : ti ± am
=:
his(hcr)
Vi.ilin
c;ac l'tee: m
c;:t.:rta:+ am
;::
his(hc r)
(_~l'~unl.: -nu t
l ')x)
+ am
his(hu)
h8nd

---

522
~bana : rn
...
<
mbana
....~ _..
+ am
te ~ r r~ =fil
t r: ~ r r: + .'] rn
=::
his ( hcr)
<::.
b:) ::k
Th i ':' da t a l ca d s U ,è t Cl i: he' f 0 110 LJ i Il ~~ R u les 0
Rule ... '
51
[-
-
-
-
u ] J + ,Cln
C:~ntivc oé)f:,-----> L·· .):J; fil
Rulc-
52
Rulc-
.53
C: - - - a?] #' + om
Cen. 2 f 0 ',',
- - - . . ; )
[ .
• • •
0
a: :J +-rn
8 u l t: -
5 t~
[_ - - - )] 1/ +
l, r n
Cl fil
.
'
a f .:'
- - - ...;.
f.
::>:)~.
0
• •
•
fil
Ru l c-
55
[-
-
-
-
a J Il +
._---",
Cl in ',.'
C;::. n . a f
G···
Rulc-
56
-
c J #' + ::::r~
Cr:n.af ;"
",
----,
G"
GQ.i fil
•
0
• •
III.:2.F.c.7
bcYal
<.
blY + al
= cultivat( (for;
iniuncti::n)
<
b'~rc + al
LJrcstlc
(for;
u i th :
in j une t jJn )
ta: c: r-u l
<
ta:ç;qu + al
s
a~ k
p c
-i
~l',·,
"Lrn,~s.:)
.Jn
(r""
."~
s~m~onE; injunction)
<
Part
(LJith;
.i n junc t i:»

---

523
= strir the
s irjd.i.
flcsh ~ff
1.
<
._-'
( f 'JI'
5:.J rn C:J ne;
i n j u ~'H:: t ;
= ~lvc ln loan (fD~ sDme
lé:€
p l.oc : l
<
on r:::
in jur: ct 1 '.: n)
xu 10: I
<
xulo -1-"1
':J LIé:1 r r ê 1 (l-J i t r;
f o r ;
i r: i LI ri c ti ,-) ~ J
.,
'
Rule--
c.,(
, .
+ ,C; 1
Rule·-
50
'. .
e.--/l+ -,,1
-'''--
. .
":;','
~
. .. c e . l
Il
Rulc-
• 59
•
LI
# + .---,J.
....... U \\ l Il
Ru 1 L-'
GJ
'. .
•
i
-:;-f +
1,1
#
é11
- - - - - - ;
Rulc-
• ü1
~
,
:--"
-- Il
- --
! •
ac il' -\\- 01
-~ .:..:;
i • • •••
1/
\\
Rul'i!.-·
62
-- ......
. . . . . . .
L!:
1
J
Ru] r--
63
i
1
t>
.
•
'.
• •
) :
l
I ? • F . :~ • 8
1.I
l,cnlt.
prcp.
Ï
0
u
L1r:l
ln L1:L •

---

:::
chi c !< c n
f r~] n~ t u ~.: f:: 1
1: e: : ri
lc!,'lt cr
f ro m v!cl 1.
n d ox
mu
:1 f
il),::::>Y
1
LI,
UIT1
ar :~' 9,:ncr n ll y in
bu t
s omc t üV's
~u ~ccurs ~nly with the
na~ES of persons .•
U
? : 11
u..:
i.1 : I I
c cc k u y
:1 : 11
<:.
ca:: ku
um .:;: Il
i' u dd i
:::
.
-...
<
'
..:l': cl,-'.i
Cac r éY
fa:,-
:::
1.
!Je
'.",H~PCC[ ul,e::; h a v., "cvclo[lcd th~CllJÇ)h mct a thc c i s f r cm
fil u ;
i' Il Cl
L'
f ·c.! ni U rr ::J y ci e le t i :J n
:J f
m.

---

52S
C œ r ac y C,-l:S
=
i /
=
<
CEE r ao
um
f a:s
ri: t i
" U cl cl i
=
Violin by nic;i,t
-'
......."
=
r i : t iril r; LI cl d i
' r i : t i L1m ç;udc1i
* ri: t i mu nc:; ej :r
=
Il
=
x LIl c] :
y f) C: ~J ; r
/ /
--.-J
=
X LJ l Cl:
U 111
n GC) : r
'* xu l 'J: mu ri C',: ; r
t (~ : r c n 2 \\>JE(' t
==
bCJ::;!<
by r e i ny
SC<Js:Jn
tE': r c y n aLJ éC t
=
:' 1
==
< tc:rcumnaLJa:::t
*tc:rc mu nro:r
mus a : ril ~~::; r
-
mus:;,:
(s:n)lF )m2r
< musC): mu :)mar
~ acL '" :) ""0 r
= xa.li (c\\a.\\.\\d~.Ju)o" J~(.H' <
RuL:,·
64
LI
- --_..:..--:-'
,#l-···--'·- \\1nw J if

---

r1uL:-
65
i
----.~ .y/C· ..... VoW J 1/
, +
gc,ü t ~~1
:J
[
526
(,(+
Pr cp.
J
Rulc-
66
C:
- a] /1 -1- LJ
C' . . .
[;'1
-
- •••..••)
IT, : m
] //
Rulc-
G'7'
Rule-
60
JIl
[
c.
. .
-
:J
+ U m -- --~
[ : . . . u : m] Il
"
Rul,'"
'6~
[--_
_.......>
..
1
]4
ur'"
G · · · imJ =II
"
F~ u L.
70
[_ ........
c>
-r-
c_:
J Il
ur;-·.
..... )
[-
. ' mJ 1
·
· CD,
;~ u 1 ..
• ';' '1
[,- ........
r- J.if + LJ ri,
---~
E · · · cm] Il
R ulc-
.7 ?
[- .......
...
~j ] F/-=+ ~I
.. -.-)
[Il
[ . 0 · · o:mJ II-

---

52'7
Jt'+
IIL2.F.c 9
[..---- ..-
Cons
/1 [VDicccl
_--J
_ • .
R ul c-'
73
«.+ Cors »
~+
Con s»
<~+ V':; ~ ccI cs G»
«,+ V~Jicr::[I»
,(+
or .Jl
/1
~'>
~ <.("1- "r;ll »
/ /-
VDicf:'c!
r+ bi1.2bi'>
<..<,.+ li iL3 C»
(<.+
Pc: 1 e t Q:L ;;>
<,G+
Palot..
}
<.<+
«.+ Vel-tc:n'2L»
Exx-
t'r"[J
+
u
»
t·l'bu
U [i
+
u
ubu
"7
cJ [) : c
+
u
"7
cl a : :tu
tac k
+
U
l:
"
é3E: ç= U
CClP
--~
1
( (\\! cg)
~.] P. PrEd o.

---

528
I I I . :? • F , C ' ~ ',f
-
3.
'1 •
b·r~'t
.: il
C y C
(
c:
, )
c, rn
.... .1
1.,
'ë)
_
c y cs
2.
ay
l'a :r am
-f
~I •
é.; P
. ."
;J '/
Ccn
C'
C'
r' r: )
(
...: .. JIII,_
tccth
i f W'"
c::<nsic:lcr
the npp'=Jsiti'=Jn
2pjay in
l c-
-.»
".: ~;. L.· i., 9 fi 0,' -' :1 " 1: r: .i. ~ t--' l Y ,] n
j, n ,: :.; fin i. t: le
2 r tic J cc •
n
t Iv
V,C! r i é1 t i :l n
5 i C;(lI Ln) plu r é' 1
in IJ G l. vcs
J,.'
ru} c.

---

529
cx~~ple~ like 1 - 3, wc may ~s~UmG th8t th? plural morphcme
1/
y
-=#=
1/
y +:j..c Cl Il S 0 Il ,C]Il t 81 t cr Il a ti -:-; rj
N
1,0 • J..
uCL
bi
'J'c't
yi
'J a: r a : m
j i
lJ~J:r;JIT\\
yi
Fingcrp th~ (the fill~crs)
L.
l/cÎ'1
b i
t 00 th the (t h c; t' •:, th)
..~
('en
yi

---

53U
this,
p
(here i t s
allorn~Hph
b)
r cmni ns
thE' rn o r ph f o r
sin9Ul.c~ n~~rr'hcmc :cllli Il·-y O"J( fI--y +;f&[otlscnetlt a1tcrnati:lfi] ['J
f or
pluLll m:JrrJilcmc.
Yct c~nsidcr the phras[~ bc1~w 7 - 14
7 •
rli t
ki
:::
th c' pcrs'Jn
nit
ni
:::
the p cr ê, ,]n6
o.
jiC;e- :n
j-i :::
the L1C.'Y
jic:;e:n ~i :::
the L,clics
9.
r:;:~ : r
r: i
the m,'] n
"01
çs : r
ni
= the men
s )pLc
si =
the: o n io n
s )p1Œ
yi :::
t h c :jni'JIls
bunt
bi
= t hc cl., CJr
'--'
bun t
yi
= the cl ,;':t's
c-
-
1 2.
1
;]S
ui
z
the h::Jrsc
fas
yi
:::
t ,l c'
hc r s cs
mu : s
mi
:::
the cat
:T1U: :3
yi
:::
the cats
n ,i 8LJ
l i
z:
the mcs s c no er
-
Il c.: ,-] LJ yi
=
the [;': e 5 sen c; crs
-
' -
I t
,"] r::: l=' c ::n s
t h3 t
t il c:
plu r ;:J1 mDr ph ma y :=3 1 S :J b 2
n a3
in 7 -
'J.
always
p ,
bu t
c;-r:
b::
I ,
m,
k ,
j,
5,
W
and g as
l,J[l1.
thcsc sinçular morphs arc not givcn h2re,
since this aspect :Jf

---

531
Ru li.
-
7 L}
/Plur/
y
+
#\\S:jnS;''Jlt)~,j /{b'rH, ba:I'4: m, !:>X,:)
b''':A' ,
l '(~f }
y /
",1,-, owh"r .-
c-td'C":
,r~
~.
Rul", - .
7;i
/5 i n rj
n i t -
- - [ k
/
S'h·., l' ITi" u:
-t-
c : s; jJ / c D ntex t •}
?
1:;
,

---

*
*
*
*
*
PART IV
*
*
*
*
S Ar'1PL E SEhlTEr\\JCES
*
*
*
*
*

---

533
IV
SAMPLE SENTENCES
The following sentences hav~ bcc~ta~cn as SampIs
scntcnc[S to show the gcnerative caPacity of ths T.~G
. ,
1
•
'.: !,...
- i
5 .1
buQj;
bi unun a <(
6 + up
+
e~(, t pr résen t»1 ~~:u~>§}-.:
~+ Sg >~i ....
~.(,.+ .. DGf~'·'
.<<.+, [') »
S.2
S.3
1J9 éJ : r
--
A)
5.4
a:s
Ja:ynak) « ..
a i s
+
:38:y
+
s- 3 P.Sg>~ ft.+ ~r ES .~] .
.::~~
t<.+ P Er f .»
[ : : :
p
5.5
xa r mi lc.e :kkna c.œ: : p bi nec :kk):n ci nd ap l i
<
-
-
-
(.
(1)
(2'
ii2'1
~
+
la:: :kk
+ 6'
+
+
. "--
~
~J '»
[«+ Pr cs»)G
H
«+
3 r, S Q»
, <.<+
P c r f »
(.,+ :g::rj
(,(+ T»
(.-<..+ o Ic.,l:'7>
6 (3)
)
na:; :kl<
+
ci
-
~(.+ PaS t»]
{<.+
il,> >
<(,+ T »»
(,~ + Def»
~+ 5 lj »

---

":(t.
Sc.'J'"
Catcg~ry-pxPansi~n rules:
-" ._~.... ~. .." " ...-.~ ."._'...-._,-_._.._--------" -
1
. fk!
+ ~: p + Pu P
0
.. , •• ~ .•• __ .•.. ~.J~
3
~PQsit + NP + PdoP
--
,
5
~./
/ + r;p + 1= cl. P
.
,
9
/
/ + NP ~ "IP
-" . ._-;,'
10
".-0-1 ' 1 + r'JP + VB
1, 1
-, l
' 1 + NP + \\1 + ['J i--
. "
1 3 , . "..._._._. __
1
.:;>
1
1 + N + \\/ + r~
,
1 ,2, ,', ,7 ,11 ,20 -} 1
1 + rJ + ~+V})
+ N
«- Er »»
«- Agos ),)
(-
Ag »
«+ Tr»
«- d 51 .~>'
<,<.-
da t.»
5') 5 1; ru''/
(~.c, G8-.},./ 1 !+ 1\\\\- +
// +- V""
. ,
. 9
•.• ~ ULJ'
71
l '
~,p
«- E... ,.>
.loe-
C»
:~ nH >~
«.J. 1. .»
(<rl-
COll C
('(+
nl»
d 81~>
èoun'
+
I\\; -\\-
<.<.+
\\1
77 ~
intonl
-»
Ir 0
<.<..-
Er»:t
c
"7>
nH "7" i!
~- i·1 go S
«:- AQ"7>
l >'!
con c})
«+ Tr}>
'-"-- cl el»
<.~ III 7>
«t coun
«.- da t,.>

---

535
Lexical
.-_ .... - .
...~~t_~x ___.
1
/ f , Lnt cn /
+
:--~~ri~
i
+"h'! ~+V~
1
1
~- Eg~
:~ c~
1
1
1
i e- Ag.~
i«+ nH~
AQ
1
( -
~
:(.+ rj;:
1
1
: ~+ Tr~
i~+ conc~ 1
1
\\f- dcl~
!~+ nL~
1
1
1
i
1
~-daW
~+ c ou nt» 1
,
!
~
Pas t~
-;{+ o
i
f. >.'
"""'-
El,:?,
,
1
+
u
i
.:t+ 5 in 9»
_.
~__ L
~
!
.-L_._. ..-._ -
.
PhonGtic
r e 2(~:~:~:n:t.().t~. CJ~(:J
p
b
u
* 1 ;;:: Vocalic; 2 = Continuant; 3 = Polarity; 4 = Hi qh :
5 = I-E Q rm i d ; 6 = r'l Gd i al; 7 = rJ a sel; 8 = V0 i c 6 cl ;
9 = Te ns e n as s ; 1 Cl = La b i:J lit Y; 1 1 = f={ 0 und n es s ~
12 = Pr an as a Li z e d ;
13 ;;::
Vibration;
1/.
=
Tip
- -
- -
. - - - -~.- --- - -_. --- - - - - - - --- - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

---

53~
T..r:.r-:ns fCJrnat i CJnS:
PassiIJL,ati':n
-_..:.' If.intl + /lJLlntl + lupl ~3 Pers .Sg~+ lui
-C\\ u x • C • S c o, Tr (3:l
1 [' . i Il t 1 + /'1LIn ~1 + ,Cj LI X • C + 1LI pl.''' 3 P cr s • 5 g " +/ u/
AS !~J • T r: ri SET r a n
1 ~. irltl + IlJun~1 + (.<.-Past ~).+
+Pcrf ;.~+
~J Pc rs . 5 c:
+ lui
PErs.af Tran
3 Pc r s • a f • S ÇJ.
-1-
./
pl
1 1
+ 1u1
Ari:: i c 1 FT l' ,] n
----'i"/f.intl + Ibuntl + T +·.-PasL" + t, PErf"'i+
'~'
3 Pers. a I.S Q + lupl + lu/
Af.sh~_fl Tran
-- .. If.1nt/
+ l!Ju~tl + T +'-Past> + i(+ Perf·,+
/upl + lui + 3 PGrs.af.Sg.
2
--~>-
+ 1bun t / + T!.f- ;. - Pas t >, + < +
P Er f:, + 1u pl + 1u1 +
6
--~
• +
Ibu:::.tl + T + y -Past" + .0 + lupi + lui + 3 PE'r';.af.
8
.__ .'. .
+ Ibuntl + bi + ,-Past '~,,+ fï1 + l'jpl + lui + 3 ppj~s.;,Jf.S
9
_ ..
+
. . 0 .
liJur:.tl + b i
+ Ji +;1 + lupl + lu/ + 3 PéT.af.SC].
1 '2
+ ILii..lntl + bi + ;1 + lupl + lui + na
1 4
... - >; •
+ 1IJ l J ~~1 + b i + 0' + ~ + 1u b 1 + 1u1 + n a
bunt
bi
ubuna
thE door
is shut.

---

53'7
1. ------ -:,' no + [\\JP + Pl). P
2 ' --------.--:' As t
+
il: p +
Pd. P
3.-------- Posit + [\\'p + PcJ.P
,
5. --" _ ..__.-..-~ 1
1 + 1\\1 P + Pc! •P
9 ------.-----~- 1 r / + i\\~ P
+
VP
,
10 - - _.._-_:~ 1
1 + :.jp
+
va
1 1 _ , _ -__ -> 1 1 1 + f:p
+
V + ~J P
,
13 - - - - - -- 1
1 + Pn
+
V + Pn
- ,
. ,
SubcatE~Drial rulGs:
........ _ _ ~ ~ ._~ •• " .• " •••__ .~..
•
,."0
~._ ' •• ~ •. _
.•• -
. _ - -
v
+
Pn
1 ,2,8,23~/ '1
+
Pn
+
~. -
El' ~
,_.1-
Ln t r ..
~ l ... _
clat
". -~
i
+
Pn
(j9,7'J,71~1 ' /
+
«+
P (1'5 .' ,
Er:->
, -_ + 1
", + r~om'-
'+
In t r»
+ 5 jng '- i
,..•. -
Em ph >.- :

---

538
69 ,70, 71 ~/ r /
+ i «+ Pn '.
/+
+~: •.
pcr'sJ
Er i-»
\\J
"+ 1,.
1,1.+
1 '>
\\
/ '+ ,~, ecu s '» 1
1
d 8 t '»
(!.+
Si ng ">-;.
t'"" Emph>.:-
.-~,
.:<...+
Pn
--\\+
.~ ~
77 ~
/f.inton/ +
+ Pn 7)
+
/:.+
V
?
'1
1
c; + PE?rs
«, + P ers-,,>
':./" - Er -;.,>
>'~
\\
1 ,:,
/(+
1 >
'-'.,j.
1
'~.
Q. S )~
<,,'.+
.:« +
~Jom '>
'-<+ In tr)1
-«.+ i~ C cus ,>-,
(
1< + Si ng»
(<-.-
do t '>2.1
II.. + Sing -s ':
l ___
J . .',
_
[r:-~ ph /~
1:-:" -
Emph ',,>
- - - - i
l

---

53s
1
- r-
--"1
;+
/ f • in t o n /
+
! (+
pk~!... (,TV ~
~+ Pnf1~
1
1
1
- ~+
Per~ : ~ Er~
~+ P8rs~
1
1 (G-
1 ~
$- Ar;. S~
1
\\t+ 1~
1
.t+
~+
N0~I
€+
Intr~
i~CCUS~
~+ S rl~!
(-
clat~
~+ Sg~
Iq;. Empli $- ReFl8x~
~- tmph ~
1_.-
--'"
: ~- ?a;j t.,):\\
i -t+ Pro~
1
'.t+ P()nc~
(rl:p12cc~
(pour watcr
(replace;,
speaker)
on body for
speaker)
cleonirlÇJ)
1
-\\------i--I-
2
---t--\\---'-'-+----+
3
4
5
6
i
7
8
1
- - . _ - _.-
9
\\-----\\
--__
_---1
---- y----- 1
10
i
- ----=-t---+------I--
11
1
.'
-,--1
----~f--
1 2
1
1 3 ; i
-\\1
1 (~
\\\\\\'
.__.._ - - - - - --.!.-_-._--_..... _ - - - - - - - - - _ . _ - - _ . _ - _ .... - - - - _ ..
~
Phonetic
!.8.tJT.??5_n t.él_tJ_~ " (A ) L S
a
ng )

---

Tr ans format ions:
COp.SEg.
Tr an
---,
If.intanl
, /
,'. . 1"
Asp.Ts Trun
--~)
1 P. in ton 1 + /_- \\
+ Co Cl <.<.+
(MsQ.)
+ VP~
+ 1 P r r s • Sc + ~-P8~J» + ",.""
Palnet.
( 1 )
Pr Clc . -,
+
1s a fJ gl
+
~-
,... if
R e fIE X i v i z a t i on
--~
/P.intonl +i
+ Co P«' +
1 P ~ r 5 • El P. S Ç] +« -- Pas t . Pr De» +
/sanL~1 + u
NP-Subj.
dcl r r
- - -:0
/
f • i n ton /
+~ 0 p
+
(nC?Q) + VP ~ +
/sa!JgI + U
Rea'cJjustmcnt Rulcs:
._.,
,
"-
..
~'.-
'
....•.. -
2
---';>
<'<-Past.)
+
.,+ Ponet.
Proc .....' + Isa~gl + u
5
-- -">
+ CoP~ +
(NeQ)
+
Vp~
+ 1
P.af.Sg
+
9
- --'>
•
+etC 0 P
+ _.( ~J
/'
G ~)
+ VP~ + 1 P • Cl f . S Cl +
~ + y + ISéJ~~1 + u
1 fJ
- - -»
~Cap +
( N5 c])
+ VP~ +
ma + % + y +
1 6
--~.:
•
+ da + ma +
~ + y + IS8Qcl + u
Lexical
_ _ ... _'_" _..... rcnrEscntati~n'
_._ ..._.L_.:
"._'_'_
..•
d amay
s@Qu
.
(1) am IJathing ..

---

541
CateQDrv-expansisn rules:
-
_ _
. . _
. .
•
"
_~
. '
_
• • • • 0
_ _
_ _
"
, _ .
_
• •
_ ~ _• • • • _
• •
_
w
. > r'l (1 -1- i~ P + Pd. P
. ) As t
+ r'i P + Pd • P
.... _... ,) Po si t
+ r,] P + Pc'. P
/
r
5
>
/
+
ri P + VP
...•..
.. _) /
r 1
,
1 'J
+ r:p + IJ[J
"
.. _.._- .'----_ ... ,>/
/
1 1
II
+ r,JP + V
..._.. ,... >
/
13
/
1
/
+ ~! +
V
--_...._....~.._.. -_._-~'...•. -';:>
Sub c at r o o r i a l
rL!J~2:
1 ,2 , !, , '],
. .
~ /
r
1 + r! + ", ""\\/)
-
Er:
AL:'. S " :
•... + Ln t r .»
5i] ,51 ,52
.._-,
/ '/
+
r~ .\\}
+
! :
V
".
r,
+ Pl' »
Er J'
, < + H )
(<.-
f:!. - PI ç. )
" + nafTlG:
«.+ l n t r • "'> i
\\.

---

5~2
7 7 - - - - )
/ f • i n l: .n /
+
,.,.~J ,.,
+
+ Pr »
Er
, . J .
I~
.)}
, c c-
,4 Cl • 5, '
,+ Il él mC,-
Ag. ),)
,,+ I ri t r .~ •
/f.intcJIl/ +;<:-1 N »
1.+ Pr ~
'(C....
Er
Ag.S
"0+
n'Dmc,..
:«- ACi. ...>
i
1
,
". -
PUnet »
___..Y
+
(elo~e p La c r)
( ci enD t i Il Q (; x i s t r n C ,J
Ph on '.::t ic r CpT' l'OS C n t ;Cit i on;
.
- - . ,.- ..
.
... _." .. . ' ""
.-
-t-
/f.inton/
nç
',0:
r
i
.L

---

5~3
/ /
,.Y
Transfurmations:
.... -
-
-~
_.-
-
Aux.C.Scgment Tr2n
--~ /f.inton/ + /~go:r/ + Aux.C + /aD9i /
As p ,
__ .:.:>
/ f • in t J ni + / f) Q 0 : r /
+
TEnSE
Tr an.
11- (., - Pas t
~> +
. Punet" + /angi/
Rcaciiustmllit
_ _ _ _ _
. ~ _ ~ • •
o• • , .
_ _ • •
• •
_ _
•
_
r_u
_ ••• Le
_
s." :
2
+
/nQo:r/ +
«-Past~ + r+ Ponet
+
/a~gi/
5
+ /~gD:rl + ~~-PDst~ + 0 + /3 n qi l
9
+ /rtc:o:r/ +
"j
{~
-- ~ + ï-'
+ /3 ng i
"- ..'

---

1 •
Mi
-;-
t,; P
+
Pd.P
_.__.•.... J
2
As t
-:- f! P + Pd.P
3
Pas i t
-:-
~~ P
+
Pd. P
.. ~ ";.'
/ f /
-l-
1\\, P
+
Pd. P
._. ~. . "'-'1
9
"'0#:"
1 1
+
~! P
+
\\JP
-~., '4'
10
/ t
/ +
r~ p
+
VS
-,
11
/ 1 1
+
NP
+
'J
+
~~ P
"
1 3
/ 1 1
+
[\\J
+
V
+
l'J
.'
SubcatcQorir:l
r u l r s :
1 ,?,8,1~,21 ,?C1
.. '/1/+,
c.+-V~
+
i'
~ + Tr>
~- cJel»
_1
: 1.'
<$. + '. a f". ~
."
____' /
/
1
/
+
-k.'T f~ ~
+\\
tt"""V~
+ P"!';,
-.» -
Er '.',
<:
+ H .~.
-'. + AQS • "
<. +
~'.+ T r ",
i
1
1,--
h -
cl €ô l >,
, Il)
<': +
;j a t
,)
Hlirr. .Subj
NP

---

545
srJ,55,
G?
/ 1 /
1
+ p:f ..
Er -"
: -; + C ,..,
63,
c/;
.. + H"
,+ Ac:s~·:
!"
+ n H Ô>
[,.1 ~l 11' (~. ,+
T r >~
+ A
+ cl [1
.... +
Inr'
.+ d:st
, + NEut ,',
77
+ ,-'-~V~
+.-
~Ü\\
':' + c
,-~ Pr,
{..+
nH
<" +
A·,··
d r: l
~,+
r'J cu t
ll\\
i'.1 + cli1t >.>
i
l-Ium.SuLlj
r\\iP;:
- - - - - - . _ - - - - - -

---

54 fj
-}-
«J, +
~J »
v :>'>
/ f . in t on/ +
il ~'
.t .
Er·;.
i/.. " f\\! ~>
+ Pn »
C-,
<., +
+ AgeS ",~,
1
li'.<.+ c ...,..
H ;:0')
i
+
l e
Tr»
«,+
l '.,+ nH.,.>
n a n: C:'
+ ciEl
-,.,
l "+.Ii~)
d
t
".+ Ind >.
e. -, +
Cl
1
( n a mlE
0 f
p 8 r son )
+ Hum.Subj_:
. .
1
u.+ 3 Per s . ':
<.< + 3 P. S 9
., )
!
,:,'+
S g .
(to giv~ somEthing <+ Accus ,»
aç13inst mcn e y )
1
+r·Jp + V +
!
( 6 )
1
+
- - - - - - t - - -
1
2
Ph on ci:. i c
'1
/r.int/
-.:
s
j
Y i

---

5i. ~,
... (
Transformations:
Prcd.Subj._~greEment TI\\.tt---) /f.inton/+/a;s/+/ja:y/~z.3P.Sg..,~+6
:lux.C.Seç;.Tra n '---'>
/f.inton/+/,.-,;s/+ Aux.C.
+ /ja,.:y/;:'.3 P.Sg.)+Ll
i'ISP.
Ts v Tr r.n ---7
/f.inton/ +/ ... ;s/+«-Past ~,+ «+ Perfect ;)+
3 P. a..f .S 9 + / j .: : y/
+ D
Pers. a f . shi ft i"r a n
- - ->
/ f • .i n ton / +/ C.' : s / + .(<, - p", s t ';1/ + !.',T Pe r f e ct »)+
/ja.:y/ + 3 Pers.'lf.Sg + LJ
PronomillC11iz~tion
---> /f.inton/ + /:-:s/ + <"-P"'st'>~
+
,<,,+ P er f cc t:>'i + / j ,-' : y /
+ 3 P ..a f •S g. + 3 P.
Pn • S 9 <,''. e e »/
2
+/a.:s/+ <,,-Pas t ' .+<'.+ Perf,,-jJ-/je-:y/+ 3 Pers •.A,.f.Sg +
/
3 P. P n • S g. <<..'~ e e '>'r/
6
--7>
• + / lJ....: s /
+ <. <..- Pas t >"7+ yJ +/ j ~: y/
+ 3 P ers. 3..,f •S q ,
+
/
3 P. Pn . S g . «. ,:', e e »/
9
+/a:s/+ ~ +)lf '<- /j,":y/ + 3 PB:fS.a.f.Sg. +
/
3 P. Pn • S g.
'.<.i e c »/
1 2
--..:;>
3,.:s
h as
sold i t

---

548
~ 5 (5) ~
1
filcJ
+ NP + Pd. P
.. -'--0·
2
Ast + r~P + PcI.P
. - _..
_. __ ...•"f
3
Posit + NP + Pd.~
,
... - ._...-" ~.
5
+ f,IP + Pd. P
._ .. ....
__ .._..... '-""J
~
_~.
~ / ' /
9
...;" /
'
/
+ I\\J P + VP
1 CJ
.. _._.. '
.,j 1 / + I~P + va
1 1 . _
~/' / + I~P + V + NP
1 3
. .__ . ' .f ' / + N + \\} + N + 3
1 .
/ 1 / +
~..I
+
V + f'J + f'ld + rJ P + Pd.P
,._"-,- ~"~"'-'.
._~'
, 1
2
/
~,
+ V + ["'J + Ast + [\\1 P + Pd.P
~.
/
+ . __t~·
3
... ).
/ 1 / +
r'L + V + ft + Posi t
+
NP
+ PLi. P
,
5
_. -' -' "'~
/
/ +
~J + IJ + N + 6 +- NP + Pd. P
-_.._, "'.
6-
9
/ 1 / -:..
N
+
Il + PJ -l-
"t i\\J P +
LIP
+ PP
_.....•.. ,. - .•••_._.~~.,J
,
+
10
v
1
ÎI]
+ r,l +
_ 0
,"
_ _ _" : . . : .
/
L\\ {- f~P +
VP,
+
pp
"--"'--~'
:' \\
f
. \\
... NP +
V
pp
+
1 1
V
N
j
+
fI!
+
+
-1-
-
:.:::J
~
-
- ' • • • • • • • • "
p . ' " "
;
, II..
1
"
T
l'!
+
V + pj::
1 :3
1
i
-"
._,
/
/ +
N + V + [\\J
1 !;
/ 1 / +
r'J
+
V + rI)
-1' Li "T .... ,",,'J + Pre,p+fiP
1 3
/ '.. _.L.+ [J + IJ -1- ri. + •... + [\\j +

---

548
1,2,8,12,/1~/ 1/+ N +
+ N + ,6 + N + \\J~Pre.p+~,J
i _
Er >::-
'<.+
Aq s , ,
;
~:+ d 01-·,
1 ,2,L~,7
~
/
' /
+ ~J
i
\\/1'-' Er >,
1.(:'
-
Er),;>
i
1',+ Ag s .»
i /.< - Ag. s )<
.
,
+ d e L..
< .• +
l ntr»:
/'.-
d 2 te,
--';+['J
+!~Prcp~
\\
49 ~ /
1
/
+ l'J
1
\\
1
:-'+ Spat .Loc")
Er ")'..
\\
Er ';,
,
t-
j
\\
1
\\
Ag. S '»! ~Io./-
1'-' + Ag. S ",:
-
1
Z'. -
Ag. '>" \\4::T V
placo'~
j
\\
1
(<.. +
l ntr .;,j--
1(:+ dcl"
1
d at ...) i
,-'
(50,:i~; , ~
/
'
/
+
N
V
:+ f'}~+N-f.'
v
;+.1iPr r~p ~
1
Er,;, \\
!
! :
62,63,
1
Li'l- Er -',
1"+ Spat. ~>
1
n H ';;") i !l<+ ,~ 9 .s]
1
l Cc
1
i
64)
1
Ag. S.>"\\
r+
"i-
A
! /1'+ Tr .,., !
l
ne ar "l
' ' 0
!
.. l _
,
Ag., )
,
kt
1
+
i
l nd -")\\ /</+
d cl:..) \\
1
V_._pl ~J c&)·
1
In t r
"\\+
~,J
\\
1
:/' + f1euh! ~ ;'- dat ..,.)
l
! !
1

---

5;j u
- -, + :'~" \\/ »
+ :-'~f~~~
+i--Z~rl ~~
+
/\\
+
/
1
/
,
1
j/l+ ·C
'«+c »
~- Er)>.
\\
i
6b,6B)
;' +nH ','
k+ ,!\\, r; .5 ">
f',+ n H «-,
i
'
j. +
l,
1'+ I ;;.'
,Cl, "
,
+Tl' ",
i...
[onc;.;,
+
i -:-
••
III c1 >"
ci Î~l '.
1
'1
l '
!' ,+ ~
l, _,', :-,
nl, >.;,
i ;~ ut,J
t "
1
1"+
: ï-:
r ount.~_:~l
+
~J
+u-tV»
+ ~<..-tflr cp»
,+ c.·,
Er
>:.
<+ Spat.lac
.' + n Il .',
+
nC8r 'n
. -:-
l
~;
P, g
-t
. »
\\1
Plocc '.'
"" + Ca n c -"
/+ I nt l' .)~
-
COl!llt,.
i
- ,
+
+
r~n r:::::-
'!>.,/
\\(.(.+N »»
•. '.J
, . J " 7
~I
, /
(
1
~,,+
c ,
y+
C '>:,
62,65,
1
~r ,~ l'
1,,+
H
"
1-, r'
:::. S .')'; 1
66,68 )
n
'"
',+ A »
JI' »
+ 1"
!
,
In cJ " 1
'+ Conc»
Il
f.; cu~.~ 1
- :.'
1
/1.-
c ounb »
1
1
-.-_!
' -
---1
--(
..
~"-TN7"
-;
»
+iZ~V»
1
+ ; .(.<..-tpr c p 7')
1
+ :«.tl'J
!
!
\\
1
1
c ,',
~<.-
S paL: .1ac'»1
Er '»
u:+
!d\\-
c >~
f+'+ nI-!
~ MIJ·S~.)
~(,.+
n E'OJr »
1
i! .
~ nH>;>
." ;
i
>'1
'/+ 1
Ag .»
,
+ V Plàee 1
14:1- l
;..";
~fr-
i'
'j
;
!
.... -..1
}l+
---
conc »;
Intr>;)
/'+ cane ..-.,
~+
i
1__ -
- - '
:
e+ nl, .
~ nl ,.> 1
!
1
J(SrI-
e ot;n t~
COUllt·

---

551
,-
-. \\-
ï
77.
/f.inton/
+\\ <dN
+
y')
+1 c« t V »
+ «< +N '").\\
\\+
Û
1
1
1
( t e -..,>
\\
r~ Er »
(,+ e »
z<.+ n H '»
.n.g.S~
n H />
\\
f: !<+
z+ :n:»~ Tr>'> Z(+ l )';
<-<+
'"+ d el'>'>
l.'+
c onc »
1
Neut
t- dat~>, nL
1«+
1/+
»
-.J
/(-
coun t-"
.-,
+
,,-\\+!-:tprep "
\\
Cc -tV
,,- + e '»
1.(
+ e »»
/"_< -
Er <;
1 ('+ Spac.loe,/
L(+
nH '>\\
Ag. S >,
«+
1
:;, q , -", 1 1 + V-
Pl a C E f
c: nH '>')
l
<1. +
l
»
<s; -
»
/.J..+ cOne »
<.l, +
In t r,..1 :._.
<+ con e >',
i
""---~I.
! ' + nL
<r+
nL "';'
-"
(1+
e Dun t,,)
<!.. -
CO un t >~
-~

---

552
L 8.>s.i c~l.. ~.~_~y :
,',
/f.inton/ + L.\\
+
..'1
+
/ \\
+
-'-","
- - .
~+
--'1
r -
l
'
r·Jc
1
<.c.., \\/
I<"r~c
,>,-
~.>'
')\\
,
,
i<<..... nH: .: '
1<,'r/-
nH »
L-< -
Er ,.'.".
"+ Ind
[<"; 1;;>" i
:-~
<~ + Ag. S ,,~
<i+
r,j8ut:>~.
1"'+ Tr " >
IZif con ":'
1
'-<'+ T-
~;< -1nL -,.> i
~".'
I~" - dei ..,,,
-,.+ 5g
J"'c oun tr.»
'">
! <.:.-
d2t ..~ ::
<..,<,+
r
d e f~:,
T >.'
_ :
1+ S 9 '>
<'~ + d e f'.',:
1
+
2
+
+
3
+
-t
.-.-..
. _ - -
1
5
-_.._.- j' .. -,.--
G
-
1
--7~r---==--
- -
- - - - ~
----r-;--+
81-
_.- -- ------
---:--- j--:·-t
9
---~~ --I-
I
1
--
.
'
-i-_.
Phon ct i c rE'prEsEntation..
--
,
--, - ... _-_...._---,-_ .. --
- - - -.... --, _. -
,.
/ f . in t/
x
a
t
+
l
k
cE.:
'-

---

553
L\\
\\
+
+
+
....
,
-i,.(.<. + 1\\1C »
!, + Pr ep .>.~ 1
,....:.<. +
r'Je ~.')7>
!
l, c +
l , '
,
nH >:'
,,', -
Er""
i",+ Sp=1t.1 o c "
nH >')
l"
i
i"':
r.,."
<.
r >.-....
i ,~,
+ A r:J • S.,'>j
+ l
...... -,
l '
1·:': +
,
1
1
l"
.... +
C one '»
/', + intr',,;>i
:
+ V
.. placG
con
i' "+
C
.~. ":
1
' -
(~
<',
-
cla
<" -1-
t .... .: i
1tL '»
+ nL
" )
<- - C ot4~t-,.:-,
c <.. +
!~". + T-,,;,-
+
pl::Jce
cour:t ""
,:, + 5 Ç1
>'>
i
;", + T
" >
._---.,!
1
1
.;', + ci et .,.-"
: «., + S 53 »
;
' -
;.:<. +
d E: f :''>
L
'phO'1eb c '("$.f""e.~e.,,\\;et(;io\\'\\ (c.o",,!:.!.)
.
C-c e..:
P
+
Il
E:
k
+
C
1
-i-
nd
a
-'
p
Trans forr:1ation~:
Art Lc l ':.,-5 C?ÇITI ent Tran'3
/ f . in t /
+ / X? r /
+ T + / lJt: ~/ +
/ce€ :p/ + Ici/ + /QSqp/ + T
Au~.C-SeqmGnt Trans
/ L i n t / + /X2.r/ + T + Aux.C + /100 :10/+
/C2f!:p/ + T
+ /Ca3:p/ -1- T + Aux.G +
/n::'8 :kk/ + /ci/ + /nd':\\.p/ -1- T
-
-

---

554
/lëf:: .1<"/+ / Cl/:,: p/ + T
+ /c~;p/ + T -:-
v-
(,<., + P a st» + / nilt; k~/+
1
• /
.' Cl
+ /nd aPi + T
-
'-'
/f.int/
+ /xar,! + T +<'<'+Pcrf~+<'<.-Past»+ 3 Pers.af.Sg +
he:kk
-;-
v
Cie:; P
+
T
R c La t i v i z a t i nri :
--
/ f • i n t /
+ / x a r /
+ T + <.<.. + PB r f»
+ <..<. - Pas t» -{-
,-~_ .. -.~
-" .... -" ." -" ...
3 P.af.Sg + / liE.: I~ k/ + /cae.:p/
+
Iv
rel.
Pn + <,<-IF as t » + n ae; kk
+ ci + ncl~
T
\\...0'
""" ..
ar. Hoppinç TrarlS:
-
<'kPast»+ 3 P.af.SQ + c;:)?:p
nz,e:kk
+<'<.~ast »+/ci ,/ -{- /1 rid
_
ap /' + T
R._C.êÔ .iu s!~ [Tic nt ru 1 cs :
-Piast
2
--~
.
..;- /xar/ + T + /1éJ3 :kk/ +,,-(.+Pcrf.»/+(.c,,5Pcrs.af.Sg +
v
'
/ccr:p/
~ Rel. Pn + / n CE : k\\(/ +
....,.
<.c...+ P FI~~ t ,>" + / c i /
+ / nd a p/
+ T
"'-
6
.. - -'7
• + /xar/ + T + /la: :kl:/ +.f; +«-Past»
+,3Pcrs.af.Sç: -:-
/eeE :p/
+ /Rd.Pnlt/néJC? :kk/ -{-
\\.J
«+Past::>
+ /ci/ + /ndap/ + T
-..~

---

55~
8
- - -)
• + 1x éJ r / + mi + 1l éD : k k1 + ~ + <:.<, - Pas t »+ 3 p cr s • A f, S ç; -1-
-
-r-
IR cl. Pnl +/na.?:kkl + <.. +Past ;', + Icil +
Indapl + li
9
- - -:'?
•
+ 1x éJ ri + rn i
+ 1l a~c; : k k1 + ,0 + % + 3 Pcrs •a F• S C: +
1Cd: : pl
+ IR El. Pnl + Ina8:l<kl +
'):n
+ Icil +
v
1 7.
- _. -r
• + 1xa r 1 + mi + 1l éE : k k1 + .0 + !.J + n 3 + 1CEL: pl
+
IRcl.Pnl + Inac :kkl + -
):n + Icil + Indap 1 + li
'-'
f"lorp:,ophone.mic r ul c s t
73
--:"
. + 1xarl + mi + 112f.:kk/+ na + Ic~:bl + IR el. f:lnl -,'
~
/ njllt~ \\(\\1+
:J: n
+ Icil + Indabl + li
.....-
.....
x a r
m i l BE? : k k n 3
Cac: P
b i
n a8 : k k J: n
ci
n da p l i
-
---
the shecp has
catcn th5 ricc which was in the plate.

---

556
""~Hf- -:nHH:' -;(-'.;' *,",H~ .il--;.(-*** ·~';H~ -;,....;\\- -;..c-rl-* ,f-.:-t-;{o'iH,,****
#
*
*
*
'*
[J lB L IOCR AP HY
"'"
~
*
*
*
'.:-:Hr·::';f-,':·:HH,~·:"'-lHH"-*-:hr-:;.'i:· ::'f-';:"'~*","*******"t***

---

557
BIBLIOCRAPHY
. E1G7
ii'.~ Genpr.::;tivc:· Cramn'GI' of Tamil
(,1.\\ Fragment of T31T~:d
"
S/ntax),
Annarn:JléJi
University.
Akhmanova,
0
8n~
1909
iiThe
theory
of Syntax in ModErn
f'likaël'a n ,
C.
Li riqu i e t ir-a" f10ut on, The HaQUE 1
Pa;: b.
8ach.ê:.
1 r~ 73
Il 5 Y n t 8 C tic
th co r y li
Ho Lr ,
Rine.r'a.rtj
ami
lJinston.Inc.
1964
;lAn
introduction
t o Tr.'jnsForma·'
tional
Grornrnars ll
8 10 Dm rie] cl,
1.
Henry
nol o and Corllpany, Inc.
Chomsky,
C.
1!175
IIThe
Acquisition
of Syntax in
ChiIdrcn
From
5 te 1Q?
ThE r'1. 1. T.
Pres s ;
19Ci7
IISyntactic s t r u c tur es "
MoutOn
and
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1972
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Jovanov.ich,
Inc.
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Il S tu di 8 s o n
Sem a n t :tic s i n
Generative
Crammar,i
Mouton,
The
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1 9 6 5
Il A s P E: C t c
0 f
the
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"To p ic s
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Halle,
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llThe Sound
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KoutsoucJas,
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1966
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1 CI75
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Crùmm,~r of English l l l
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Numbers
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1976
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C. -1 •
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Annamalai
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Mme N'Diaye?
C. C.
1969
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l ' ~"'vollJt: irJn du s)'stCfT1E
-
"
vo c a l i qu e du
Wolof
Word,
J.I.L.A.
1 -
Volume
2~), NumlJers 1-2-3; ,:;pri)--
August-Decmbcr,
pp 245-2;]1-
l'~ e LJm e y el',
F. J •
1975
Il En Cl lis h
As p e c tUa l
VEr b s :/
r'lout an The Hagu c-PaTi s.

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Ann Arbot:
The Uni ver-
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;;ToL.:ard~éJ Semantic s oe c i f i c a t i on
of Dcep Case\\!1
flout:Jn
The Hague-Peris,.
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Pethe.D
\\!Grammaire de Wolclf 1':lDdernE:T/
Pr es r nc c Africaine,
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"(A t
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mSanlngagm9mlc vlew 'Jr
Fillmore's c e c p structure Ca3e
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I~ 0 Il and .
Postal,
p.
1 9 Gif
" Con s t i t u G nt
St r LI c t ure -
~S t u d y
of Contemporary rno ric Ls
of Sin.,
tactic description'; r'louton c; C:L
1
1968
I:AsPeets of
t Phcmoloç;ical
ThG8ry;
Harper a nd Rowl
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Prabhakara Variar,K.M.
1979
"5tudies
in rléJlaye lam Crammar;/~
University of Madras.
1 S7 2
Il A
Cr Cl mm a r
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Con t e m[.l·:n él r y
En g lié' h;~ L0 'ri-gri],,? !l Cr 0 u pLi mi t Gd.
Ravinc1r:=]n,
P.I:.
FJ73
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CompositiéJn in MalaYalam
A CenEr~tivE Transformational
h'
A l '
l '
•
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APpr (:1él C ' l ' n n El m~] Cl l
LJ n l v lOT S l
y.
Rir:ux,] :Jn:: F{CJllin,b.E.
"The Port-Roy~l Grar:~r:,:rl1 1
(cds.)
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The Haguc-PLlris.
1"72
"Cours dG Li n qu i s t i qu s CEnerale:l
1
Payot,
Par .i s ,
Schanc, S.A.
1973
"Gener8tivE PhonoloQY" 1
Prenticc-Hall,
Inc.Engleuo0d,
Cliffs,New J~r5eY.
Sni th,
[\\j
El n é: :J ils en, i) •
1 0"7 o
~ 1 :J
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The
Rt'sults
of Ch[jr~sky's RevelutLm"
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Ano r r s on , S.R. ~
On the rolu &1" Dccp structure in S8~antic
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Fou n cl a t i 'dl 5 0 fLa n 9 u age ,
J J
0 fLan d
1:1 2
Va l • 7 no
3 Au Ç] us t
1 971
pp 307-3.96
JQckcn~l~fr, R.S.
anel
A RccClnsidcrati:m of dative m:Juement,
Cu I i c o vr r ,
P.
Fuund
_ -
n t ions of LanoIJaoE/IJLP 1
.-;~---"''''-
11u1. 7 n o
:3 August 1S71, pp 397... 412
K?UtSDUcl8S,
A.
CaPPing,
eiJnjuncti~Jn Reduction, and C~]­
ordinatc dcletion,
'
F0 LI n d a t i :J n s
0 f
'1..fJ rq u age .J I J L F, V(J l • 7
rro 3 August
1971
pp 337··38u.
(
"
La sn i k H and !.Jas CilJ, T.
Thr;
descriptive Ad'è--quacy of Ln t s r pf r t i v s
t br-or i e s ,
FOundQtinn of Languagc,IJLP
Vol.7 n:J
=
3 August 1l."J71
pp
429-43[J
SarnpsCJn,
C.
Lr v.i n r- ,
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WDI~f noun classificati2n : ThE social
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Ll nl' u i ~, tic InClu i r>:: /
Chornsk y ,
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'On Sinc.!in17t1, f.... Vol.
i i ,
n:J.1
1980
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R.S
K~~t5I.i!< IR.~. "Extensi.1ns o f Binc-'inç; and
C3 S c - M~1 rk 1, n 9 Il ( ib i cl )
.
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Dn the
féllluT'L:' of Ccncr.3tlvc Cr arnrne r .
J::lUrnal
of
thE Linou i s t Lc s oci.rty Clf
"II
--
r1.ur:11
noun-ph-r8s-c6 ::ï..n En81~\\~,h/.\\"
•
-
-
1
. '
tirJ.,:ua}
::ortr-. HoIJâJ1cJ Pub Li s h.i n q cam-
po riy,
Ah\\S t eJ.':' ,)'1;"
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Î 07 Cl.

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