UNIVERSITE
DE LIEGE
FACULTE DE PHILOSOPHIE ET LETTRES
PHILOLOGIE GERMANIQUE
PRONUNCIATION
OF
ENGLISH
BY
CILUBA
SPEAKERS
_."
- _._.-..
.
I
CONSE!L AFR1CAlN ET MALGACHE I
POUR l'ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR \\
\\ C. A. M. E. S. -
nUAGADOUGOU
Arrivee .~ 2 JHJNr 1995······ t
Enregistre'.sous ~o # {) .0·3·7- ·5· \\
\\
Dissertat ion presentee pour
I' obtent ion du grade de Docteur
en Phi losophie et Lett res
1981
.' - ----...."
··'----1·."';',"
I

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A :'lujinga,:·:buyi,:·.asengu,
et leur mere ~ulanga•
...

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.,
"In learning a new language ••• , the
chief problem is not that of vocab-
ulary items. It is,first, the mas-
tery of the sound system, to un-
derstand the stream of speech, to
hear the distinctive sound features
and to approximate their production".
''''h
v .
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-=i''='I7<:::
..J...:..L
J....J......
('ICJ,.::;)
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TABLE
o F
CONTENTS
---------------~-----------,--------
FOREWORD
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
'l..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
..................................... vii
INTRODUCTION
......................................
1
PART ONE : ' DESCRIPTION OF CILUBA Ju."'iD COl':TRASTIVE STUDY OF
CILUBA, E~mLISH Aim FRENCH SOUND 3Y3TEfoiiS ••.••••...•.. 6
synopsis
..................................................
7
.
Chanter I
THE .som~= 3YST~X CP CI~UBA
8
1.1.
...................................................... 9
1.1.1. Sources
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
e o ·
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
9
1.1.2. Ciluba dialects
9
1.2. S:c:G~·L::NT.~L u~ITS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1 • 2. 1. V'O".A1 e 1 s
..•.•......•..•••.•.• 11
1.2.1.1. Pure vowels
........•..•....••...... 11
1.2.1.2. Vowel clusters
.. ~ ••.••..••.•.•.... 17
1.2.2. Semi-vowels
.
. ...............••...••.•.. 18
1 .2.3. Cons onants
19
Si!""":'l'9 ~or:sonen:ts
19
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 27
/i .2 • ..;..
:.::'ne syll3.ble ·
·
29
..

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.:,'
1 .3. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURm
......................................... 31
1.3.1. Tone
1.3.1.1. The tone system
0• • • • • • • • '0' •
1.3.1.2. Realization of tonemes
J6
1.3.1.3. Contraction of tone~es
J8
1.3.2. Quantity
40
.
Chapter II
CONTRASTIVE STUJY OF CILUBA. ~NGLISH AND .?RENCH
SOUND 8 YSTEL-:S ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 41
2.1. :::;~ROJUCTI:N .................................................... 42
44
2.2. '1. ~antit;y
.
44
2.2.2. Stress
44
2.2.3. Rhythm and Neakening
.50
2.2.4-. Intonation
56
2.3. 5ZG~~NTAL UNITS
62
2.3.1. The base of articulation
62
2.3.2. Vowels and diphthongs
64
2.3.~. Semi-vowels
67
2.;.-. :::o:!son::'-!~ts
cl'..1sters
67
~
.::::.-.
75

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PART TwO : ERROR IDENTIFICATION (
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS)
••.••••••••• : 79
Sy-nopsis
of •
•
..
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
80
Chapter. I
:
DESCRI:i?TICN AND Ai)HINISTRATION OF TESTS •.••••••.•••••• 81
1.1. INTRODUCTION .•••••••••••••••••••.•••.••••.•.•••• '. • • • • • . . • . • • • • • • • • .. 82
1.2. TEST ONE : DISCRIMINATION OF COnSONANTS
•.•...........•••••••.. 86
1.3. TEST Tt:iO
DI3CRHlINATICN OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS ........... 91
.
':1.4. T:C:ST 'fHREF.
:?RO::JUCTICN OF 30UNDS Aim ..-ORDSTR~S
·.......... 96
1.5. TooT ?OUR
?RODUCTION OJ SUFRA.3 2GI~iiNT.U,
FEATL:R~~
·.......... 99
1.6. Ti:3T ?I1E
:5.C~UCTlm; C5 -:iU?RA32G:.:~~T.~ ?~.~T~:r2S
• •••••••••• 103
Chaoter 11 : AlL':":"Y3E3 AJ.'J"D R33L~T3
..••••....••.••••••••••••.•••••••.•. 104
2.1. INTRODUCTICN
105
2 ?
P.,...RC~-TT··" C..."
~CU~,T":"\\'''''
( ",-~rns ~.-~ '& "":'0 )
.......
.:.,;.
.:.::
_\\.....
::.;:),
1, uu
"'='::> ~
\\':"'~\\L~
.:. a
•••....•.....•...•.... 106
2.2. "j. Analysis .........•................................................ 106
Results ...........•............................................... 111
2.2.2.1. Cons onants
~
111
2.2.2.2. Vowels ••••••••••••••••••••.•••••.•.•.••..••.•••••••••..•.••.•••• 112
2.3. FRO~UCTICR OF SOUNDS AlrJ '~ORD STRESS ( TEST TillEE ) ••••••..• 114
2 • '3 • 1. .-.nalys is
114
2.3.2. Results
124
'::.3.'::. • ':::r:-o:-s c.'..:e -:;0 ::iluc~···.·······
··.········ .124
2.3.2.2. :::rrors d'..:e to ~rench i:l:luence
132

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... -=--i
2.3.2.3 •. Errors due to spelling pronunciation
133
Errors due to lack or attention
lJJ
2.4-. PRODUCTION OF SUPHASEGl1ENTAL ~TURES ( TES'rS FOUR & FIVE ) lJ~
2.4-.1. Analysis ·
.
......
Results .......................................
138
2.4.2.1. )ua...'1tity ..................•..
138
2.+.2.2. Stress ·
. 142
2.4-.2.3. Rhyt~~ and segmentation .................................... 14~
2 • .+.2.4. :~tor:9..tion ................................
149
GOI{CLU6IC~~ ·
. 158
?ART THRz3
162
5yno'Psis ..............................................................
163
.
Chapter.I .
167
1.1.
............................... 168
1.1.1. Rhythm
.......... ............................. .
. 168
1.1.2. Intonation ................................
171
".2. ANALYS?S AND RESULTS·.··· ••• • •. ·• •••.••
176
176
": • 2. ~.
184
.
... -
: - : - : ...... i7·-:--
.., ........
l,..-..U _
"- _.
~
'- --
__ • ..-.:.. J i..:.. '_ . _
........ -.. --~
;;),_ u._.:.J.:J
190

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2.1'. D~CRlPrION OF l-.ETHODS
.................................................................
192
2.1.1. Articulatory method
..............................................................................
192
2.1.2. Optimal position
.......................................
193
2.1.3. Shaded pronunciation ..................•.....•............
193
2.2. CO?.RECTIC:.-r C? SOlJ:iDS
194
2.2.1. (i:]
...............
194
2.2.2. [i)
.................................................................................... ~
..
196
197
2.2 ...... :entr3.2..
["'''d=Jd]
••••••••• • ••• • ••• • ••• • •• • ••• •• •• •••·••·•· •• ·
198
2.~.~. :iphthongs
204
2.2.. 6. Triphttongs
212
2.2.7. Consonants
213
2.2.8. ConSOI:.e.nt clusters
i • • • •
223
2.3. 8m;CLUSIC1f
229
233
APPENDICES
239
I. THE SOUND 3YSTEM GF :~GLISH
240
241
~i
~ •
. .' ....!o·.'t/els
..
241
..

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1,. 1. 1 .1. Pure vowels
.
241
1.1.1.2. Diphthongs
246
clusters
.
248
·0
Semi-vowels .................................. e_._ ..
250
1.1.3 •.Consonants
251
• • • • • • • • • • • 't -• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1.1.3. 'i. Simple consonants
251
1.'1.3.2. Consonant clusters
.
.
.
2E8
I,
1.1 .-T. ?ronunciation of sentences
.
265
267
1.2.1. Stress
267
1.2.1.1. Stress position
268
1.2.1.2. 5tress fu~ction
269
~iucleus
271
Contrastive ~o cus
.
271
1.2.2.
272
1 .2.3 ..1eakening
.
275
1.2.4. Intonation
276
,.2.~.1. Conventio~s ~~d not~tions
277
-1 .2. ~. 2. ::"pes 0:' -: or-es
279
...

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1.2.4.5_ Use and meaning of primary tones .......................... .... 282
"
1.2.4.4. Conclusion
.
298
II. THE SOUND SYSTEr-l OF FRENCH
.
.
~
29~
i
I
2.1. SEGMENTAL UNITS
29?
I
I
2.1.1. Vowels
• • • • • • • • r•
..
29'1i
•
• • • • 0
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Semi-vowels
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • l! • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
301
2.1.3. Consonants
302
Simple consonants
302
Consonan-c clusters
304
2.1.4. The syllable
306
2.2. S UFRASZGi·;ENTAL FEATURES
307
2.2.1. Stress and rhythm
307
2.2.2. Intonation
308
I l l . .s?=:CL·.Z:~S OF FEClffiTIC TRANSCRIFTICJ:'I ............................. .310
CILUBA ............................................
311
ENGLISH
........................................
.
'
.312
FRENCH
313
IV. ~
314
313LIC~?Arnl
318

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[
FOREWORD
., .
[
Language situation in Zaire
[
l
Zairian languages
Zaire is one of the African countries with an extremely
complex linguistic situation.The languages spoken in Zaire
are usually classified into two categories : first,
the
local or tribal languages,and second,t~e vernacular
or
national languages
(1).
Local languages are used in small g~oups called tribes;
their number is not well known (2) •
As to vernacular
languages,they are the four main languages ·used in intert~ibal
communication: Swahili,Lingala,Kikongo and Ciluba (3) • Each
of them has a distinct area of diffusion and also serves
in
the national media. Vernacular languages (except for
Swahili
which was originally a trade language) developed
from
the
standardization of the local dialects which
eventually became
wide-spread. We shall
try to describe each in turn.
Swahili is spoken in Shaba,Kivu,and in some parts of Raut -
Zaire (4) • It is the only language (~~ong the four national
ones) which came f=om outside • According to
B.
LECOSTE,
(1) l'13ULAI-:CKO, A., c;.'..:oted by C2AI-:?IOlr, J • , - es I "'.!J.g"-'.es 8.fric~d!1es
et la francochonie,?121
(2) Some linguists say there are so~e ~50 languages and
dialects,others say there are more (KI~FUTU (~977)).
(3) The word IICiluball is also spelt "Tshiluball •
(4) See ~ap N°1 (Appendix IV).

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l
Swahili originated from a dialect of the former Zanzibar
(now part of Tanzania) called KiUngudya (1). It was
introduced into Zaire by Arabs during slave trade, and
was then expanded throughout the Zairian Eastern
regions
by missionaries. Zairian Swahili is called KiNgwana ( i.e.
"language of the civilized people")
(2). As it entered
into contact with the local bantu languages (Luba - Shaba,
Luba - Kasai,KiKusu,KiRega,Lingala ••• ) ,Swahili was much
affected by the latter especially as to morphology,phonetUs
and vocabulary.It therefore became different from
the
standard form still used in the former English colonies of
East-Africa (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) •
Nowadays,Swahili is spoken by more than 25 million people;it
is one of the most expanded languages in Africa (3) •
Lingala,the most Nidely used in Zaire nowadays,is the
language spoken in Kinshasa (the capital) , in the North of
3andundu,in Equateur and also in parts of Haut-Zaire. As
G.
HUL3TAERT writes in Carte linguistique du Congo - Beige,
Lingala originated from dialects used on the bank of
the
river Zaire between the ports of Kwamouth and Bolobo (4) •
The standard form is the one in use in Lisala (Equateur) ,
and the most degraded one is the hybrid commercial variety
spoken in Kinshasa,where most words are borrowed from French
(5)
• This vari.ety is mostly used by young IIKinois"
in
everyday conversation and in dance songs (6) • Three reasons
T ~CCSTE
B
"T
N
U
0 ' t '
~~
, . , ~e .gwana.var~e e Congolaise du Swahili ll in
~ongo-Cverzee,p.391, See also 2urssens (1S54), p.27
(2) I"::lidem.
(3) ~AKOUTA-~BOUKOU,J.P.,Le
francais en Afrigue Noire,p.13
( 4) p.44
(5) i:o:oreover, French pronunciation and original word meanings
have become distorted.
( 6) IIKinois" = inhabitants of Kinshasa.

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1ii
may explain the recent expansion of Lingala.First,as just
said,this language is used in dance songs from the capital
which appeal to a large number of Zairians;second,it is
the language of the army and the country police;and third,
it is the language of the "rassemblements populaires"(i.e.
political speeches given to the population either by the
President or by local authorities).Lingala is also spoken
in the Republic of Congo/Brazzaville.
Kikongo:Geographically,Kikongo's area of diffusion is
small as compared with the other three languages. As
a
matter of fact,this language extends from the region
of
3as - Zaire to the Southern part of Bandundu (1) • Two
varieties are usually distinguished: "Kikongo ya l'Etat"
(Kikongo of the State) used in Bandundu,and a more classical
form which is found in Bas - Zaire.It should be noted that
the first variety is a simplified version of,the second and
that its vocabulary is essentially made up of
borrowing~
from several languages:dialects of Bas - Zaire,dialects of
Haut - Zaire and even Portuguese (2) • Kikongo is also the
language of the Kongo tribe living in Angola and in Congo/.
Brazzaville.
Ciluba,the fourth national language,is the language dealt
with in this work.It is spoken in the regions of Kasai -
Oriental and Kasai - Occidental by about four million people
(3)
• Like the other l3r.guages,it includes a ~u~ber
of
dialects;we shall return to some of these.
Ciluba is not spoken outside Zaire.One of its characteristics
is that it joes not use 50 many oorrowings a5 t~e o~her ttree
(1) In Zaire," reg ion" means province.
(2) CUVELIER,J.,"La 'lingua franca' du Bas-Congo",in Bulletin
des Seances,p.284
(3)
perspectives demographiques provisoires Dour la RepubDgue
du Zaire 1970-1980,p.284

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iv
languages.This is due to its geographical position and also
to its limited number of contacts with foreign languages.
International languages
French and English
In addition to the above-mentioned
languages, two
international languages (Frenc~ and English) are commonly
taught in Zairian schools and widely used ( especially
French) •
French was introduced in the former 3elgian-Congo for
the first time in 1877 (1) ;it was used by Belgians as the
official language of administration and of law.Later on,in
1906,French began to be taught in schools, when most Belgians
realized that it was a necessary vehicle of knpwledge and
Western culture.ncwever,French was taug~t in the official
schools, but not in the mission schools.The tendency in the
latter was to limit French teaching to the early years of
the secondary school system and to concentrate at primary
school level on the teaching of the local languages. This
policy was justified by saying that it was essential to
protect Congolese cultural values and to provide the Negroes
with solid instruction (2) •
After Zairian independence, the teacting of French
was
generalized a~d i~tensified:in 1962,~rench became the only
~edium of instruc~ion from primary sc~col level to Univers~
(3).Even though r-ational languages have been given
more
(1) ?AIK,S.,quoted by KAZADI,N.,"La ;lO::'itique de la
francophonie et la realite linguistique au
Zaire" , in r1aadini, p. 29
(2) Ibidem.
(3) "Ordonnance du 17 octobre 1962".

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t:",
•.
i
v
l
importance since then,French still plays a significant role
in Zaire as the language of administration and
especially
I
of education.
English,the second international language, was taught to
Congolese students for the first time in the 1950s when
they were accepted in metropolitan schools. Metropolitan
schools were different from the others (mission
and
official schools) in that they were schools run by
the
Belgian Government and destined for Whites' children
exclusively;the curriculum followed in these schools (which
included English) Has the same as in Belgium (1).Congolese
students had therefore to take English as the third foreign
language after French and Dutch.Later on (in 1959),followirg
a decision by colonial authorities, two foreign
languages
instead of three,had to be taught in Congolese schools.Frenm
was maintained as the first foreign language,and Dutch was
replaced by ~nglish as the second (2) •
Today,English is taught in Zairian secondary school systems
from the third to the last year (3).It is also taught
at
University and in other schools of Higher Education.
In spite of this,English is actually practised in Zaire by
very few educated people.This can largely be explained by
the predominence of French and the local· languages, but also
by lack of practice and of prcper teaching methods.
In connection with this co~plex linguistic situation, two
things are to be mentioned:first,most Zairians can speak at
least two languages (their ~o~her-tcngue and one vernacular
(1) ENGWALL SHELINE,Y.,Education and national develonment:
the effects of school snonsorshin and other factors on
academic achievement in Zaire,p.25
(2) "Anglais 2e langue-Section d'Humanites"in BEC,4- aout
""9"'~
, )'";', p. 1
(3) There are six years in our secondary school systems.

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r-
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vi
[
language);many of them,however,speak more than two.Second,
the teaching of English takes place in more
difficult
l
circumstances than French:~ach student speaks two languages
before learning French in primary school,but he speaks
at
~
least three (including French) before learning English in
secondary school.In other words,students may be expected to
tend to transfer to English the forms and meanings of all
the other languages both' in speaking and in trying
to
understand English as produced by English people.

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vii
A C K NOW LED GEM ENT S
lam indebted to many people who contributed in various
ways to the work reported in this thesis.
I am particularly grateful to
Professor J. NOEL whose
supervision and help were essential throughout this thesis
preparation.As s~?ervisor and member of my thesis committee,
he spent countless hours reading,criticising and correcting
the manuscripts,and providing me the necessary encouragement
and advice,and
guiding
me
through
the
bibliographical'
references.
I have a spe~ial debt to the other ~wo members of
my
thesis commit~ee : Professor Ph. ~:L~OT of Liege
University
(Department of =~onetics) provided advice on my
French
descriptions anc on my instrumental work which was largely
produced at his Laboratory.Professor M. VAN SPAANDONCK of
Gent University offered essential help in my descriptions
of Ciluba and contrastive analyses.
I am very grateful to Professor A. BOILEAU(Department
of Comparative ~~~g~istics,Liege University) for iis course
on ."Bilingualis::",and for his encouragements and ielpi and
to Dr J. QlJ.E:';C~,:-:aitre des Conferences at the same Department.
Dr J. '~G""3HCN I S ~·..:idance was particularly valuable in
:ny
work on correct~·:e phonetics.He also checked the !irst part
of my descriptic~ of the Ciluba sound system.
I also wish ~o ~hank the native speakers of English who

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I'"'·
I +
.-
viii
agreed to have their voices recorded for use with my subjects
and testees,in particular Miss SE~~ and J. FIELD, former
English lecturers at Liege University,and the members of the
British Council in Brussels who also listened to
all
my
recordings of Zairian students and accepted to evaluate their
pronunciations with me.I am most thankful also to P. TOUSSAIN~
of the Instrumental Phonetics Laboratory,for his cooperation
and help in my laboratory work.
I owe much to all the students and Zairian colleagues in
Zaire and in Belgium,who agreed to be recorded and to
take
part to both my diagnostic and cor=ective tests.
Zairian
headmasters and teachers for providing me with the favourable
conditions necessary to my field work in Kasai.
I cannot help mentioning the part played by my wife
and
children,who have shared my everyd3Y experience in Belgium
and from whom I have had constant ~oral support and advice.
Lastly,I wish to express my thanks to the
Education
Authorities in Zaire and to the Staff of
UNAZA/ISP-BUKAVU,
my last employers in Zaire,who agreed on my engaging
in
graduate studies abroad,and A. G. C. D.
(Administration
Generale de la Cooperation au Developpement) whose grants
enabled me t~ spend about five years in Belgium with my
family a~d to work towards a doctc=ate.
","
".
l~l • l:'l •

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l---- .
_ ••••
_ _•
•
..- •• _ . _ ...._ . _ . _ . _
_ ,, _ _ ,
• ,_
_
_
.•. -1.
"
~
~
I
I
!
I N T ROD U C T ION
I
I
In L'Enseignement de l'anglais au Congo,J. VAN ROEY writes:
"un eleve allemand et un eleve congolais
I
n'eprouvent pas exactement
les
memes
difficultes en apprenant l'anglais,pour
I
la simple raison
que certains aspects
du systeme phonologique ou grammatical
de l'anglais
se
rapprochent plus
de
l'allemand que des langues congolaises"
••• (1)
This rightly ?oin~s out that,even more so in Zaire than
in
Europe,the teacher of English should first try to know about
the structure of his students' native language so as to
discover the real causes of their difficulties and adapt his
teaching to the situation and to his students.In other words,
the role played by the mother-tongue in any foreign language
learning is very important.Ignoring this is,as ~~KOUTA-MBOUKOU
puts it,"une faute pedagogique grave";it affects both
the
teacher's understanding of the students' errors and his
approach to correction (2) •
Before dealing "od -:h the problem of how English is pronounced
by Ciluba speakers,i~ is i~portant to see how foreign language
teaching in Zaire has been organized in recent years.
For many years,foreign language teaching in Zaire
was
largely based on the so-called "classical"
or" grammar -
(1) p. 14
(2) rvjA,l<OUTA-i·;BOUKCU,J.P.,oo. cit.,p 10

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e
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r
I
2.
translation" method (1).According to this method,language
I
is taught without paying much attention to oral expressio~
much as Latin or Greek was taught in Europe:
r
"des regles de grammaire sont systematiquement
enoncees,avec des tableaux de paradigmes (de-
clinaisons et conjugaisons) qu'on retrouve
I
dans les grammaires grecques ou latines;des
textes illustrant ces regles sont traduits et
commentes,et des exercices (themes
surtout)
doivent amener l'etudiant a mettre la theorie
en pratique". (2)
The teaching of French to Luba students relied heavily on
texts to be translated from Ciluba,and later on,English
was taught using translations from French.
In 1962,foreign language teachers were asked to use the
"practical" or "direct" method,i.e. to teach French
in
French and English in English,Nith no reference to
the
student's mother-tongue.This was intended to encourage the
student to "think in the new language" from the beginning
of his language learning (3).As regards English in partic~,
the instructions recommended teaching in English,minimal
reference to grammatical theory and literary history,and
emphasis on oral pr8ficie~cy.S;eaki~g~ame more important
than grammar,phonetic transcription was obligatory in all
schools,and in addition, 5th and 6th-form students were
advised to listen to various sorts of 3~oken English
in
films,lectures,radio ~r8gra~rnes and so on. This method ~as
(1) VAN ROEY,J.,op. cit.,p.11
(2) Ibidem·
(3) 1962 is the year when ZaIre created the "Commission de
Reforme des Programmes de l'Enseignement
Secondaire"
(C.R.P.E.S)

---

I
L~
I
I
usually referred to as the "oral-aural methodll (1) .It is the
one that is still being used most generally in the English
r
classes in Zaire.
I
Despite all thisJhowever,Zairian pupils' spoken English
often appears to be poor:English people find Zairian students'
I
pronunciation of English un-English and even say that they fail
to understand some speakers (2).~e may therefore say that
in
spite of the four or five years spent learning English,Zairian
I
students still have great difficulty in expressing themselves
and following a conversation held by the native speakers
of
I
English.Such results are contrary to one of the main objectives
of English language -:eaching in Zaire,namely:ll a bility
to
understand and carry on a conversation with the native speaker
of Englishll (3).
One of the reasons for such deficiencies is that,in our
~lurilingual country,~ot enough attention is paid to the
students' linguistic background and especially to the structure
of their mother-tons~e.There might be various other reasons
such as lack of qualified teachers,use of inappropriate ~dring
materials ,the many changes introduced in the teaching
pro-
grammes,and so on.But even if teaching conditions
were
to
improve,we are convinced that the teaching of English in Zaire
cannot become more productive and efficient unless it relies
on systematic contr~s~i7e studies of the system of the studen~'
mother tongue and t~e system of English.
'I'he present 'Nork is 3.:l attempt to discover, f:,oma contrastive
analysis of three lS:lguages (Ciluba,English and French) , the
causes and nature of errors made by Luba students in pronouncing
(1) ]VlBOKMIA, K.," About the appropriate methology of English for
Zairian pupils"in Revue de pedagogie aDDlicuee,p.571
(2) Miss SEARLE gave us this testimony after listening to
recordings of soce students.
(3) EBOKAMA,K.,oo. cit.,p.573

---

4.
English,and also to develop adequate approaches that could be
used to remedy these errors.
Our work is largely based on an experimental study of
diagnostic and corrective tests which are administered to
groups of Luba students and mostly analysed by
means of
instrumental phonetics.The study falls into three main parts:
Part One is a phonemic and phonetic description
of
the
system of Ciluba.It also provides a contrastive analysis of
this system with the systems of English and French.It enables
us to put forward hypotheses jased on the differences between
the three language systems.Descriptions of English and French
systems are presented as appendices.This does not mean that
they are trivial or that they are not problematic.On the
contrary,there are many unresolved questions in current
descriptions of English and ?rench,which we had to leave open
and on which we had to take a stand in the syntheses appended.
But we decided to avoid burdening the reader
with accounts
of the more familiar facts and theories,in order to concentr~
on the less familiar descriptions concerning Ciluba.
The reason why a description of the French system has been
included is that Zairian students have more than five years of
French when they begin learning English in secondary school
and are therefore influenced oy both Ciluba and ?rench.
In ?art Two we present vari0~s batteries of tests on English
pronunciation whic~ are ad~i~is~ered to Luba students. The field
work ~aking use of these bat~eries is reported in the same
section.It enables us to ider-tify pronunciation and
speech
errors actually made by the students,and thus,to prove
or
disprove hypotheses put forward in Part One.

---

5.
In Part Three we present correction approaches and exercises
also designed for administration to the same type of students to
remedy shortcomings of their spoken English. General implications
concerning the teaching of English pronunciation to Luba students
are outlined in our general conclusions.
We hope that this study ~ill help Zairian teachers to develop
and use better methods for the teaching of English in Zaire, and
contribute to better use of the country's resources in this field.

---

I~r· .,
I
I
r
I
r
l
P A R
T
O NE
DES CRI P T ION
0 F
cr I L U B A AND
CON T R A S T I V 3
S T U D Y
0 F
C I
"-
.L U BA, E N G LIS H AND
F R E N C H
SOU N D S Y S T EMS .

---

ItL': -.
I
7.
I
Synopsis
[
Our description of Ciluba sound system is to be read in
parallel with Appendix 1 on English, and Appendix 11 on French.
t
All of them serve to introduce the concepts and to provide the
theoretical frame~orks on which we rely not only in our
contrastive study, but also in our field work and in the
r
conclusions. Each of these descriptions includes two aspects
(i) a phonemic aspect or the phonological study of the segmental
units ( vo~els, consonants and their combinations) and the
supraseg~ental ~eatures ( quantity, stress, intonation and
tones ) ;
(ii) a phonetic aspect, i.e. the study of individual sounds'
articulation and distribution; the pronunciation of sounds'
combinations in words and sentences which'imply habits such
as assi~ilation, ~eakening, ~ord li~king, rhythm and so on.
In order to provide a basis for our contrastive study, ',le
have chosen one ~ype of pronunciation for each system : Received
Pronunciation (RP) for English, the Standard Parisian for French
and the Southern Group dialect for Ciluba (~). The use of RP is
all the more necessary in this study,as a model pronunciation
is to be provided in the tests. The phonetic syabols used for
transcriptions a~e borro~ed from the International Phonetic
.... lphabet <2).
?art Cne e~i3
the c or:trasti '.re
o~ the three syste~s.
(1) For detai~s on Ciluba, see page 10.
(2) 3ee ~he ~rinci~les of the Internatio~al ~honetic Association,
1949 (Reprinted 1 0 54)

---

CHAPTER I. THE SOUND SYSTEM OF CILUBA
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1. Sources
1.1.2. Ciluba dialects
1.2. SEGfVIENTAL UNITS
1.2.1 .. Vowels
1.2.1.1. Pure vowels
1.2.1.2. Vowel clusters
1.2.2. Semi-vowels
1.2.,. Consonants
1.2.,.1. Simple consonants
1.2.,.2. Consonant clusters
1.2.~. The syl1ble
1.3. SUPRA3:::.Gi'iENT_:..L 53ATl;1ES
1.,.1. Tone
1 .3 .1 .1. The ton e
sy stem
1.3.1.2. Realization of tonemes
1.3.1.3. Contraction of tonemes
1.3.2. Quantity

---

Ir---'
r
1.1. INTRODUCTION
r
1.1.1. Sources
t
The following description is largely based
on
existing
studies on Ciluba (1). As some of these studies
appeared
to be incomplete in various ways (e.g. no specification of .
the dialect dealt with and undifferentiated treatment in one
study of data belonging to distinct dialects),we have tried
to borrow only the descriptions and analyses concerning the
dialect dealt with in this work. The analyses
have
been
completed with examples drawn either
from those
existing
studies or observed directly in the speech of native speakers
of Ciluba. Of course,descriptions of which no example has been
found in our dialect have been discarded.
Among the works referred to, the main ones are: Burssens
(1954) and (1972) ;:-1eeussen (1962) ;Coupez (1954) ; Nutombo-Huta
(1973);Van Spaandonck (1S67) and (1971) a~d Maddieson (1976).
1.1.2. Ciluba dialects
Ciluba is classified under L31 by Guthrie (2)· Four dialecw
are usually distinguished in Ciluba,each representing a group
of villages (3) :
(1) The 1,-..ord "Ciluoa"is used in -c:1.is ',lor:-\\. -co refer to
Luba
dialects of K~sai-Criental (Zaire).~he dialects of Kasai-
Occidental and "Luba-Shaba" ",·;hich are loosely related to
Ciluba are not dealt ~ith here.
(2) ?L~SSENS,A.,Introductiona l'~tude ~es langues bantoues
du Congo-Belge,p.6
(3) STAPPERS,L.,lIEet Tshiluba,als omgangstaal of unificatie
van de luba-dialekten?" in Kongo-Overzee XVIII,pp.50-65.

---

l
f·_·o .
10.
(i) The Western Group: Bakwa Kalonji ka Mpuka,Bakwa Dishi,
Bashila Kasanga,Bakwa Nyanga.
(ii) The Central Group : Bakwa Nsumpi,Bakwanga.
(iii) The Eastern Group : Bena Tshitolo,Bakwa Kanda,Bakwa Bowa,
Bakwa Ndoba,Bakwa Lonji,Bena Nshimba,Bena Nomba , Bena
Kalambayi.
(iv) The Southern Group : Bakwa Kalonji ka Tshimanga , Bena
Tshiyamba.
(1 )
Ot all these dialects,the Western Group is the one that has
gained literary supremacy over the others.This can be explained
by the tact that this dialect was taught in Kasai to all Luba
children at primary school level by Belgian missionaries. None
of these dialects,however,is considered by the speakers of the
others as being the standard form ot Ciluba or as superior or
more pres~ious than the others.
(1) See ~ap N°2 (Appendix IV).
(2) See Hap N°, (Appendix IV).About the word "Ngandanjika" ,
Belgians often spelt it with initial "G".The first sound
of this, word,however, is pronouncedm1and notr~1\\that is
why it is spelt here with initial "Ng"_ •

---

l
~ ~.'
..
[
11.
r
1.2. SEGMENTAL UNITS
1.2.1. Vowels
1.2.1.1. Pure vowels
Ciluba has five pairs of vowel phonemes (1) represented on
three degrees of aperture as shown in the following diagram:
APERTURE
.?RONT
C~rrTRAL
BACK
-
1st degree
/i,i:/
/u,u:/
2nd degree
/e,e:/
/ 0 , 0 : /
3rd degree
/a., d: /
Theses phonemes are divided into two classes : a class of
short phonemes /i,e,d,o,u/,and a class of long ones /i:,e:,d:,
o:,u:/. Here are the examples: (2)
Short phonemes
Long phonemes
/i/
" "
",
/kujiket/
"to finish"
li:1
/ "
"
/kujl.:ka/
IIto bury"
le/
Ik~s{sdl
/
/
"to shell out
,/
ll
le:/
Ikuse:sa../
"to frequern;'
/Q./
/k~'o<fld/
/
/
/
"to read"
la.: I
Iku bd.: la.1
11 to spree.d 11
lu/
Ik(;b~ka:/ "to guess"
lu:/
I ,",' , /1
.-(u uu : .<<1
IIto fly"
/ " ,
";/
/0/
Ikupolc:t/
/ " '
/
111;0 get 1uiet"
10:1
/kupo: le::tl
"to pick"
(1) BURSSENS (1937)
(2) As already said, these examDles ~ere checked with two native
speakers of Ciluba(':rS3IBANGU i'iDumbwa and ILUlIGA Lutumba, both
students in Brussels).
q-
+-'.", 0"'"
. I e·
. ' : ' .
'=,"~i o-h'
_:::-
,
" =1 mv •

---

I
,-,
I
[
12.
Minimal pairs for each class
"
short vowels: /i/
~ /
/kual1.nl!l/
"to swallow"
/
/
/
/e/
/kumena/
"to grow" (plants)
/d/
/kfun6n~ "to finish"
/u/
/kfun6n~/
"to breed"
/0/
/k&~Jb./
"to grow" (human beings)
/k~k~l~/ "to rub"
long vowels:
/i:/
/~j{:kh/ "to bury"
/e:/
/k~j~:k6/ "to creep"
/u:/
/k~jG:1&t/ "to stand up"
/d:/
/kft~:ya/ "to reveal"
~ I
I
/0:/
/kuto:ytJ./
"to hatch"
I
/
I
grow soft ll
/kutu:ya/
"to
Though these vowels are phonologically significant, the
following limitation is to be noted : vowels /u/ and /01 ,
/e/ and /a/ are usually interchangeable in ~ord final position.
/ /
/ /
.
/ '
For example,/mpofo/ or /mpofu/ means "a bllnd"; /we:nde/
or
/
,
/we:ndet/ means "his","hersll,"its".
Phonetic realization of vowels
The following diagram presents the vowels of Ciluba
with
their place of articulation. (1)
FRONT
CENTRAL
BACK
CLOSE
.tU_
.ll-
~AL?-C:'CS::
C:?EN
(1) The first analysis of these sounds was carried out
with
Dr J. QLTErWN and then revised after work at the language
Laboratory. / /=phonemic transcriptions;
~ ]=phonetic
t=~.nscr:'ptions.

---

I
I-
I,
The phonemes li,Q,ul are realized respectively as [i,a,u] ;
Id: I is realized as (a.:l, lel is realized as I~l, and 101
is
t
realized as[~l
(1):
I
/k1fm{nal -=I" ( kfunin~]
IkUm~nal .-. (kWnfn8:]
I~~JI ~ [kWn~~]
Iktfmtndi ~ [kUm(na]
Ik~6ld.1 ~ (k~il~]
Ciluba vowels can be described according to:
(i)
the highest point of the tongue in the illouth (front and
back vowels ;there are no central vowels).
(ii)
the degree of aperture (close,half-open and open vowels;
half-close vowels are not used ) •
(iii)
quantity (short and long vowels).
(iv)
the position of the lips (rounded,un=o~~ded and neutral
vowels).
1)[i] It is short,front,close and unrounded,as in French word
" lit"
(bed):
, , ,
[ibidi]
"two"
'" ....
[mi~ i)
"trees"
[k~iJtimi~'JJ"a scorpion"
(bIbi]
"badlY"
[ ~ ~
:n
., "~,]
-'-) ~
"T'_"o+:s"
- -
2 )[.i:1
This vowel is lor:g, front and unrour::ied. It is closer
tha:l short [i] • Its equivalent in ?re:lch is found in
woris such 5S "pire" (',vorse) or "abime" (abyss):
[i:b~1
"steal!"
H /' /.
['} i: bi]
"a door"
, / ........
(ka Si :1Ji] "a needle"
(1) See also ~EEUS2EN (1962)

---

I
r .. .-
.,'-~".
14.
r
"a fly"
"a vase"
3)tE].Short front unrounded(~lis always half-open;the half-
close (e] of French "de",for instance, does not exist
in Ciluba.The French equivalent of Ciluba[~is found in
"tres" (very) or "fait" (a deed);in French,however,[£l
is slightly more open
t .... ... ']
kajEkf,
"a pygmy"
....
...."
(kc:l:mbtlE]
,
"an earth-nut"
........)
[mUktsf.
"small"
/
. "
....
[mukttt]
lI an
arrow"
4) [t:1 Long front unrounded[f;]is more open than [El.In French,
the examples are: "pere" (a father),"tlte" (a head) :
[{:1~1
"throw! It
.... ""
[m ~:ma]
"I,me"
( .... " "
lumwt:nu}
"a glass"
[maw€~~J
"God"
[b(:na]
"the natives of"
5)[a1 This vowel is short and very open. Its articulation is
front.In French we find it in words such as "bas" (low),
"cas" (a case)~
, , \\
(asa]
IIbuild!1I
" ,/
[ badi l
IIthey are"
/
.....
[mata1
II gU:1S"
[ ............1
kulama
IIto protect"
. /
". ....
(kuhala}
"to be::::,eave of'1
The VOive 1 [a1 is pronounc ed '.vi th lips in neutral position.

---

15.
6) [a:]
Slightly back, this vowel is long and very open. In
French it is found in "part" (share),"car"
(for-
conjuction)
"to say"
"another one"
"to begin"
"four"
"to stay"
"to sift"
7) [':)1 [,::,1
is short,back,half-open and rounded.The close
variety[o] (as in French "peau" (skin)) is unknown in
Ciluba.The equivalent of this vowel in French is found
in "vol" (a flight) or "botte" (a boot) :
"a leg"·
"a village"
"an arm"
"a warrior"
"God"
8)r..,:] Long, back,half-open,rounded vowel. de find it in French
"cor" (a horn),"tort" (guilt)
:
[ /" "//1
:l:ta kadilu
"warm yourselfl"
/
"
[?: Sa 1
"burn! "
. /
"-
Eo:): mba1
"shake!1I
" ...
[nz'): 1'J}
Il a
hen"
" "-
(jt'): ta ]
IIthirst ll
/ . /
. "
[:nub :k?l
lI a sheep"
./~
"
[diJ3 :b1
,
lIeveningll
"
/
[mut?:t:l]
lI a star"
r;,:1 and [':)] have the same point of articulation.

---

I
1-::::':-- ~-
16.
9)~1 Short back close rounded vowel.We have the French
equivalent in "loup" (a wolf),"tout" (all):
/
/]
[ udi
"you are"
[~ ffun'Ul
"a chief"
~ "
[mutul
"head"
~
... ,
[ musulu]
,
"a river"
/ "
t ~ikuku]
"a kitchen"
~ 'J
(~uvu
"anhippopotamus"
10)~~Long back close and rounded vowel.This vowel is
closer than short (u].It is found in French" jour"
(day) , "c ourt" (short):
"" "
(u:laJ
"buy! "
""'" .;'
[kasu:jiJ
"an axe"
/
,-:
[)1u: }'\\i]
"a bird"
""....
/.J
[ kuvu:la.
"to take off"
/....
/
[kutu: la J
"to miscarry"
('
/
" ]
[bl.lu:mDu
"affairs"
In connection with all Ciluba vowels, the following points
are worth mentioning:
(i)
Short vowels occur in any word position (initial,
medial or final),whereas long ones occur in word
initial and ~edial positions,but are fcund in ~ord
final position only in very rare cases.
(ii)
Front vowels are unrounded while back c~es are ~ounded.
(iii)
In speech,vowels are generally influenced by
the
preceding or following sounds,and therefore are

---

17.
pronounced differently from vowels in isolation.
Civ)
Unlike in English,there are no nasal and central
vowels and there are no diphthongs in Ciluba.
Cv)
The vowels [i,i:,u,u:] are very tense.
1.2.1.2. Vowel clusters
Like most Negro-African languages,Ciluba does not make use
of diphthongs or triphthongs as already mentioned.In the
sequence -£~ for example,each vowel is pronounced
distinctly,
in addition,[6Jis syllabic:
'"
~ 41'
[ lu-ba-u]
"a board"
[ oH"
,
"
'} i-ba-u J
"punishment"
[ ~
/
/
/]
mu-ntu a-u
I1that man"
(1)
/ /
/ / ./,
Other examples (with
sequences ~u,iu,au) :
\\
/"
/"
(i-b~-u]
" now"
1'/
/
[ d1.-u-lu]
"heaven"
/ " "
"
[ ma-u-lu]
"noses ll
(1)
BURS3ENS (1972)

---

I
['. '
18.
1.2.2. Semi-vowels
There are two semi-vowels in Ciluba
/y/ and /w/. (1)
Minimal pairs
,I'
"\\
y/w
/bo:yt1/
"hair"
;"
'\\
/bo:wa/
" fear"
y/m
"
"
/'
/kuldya/
"to say good-bye"
/
"
",
/kulamd/
"to keep"
,
". '\\
w/m
/kutuwa/
"to catch fish"
/
" "\\
/kutumd/
"to send"
Each of these semi-vowels occurs before a vowel. /y/ is
realized as (j1 (voiced palatal),while /w/ is realized as
[w1 (voiced labio-velar).
Apart from this, [j]
and [w] are also the allophones of
respectively /i/ and /u/ when occurring between a consonant
and a vowel :
" .... ,
; , , "
/i/ realized as [j)
/kudie:ld/~[kud~~:la1
"to jump"
".""
/ '
../ ./
/kUd1a:t~/~[kud~a:ta]
"to trample"
/k~bi6:ldj~[kGbi~:1~J
"to belch"
".....
....
/ "
"\\
/kudiu:mvu~/~(kudiu:mwa]
"to boast"
/'
.....
"\\.
/ . . . .
'"
/ul realized as [w1
/kutui: 14/-7 [::<u'C:!i: la1
1I :;0
spit"
. /
/ . /
; " ; " /
/~ubue:ld/-7[~uc~~:la1
"-:0 enter"
" "\\. "\\.
" " " "
/kut~d:1d/~[::<~t~~:laJ
ll-:O bring"
/
/
- /' ./'J
embroider"
/kuo :y<::1/ -7 Lk:::L~: Ja
llto
Semi-vowels are different from vowels because they do not
./,
. /
"\\
carry quantity or tone. (2)
: /mue:la/-7'[m::::~:laJ
"a s'tlord"
(1) BURSSENS (1972)
( 2) l'IUTOEBO-H1JTA (1973)

---

I
~---
I
19.
I
1.2.3. Consonants
1.2.3.1. Simnle consonants
t
Ciluba has sixteen consonant phonemes represented as
follows (1) :
tt
J
<
.<
~
o
i
w
"7'
:5
...J
.-0'\\
<
~
'7
NASAL
:n
- n - ny ng
PLOSIVE
b
- - - - -
p
-
t
- - k
AFFRICATE
-
- - - c -
FRICATIVE
-
v
-
z
j
-
-
f
-
s
sh
-
LATERAL
\\
- - - 1
-
-
i
Examnles:
" ,
/p/
/mp4lt1/
"forehead"
,." ,
/b/
/bulC!;lu/
"a bed"
'"
/t/
....
/ta:tu/
"a father"
...
....
/k/
/ke: 10./
"a knife"
'" ,. ,..
/f/
/kuful«t/
IIto take off"
,,.,,..,.
/v/
/~uvulet./
/ ~ I
/
" "
:::>;
/kusela/
.,. ,,-
/z/
/nzdld/
11 hungerl1
" "
/sh/
" ,
/kusr&ld/
11 to
st ayl1
./
. /
./
/j/
/R.lj 0: jet/
.,. ,
11 to
observe l1
/m/
/rnd.:tu/
11 boats tl
(1) ~;EEUSSZ~1 (1962) .See also MUTOfvlBO-HUTA (1973)

---

20.
1nl
'" " ./
lkunayal
"to play"
Ingl
/ . /
; '
Imulo:ngul
,,\\.
"a line"," a row"
./
III
!kUla.:lal
"to sleep"
These phonemes are realized in the following way (1) :
PLOSIVES
1) /1"1
:It is realized as [P] (unvoiced bilabial plosive)
only when it is preceded by the nasal Im/.Otherwise,
it is realized as [h]
(unvoiced glottal fricative):
[m'D'ak~l "The one who makes a fetish!"
./
" "
[kuhaka]
"to make a fetish"
Other examples:
"
..... \\.
Ipl - ? [pJ
; '
Impa tal -> (m£,ata]
lite measure"
11 a
?oor"
"to bereave"
Unlike the English equivalent, [pJ is not aspirated.
The same is true for the unvoiced plosives [t,kJ.
(1) See the
phonetic table on page 27.

---

L
r .
('
r
21.
I
I
2) Jr!
is realized as [b 1 (voiced bilabial plosive) :
" "
I'
,
/b4:n41 -=e7 [bd:na J
"children"
/ ,
,
/diboko/ ~ [dib?k:>J
"an arm"
" "
/
"-
/butaj
-> [buta1
"a gun"
('."
"
_ r / " " "
/b1le:mbi/~bil~:mbi1
"hunters"
is generally realized as [t]
(unvoiced alveo-dental
plosive).Before the vowel / i / , / t / is realized as[!SJ
(unvoiced
palatal affricate)
:
"to suffer"
r /' '.j.f'
_muta~i 1 "the one who suffers"
Other examcles:
/ / /
/ " / .
/kutebal--~[ku!€bal "to investigate"
/ "
"
.I'
\\
\\
/kutat'(/ _>[lcutata] IIto suffer"
,. ,
\\"
"'-:"':J. ,
/kutolt4/_'"> [kup la] "to cut" (vegetables)
,."
[ " ' \\ '
/kutuma./--?> ku!uma] "to send"
/
"
~ I
J(.I'''
/.
/tinyd: nUf-?[ lJ i)td: nu1
" leanness"
/ "
/muta.ti/ --?r -""~'
[!Iluta i1
"a poor"
/ / /
n"I'
/timumct/ ~L~.imumal
11 fruit"
4) /k/
is ~9~:i2e~ ~s [k] (unvoiced vels~ plosive)
/ \\ \\
. / ' \\ \\
/kukeca/ -:> [kukf,bal
IIto look fa!'''
,
,"
" . . . / \\
/kt1: mbela./~r-<:Q.: mb~lal
"an eart~"l nut ll
/ . " , - . /
/,""
/kUkola/ -":> [kuk:llaJ
"to grow·lI
(human beings)
/ "
[ / "
/bukull1/ ~ bukula]
11 flour"

---

I
t~·
22.
FRICATIVES
1) /{J is realized as [r] (unvaiced labia-dental fricative)
/ / /
/ / /
/kufiktt/ --;> [kufikaJ
"to arrive"
/ " " "I_r /-/ ./ "
/kufofoma/~ku£?f~mal
"to get blind"
"./'
/ / . /
/kuful4 / ~ [ku!ula]
"to take away"
/
"
/
'1
/kilfuct/ --7 [ku!wa...
"to die"
2)/~/ is realized as [v] (voiced labio-dental rricative) :
"to deny"
"an elephant"
"cload"
3) r~/ is
generally realized as [s] (unvoiced alveolar
fricative);it is also realized as[SJ(unvoiced palatal
frica~iv~) before /iL :
"to frequent"
"th~ one who frequents"
Other examples:
,
/ ' -
,.. , \\
/5/ ~ [51 /kusel~/-? [ku.§~laJ
,.. ,
"to get married"
'
'" , \\
/kus~b~/ -7 [kus..aba]
"to boil ll
/ \\ \\ .
...... \\ \\
/~n:.scka./-;> [ku§.~kaJ
"to c2.ll for"
./\\\\
" " l
/kus U~a / -?> [ k~ uma
I1 to
bite"
/s/ ~ CSl
/" / . /
.~/ ,. ,.-:
/musl :ngCt/-:r [mu i :\\.a]
"price"
/kUS\\Ya./ -? [ku f"ja]
"to leave
./ /
./
...... (/.J
/muse:si/ -,/[musf.:) i
"the one who
-
frequents"

---

4)
IZI is generally realized as (zJ (voiced alveolar
fricative) .Before /i/ it is realized as [3J (voiced
palatal fricative) :
"to break"
"the one who breaks"
Other examples:
/z/ ~ [zl
;I'
"
'"
'"
/nzevu/~ [n~EvuJ
"an elephant"
'" '"
/nza.l4/ ~
'" '"
rnzala]
"hunger"
",'\\
-;."
/kuzol~/-">[ku~:>la1
, ,
, "
11 to
dralV"
/nzubu/ -.;> Inzubul
"a house"
/ . /
,..""
/z/ ~ [3]
/muzi/ --5' [ mu3i ]
"a root"
/
<
,.
,.
/me:z~/-/ [m~:3iJ
"intelligence"
,.
,,-,.""
" ' , ; '
/muut: zi/..;{ffiUZ4:3 i]
lithe one who
breaks"
r
5)
1k/ is generally realized as [5] .It is found before
all vowels,except before /i/ :
/ . - ' " ,
"'~"
/kushe:ma/~[ku)~:ma1
IIto get sweet"
, " "
~""
/nkt1shdmtl/ ~~kaStl :ma]
"a leopard"
" , , , , ,
",-".
/.
/musho: nyi/~[ mu(::> :Jti]
lI a
line"
.-'.' "
/busm:',ut/ ~
~S'
[bu u
'J
','la
"truly"
-
is generally realized as[3] .It is found before
all vo~els,except before /i/
"to creep"
"to dance ll
"to observe ll
"to stand up"

---

24.
AFFRICATE
1) !(!!
is realized as[~l.It is found before all vowels,
except before /i/
/ , .
~,. "'-
/ce:J.a,/-?- [
t:lal
proper noun
/
""
"
ca.:f\\z.ey ~ [/
t et: nz(l
"a hand"
/ " "
,
....
/co:mb~/~K':mba1
"cassava"
"...
'~ /
....
/cu:l~ /~[,,!u:la J
-
"a toad"
NASALS
1) Iml
is realized as
[m] (bilabial nasal)
•
.
" tongue"
"intelligence"
11 beer"
"to see"
This sound is syllabic in:
\\ . , / , /
' , /
/ '
/mmu:ntu/ -?[]lIIlu:ntul
"he is a man"
\\
<". , ,
- , /' \\. '1
/mm1kuncV-;> Lm.mikuna
"they are mountains"
\\. /,
" ""'J
/mmesu/ -7 [l£.IIl2SU
"they are eyes"
/ "
. / "
/mmbu4! -7 [Ec':;a]
"it is a dog"
3efore /f/ ~nd /v/,the sound /m/ is pronounced[~l
(labio-dent~l r.ss~l) by assiD~lation
..... '
"'" ,
/mvul<:t/ -";> [l1Jvula]
"rain"
.... "
- .... ,~
/mfumu/ -"-> (~umUJ
- , / '
"a chief"
/ ' ' '
/mfu!t.nk4/-:> [~f':;t1: ~ ka"J
"tobacco"

---

I
t- <
25.
2) (rn./ is generally realized as
en] (alveo-dental nasal)
before all vowels, except before /il (where i t is
realized as [1'-1 )
In/~ [n1
"paralysis"
"to grow" (plants)
"a hoof"
"thousand"
.
It is realized as [r-J before lil
•
"
.......
/ , \\ .
I .. mtlIIloni/~ [mum~hl.l
....... , "
"" ,J,
"the one who sees"
I mukuni/-;, [muku)dJ
"the one who plants"
.......
,.,.
/ / . /
I mumini/~[mumifiJ
"the one who swallo'N'sll
It is realized as [~J before Ikl by assimilation
,.......
" .......
Ine:nkul -:;;, [n~:~ku]
11 thus"
, , /
/+
/'
lkunu:nkCV~rkunu:"kaJ "to smell"
" "
",~"
Inkd.sha:me:t~~kaSa.:ma1" a leopard"
" "
InkimGtI ~ -" "
[~kl.ma]
"a monkey"
" "
lnkG\\sul --?'
" "
[~kasu1
11 hoes"
The nasal 1nl may be syllabic as in
\\
/ /
" / , ; ' "
Innzevul ~ (nnz~vu']
"it is an elephant"
/
,,,
- ; " "
Innzo: lo/~ rnnz~:1':l1
"it is a hen"
" "
--
-
Innz~ka/~ , ""
,;'"
[Bnzaka1
IIthey are chapsll
er] .
3) jrn.y! It is re3.1ized as
It is fou::':' be::ore all vO':iels,
except before lil
/
/"
.......
/
/'
/'
IkunyekCV
IIto hang ll
~ [kut\\~ka1
'" ;'
/'"
11
Inydmal ~ [rama].
an animal"
" ...
Inyoklt! - ?
" "
[j\\:)ka1
11 a
snake ll
Ikunyu:
"""
, / "
" "
ngul
" '\\ ~~
u~/~[kufu : ~ ul ukalilt 0 turn ar ound"

---

26.
4) f,.f This phoneme is realized as [~l before all vowels :
/ / "
/~"
Ingidi : ngidil~ [~idi:fI idi J
"a shining cloth"
/. ,;' ,;'
_ " ,; J"
proper noun
Ing~lek~
-:;>
[JtlE~a]
Ingct:nge:tl
~
[~a:~a ]
"a doctor"
/.",.,;'
r- .....".
",
Imulo: ng 0 I
-'":>
1.
mul:): ~~ ']
"a line"
... "
, / \\ .
'-
Inguvul
_",:>
(~ uvu]
"a
hippopotamus"
LATERAL
Ciluba III is realized as [1]
(voiced alveolar
lateral). After 1nl or before lil,this phoneme is
realized as [d]
(voiced alveo-dental plosive)
"to give birth"
"the one who gives birth"
Ita parent"
Other examples:
...... \\
\\
\\
11/_-;. [1]
[lumu lw~:bal
-
-
"your honour"
r ,/ \\
. \\ ,\\
III --=? [d]
lumu
~S;,..it.: oal
"it is your honour"
The above-mentioned allc~~o~es
can be represented as
follows :

---

I
r~'-'~ -.
I
27.
I
NASAL
m
rn
n
- J'- n -
PLOSIVE
v.
b
- d
- - - -
unv.
p
-
t
-
- k
-
AFFRIC.
v.
-
-
- - - - -
unv.
-
-
- - if - -
FRIC.
v.
-
v
-
z
3 -
-
unv.
- f
-
s
S -
h
LAT.
v.
-
-
-
1
- -
-
unv.
- - - - - - -
(1)
i
1.2.3.2. Consonant clusters
Ciluba consonant clusters ~onsist of Nasal + Consonant:
INCl. They occur in ~~ord initial ani medial positions, but
never finally.
NC clusters are combinations in which the first part is
al~ays ~ nasal.:n speec~,the nasal 2~d the consonant are
both ar~~culated at the sa~e ~oint of articulation.This is
why these clusters are often called "semi-nasals"
(2).
I'hey i:1c::'ude:
(1) See ~2E~SSE~ (1962). As can be 3een from the prececing
diagram,the English sounds [g,d3,r,~J do not exist in
Ciluba. Consonants occur in all word positions,except
finally.
v. = voiced;unv. = unvoiced.
(2) THOl·:AS, J .1"1.8., BOUQUIAUX.,L .&CLOAREC-HEISS, F. , Initiation

---

28.
Imbl
Inll
Impl
Intl
Incl
Inkl
Imvl
Inzl
Injl
Imfl
Insl
Inshl
as in:
,
\\
" ,
Imbujil
, ,
[ mbu3 i J
"a she-goat"
"
[
,
Impukul
, ,
mpUku1
It a
mouse"
ImvuJA I
" ,
[ ~vula1
"rain"
" "
" ,
Imfumul
( ~fumu 1
"a chief"
" "
Inlo:ta.1
" ,
[ nd';): ta]
"dreams"
, "
, ,
IntL\\tul
[ ntatu]
"difficulties"
,.. ""
Inzt\\ldl
[ nz8::1a]
"hungerlt
"'" ,
Insonal
"" "
(ns'Jna 1
It thatch"
'"
'"
"
Intimui:naj
.....
/.
,.
[n~imwi:na]
"I won"
""
./
. /
InjilLtI
[n?ila "l
"a road"
" "
"
I~shimtl
) "
( nSima]
" cassava"
" "
Inkl1Sul
" "
[~kasu]
"hoes"
Clusters not including a nasal as are to be found in English
do not exist in.Ciluba.

---

1.2.4. The syllable
The syllable is defined here as "tout segment pouvant
endosser un toneme" (1) • In other words,the number
of
syllables in a word equals the number of tones used in
this word.
In Ciluba,a syllable can be made of:
(i)
a vowel
(V)
'"
~
'\\
" ' ; '
e.g. ~ in
(m~: ji a:~1
"this water"
.
(ii)
a :'lasal
on ./' '\\ /
e.g. '"
!!!
in [ElIDblt: j i]
"I go"
(iii)
a semi-vowel nlus a vowel
(SV)
e.g.
,
w~:
.1n[ '" '"1
Wd:t1
"mine"
"
'"
,
jE:
inrj~:ba1
"yours"
(iv)
a consonant plus a vowel
(CV)
e.g.
"
d1
in
'" /' ']
[dikalu
"a bicycle"
(v)
a nasal plus a consonant plus a vowel
(HCV-)
e.g.
./
ntu
"
1n[./
~J
mu:~
"a man"
(vi.)
a consonant
,
plus a semi-vowel plus a vowel (CSV)
e. g.
bid:
in [::':'ti~:-:;a:J
"tai::e!"
~;'
h.-id:
in [h.=tt: r:a J
"inheri t !"
(vii)
a :'lasal ~:us a consonant ~lus a se=i-vo~ei 01U5
a vowel
(XCSV)
,.
( /' ;'
e.g.
ns·..ii,:
in ::<::us'):nswe:1a1 "to stir up"
(1) ~UTO~3C-HUTA (1973)

---

30.
It may be observed from the preceding that,unlike English
or French,Ciluba syllables end with a vowel (V),except
in
one case : the syllabic nasal (N) • For this reason they are
called open •

---

!
I-
31.
1.3_ SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
The features that are described in this section are ~
and quantity. Both of them affect vowels ( and syllabic nasals )
in speech. Intonation will not be treated here because, like in
all Bantu languages, tones only are important in Ciluba.
Though a systematic investigation ( on pitchmeter for example)
has not been made to check the possible existence of intonation
in Ciluba, three reasons have allowed us to say that this feature
is not used in Ciluba :
(i) No author of Bantu linguistics ( and especially of Ciluba )
has mentioned or provided any proof of the use of intonation
in Bantu languages; all of them speak of tones only.
(ii) Some studies only have sho~n that in some Bantu languages,
such as Shambala and Tonga (1), a special use of tone has
appeared ~hich can be regarded as a sort of intonation. In
these languages, the tone has lost its semantic and
grammatical value and has become mostly syntactic. [vi. VAN
SPAANDONCK,for example, has stUdied the case of Tonga and
has come to the conclusion that this language
makes use
of "'ihat he calls I1 weak" and I1 s trong" tone patterns (2).
Weak and strong tone patterns, he says, are used to indicate
word prominence or emphasis; that is, a high tone, for
(1) Shambala (G23); 'ronga (i'J6tt) : 3A.3',i1I:i>i, Y., 3i ':Jliog-ranhie
B~lective, ~use~ Royal d'Afrique Centrale, N°24, 1S75,
Tervuren.
(2) Morfotonologische
Analyse in Bantutalen, p.100

---

32.
example the one on the word It mupat!n in the following
sentence, is anticipated or shifted to the earlier
syllables to show that the Word "mupati" is the most
important: (1)
imulandu mupati
1
/
t( ]
0
l.mu Cl:ndu mupa t..
"an important case" ( neutral )
[
imulandu mupati
/
11
d 1
/
1
0]
( l.mu Cl:n u mUDCLtl.
"an i:nDortant case"
HO~Never,
as stated by ~-:. VAN S?AA~JC~CK,
such a syntactic
use of tone is found in a few Bantu languages only; and
again, no mention of it is made about Ciluba in the existing
studies.
(iii) In our analysis o~ a fe'.; Ciluba ser:tences on pitchmeter
( for example the sentences "!C'N'ena mumanya diba diwajikija
ani?" ( Do you know ·,vhat time you're going to finish? )
and "To; tshiena mumanya diba dit':iajikija to" ( No, I don't
know. ) mentioned on ~age 56 , we have observed nothing
which could be compared to English intonation ( i.e. nucleus
prominence ) or which could differentiate, as in English,
the first sentence ( Yes-no interrogative ) from the second
( dec larati ve ).
Considering all this, we may say, at ~he present ~oment, that
is determined by tones. The contrast ~a~~aen tone and intonation
is dramatic as shown in our contrasti~e ana~ysis.
(1) Syllables where no tone is indicated carry a lo~ tone.

---

33.
1.3.1.1. The tone system
According to BUR3SENS (1937, 195~), MEEUSSEN (1962) and
., I:
./
I
MUTOMBO-HUTA (1973), five tones labelled High ( Q ), Mid ( ~ ),
Low (do ), Rising ( d.. ) and Falling ( a ) can be distin'guished
in Ciluba (1). The first three are called primary or simple tones,
and the last two are secondary or compound tones. The high and
low tones are the most important and the most frequent of all.
Each of them can have different heights in speech; it may be high,
" . /
/
mid or low. For exal!lple, in the follo ing t':iO forms, /cila.:rnbC1./
(a bridge) and /c{la:mbQ; (a piece of cloth), the noun prefix c[-
carries a high tone on i; in speech, however,the high tone in the
second ~ord is realized as lO~ler than the one in the first word,
because it is followed by t;o low tones (whereas in the first ~ord
it is followed by t~o high tones) (2).
Of the five tones, two are regarded as phonemes, and, thus,
are linguistically significant. They are: High and Low. In this
respect, the tone system of Ciluba is characterized as "fixed" (3).
(1) The high tone is physically heard as the first sound of the
ambulance siren, whereas the low tone is perceived as the
second. The mid tone is in between. Ihe ~isi~~ tone is the
::-:~:Jina~ion o~ th'9 two sC'.lnds ':hile tt'.e ?3.11i:-.g is t:-:e opposite.
:e have used the followi~g abbreviations: S (Eigh), L (Lo~),
:.: C<id), R (Rising), ? C::alling).
(2) See also Realization of tonemes.
(3) 3tJR3SEI'JS (1939), cited by VAN SPAANDONCK, I':., "Cn the so-called
reversing tonal system of Ciluba, a case for res~ructuringH in
Studies in African Lin~uistics, Vol. 2 N° 2, p.131

---

34.
Rising and Falling tones are combinations of respectively High
plus Low and Low plus High.
A number of studies in Ciluba tonology have described the tone
system of Ciluba as "reversive", as compared to Mongo or Proto-
Bantu with the normal "etymological" system (1); that is, Ciluba
uses High tonemes where Mongo and Proto-Bantu have Low tonemes,
and vice versa (2);
e.g. "an animal"
Ciluba
' ,
/
,
nyama
[J1!W\\ ~]
,
tH H
,
Mongo
nyama [1' ~~!J
L L
,
/
"a crocodile"
Ciluba
ngandu
/
cl'
H
L
[~9::1\\ ~)
'
~1ongo
,
ngando t", }~: 1\\ rji1 t~ H
Other studLies, however, - Van Spaandonck (1971) and r'~addieson
(~976) - have minimized the reversal of Proto-Bantu tones in
Ciluba and a=gued that the Ciluba tone system is ~ot a complete
reversive system. je may say that such discussions, though highly
significant for comparative tonology, does not fall within the
scope of this s~udy. The point here is to provide a description of
the tones' linguistic importance in Ciluba as ~~ell as their behav-
iour in speech ';/i th a view to shm-ling to ':,'hich extent they can
influence Ciluba speakers' spoken English.
The High and LOW tonemes of Ciluba have a semantic and a
grammatical value. ~xamples are:
(1) ~ongo : a 3antu language classified unde=
Proto-Bantu : the original 3antu language
(2) VAN SPrl..A:~JCl~CK,
1,1.,
Ope cit., p.131. Here are ot:-_er studies
cited by p~DDILSON (1976) : HULSTAERT (1941), BU2SSENS (1939),
COUPEZ (~954), CART~ (1973).

---

35.
1) Semantic value
- /kGb~la;
[~bU 1)
(to read)
l~b2J.6./
[kUbal a)
(to shine)
\\
\\
- /mp~tQ/
[mpEta)
(a ring)
/mp§td.,l
[mpct a'1
(a rich man)
" ,
- /mp~dI
[r " "
mpatal
(doubt)
/m~d;
[mpata)
(meadow)
/
I
~
')
- /li:~/
[di: ji
(an egg)
.. '\\
/li:j~/
fdi: di1
(voice)
/
I
, /J
- /tin~/
[t~ inu
(a mortar)
I
\\
./tl.n~/
[t~ int)
(a knee)
" " \\
- /mu:".llli/
( " ,. 'J
:nufudi
(a ~ide)
" , '\\.
/muf,,11ll. /
[J/~"dil
mu~u
(a blacksmith)
2) Grammatical value
,
/
- /~li/
[u"d]
(you are)
... ,
/~li/
[' ~1
udl.
(he, she, it is)
/
"
- /tEli/
/'1
[tuCi.
( \\ve are)
, ,
/t~li/
t ' ~
t'udl.1
(they 3.I'e)
,..
\\.
" / [/"
" /
(you (' "''..l::;-...... t J
- /~kua.: ti 1 e/ '..lk.·:Cl: t Si le )
"-J
'-"'"
o~.1
/
, \\ . " ,
"
,"
/~kua.: tile/ [uk.. <:l: tj ilE]
(he, she, it
Caught)
"
'\\.
"
- /t/gkUa.: t6/ D""
~vak·.vQ: t "]
a
(you ,... ill catch)
/\\v~ub.:td.;
" "
l\\vak·,va. : t "a]
(he, she, it will catch)

---

4
36.
'
,
,
,
/
,
- I tUg.: kud.: to;
[tWCl.: kwet: t a)
(we shall catch)
I tu~ kud: t61
-
r " " '1
twa.:kwca.:ta
(they will catch)
.
The mid tone is a realization of either High or Low toriemes
as illustrated below.
1.3.1.2. Realization of tonemes (1)
Ciluba tonemes are realized in speech as follows :
1) High 1'1
- It is generally realized as [ I] in '.<lords in isolation, as in :
, ,.,
[" .' ''''\\
ud1.mu
udlInU,J
(he is in)
,."
[ ' "
bushmva
b~~uwa)
(truly )
. ,,.
'"
[ .. ,
/)
male: nga
m~l!:')~
,
(nice (pI))
- It is also realized as [ '1 as in the follo\\ving cases :
a) Jhen it is preceded by a low tone, and followed by a low
plus high tone : /\\I-/\\~I
\\
./,
, " ,
e.g.
udimu bushu';a
~ H L ELL
[ti~mU b~i~wal
L ~ M M L L
(he is truly in)
b) jhen it is preceded by two low to~es and followed by one
or Qore high tones only : /\\\\/- ••. ~ (2)
/
.\\
~
/ ,
'\\ ,\\.
" t '
,-
e. g. 1madl.ma dl.~u:nl. ;:~le: nga
." L L H L :L, 5 n H
~
-J
--
. r'::{:ii\\:::~ df£~::-l :::il~ :~a]
- _ L - _ -:
-
-- --
(ten nice or~~ges)
(1) MUTOMBO-HUTA (1971)
(2) ••• = one or more hi~~ to~es) -it = final position~
~-= initial position.

---

37.
c) When it is preceded by a high plus a low tones : ft\\/-
, .\\"
"'-,,,
'- ~
~
",
\\,
"
"'"
e.g. madima d1kum1 male:nga a ba:na ba: baluma
r. ' ~,
.'"
" ,
"
"
"
/. , ,.,
~mad1ma d1kum1 maIE:~a a b~:na _ bd: balumaJ
(the boy's ten nice oranges)
H L L H L L H H H L H L L H L L
H L L H L L H H H M tI L L H L L
2) Low /\\/
This toneme is reali2.ed as (\\Jin general (\\\\'ords in isolation)
(1). It is realized as [11 in one case, namely -,·;hen it occurs
bet'w"een t":JO high tones
///-///
, .' \\
" "
e.g.l ud1mu bushu';va
L H L H L L
,
J
I
I ( ,
' )
~
~ClimJ: bu )U\\va
L N 1'1 M L L
(he is truly in)
The above ~ay be summarized as follows : Ciluba High and Low
tonemes are reali;ed respectively as high and low in isolated
words. Each of them is r~~i%ed as mid when the High tone occurs
after the Low tone, or when the Low tone is fDund between t~o
High ones. Thus tone patterns of Ciluba are subject to variation
depending ~ainly on the types of tones next to wh~ch they occur.

---

38.
1.3.1.3. Contraction of tonemes
There are two rules of tone contraction in Ciluba (1):
1) If two identical tones contract, one only will be represented
as in :
( ;' . \\
IDes.: J ~
"a - ."a 1
r " .~
:>
ID<I:J~
" /1
~
> r"~
IDo.:J~
"
~:]
(this water)
H ;. H
H H
H
2) In case of different tones, three possibilities must be
distinguish ed
a. If one of the tones is identical to the adjacent one, and
the other is not, the identical tone will not be represented
as in :
Cb~-f:nd~] ) rb!:nda]
((triey are) walking) .
L-H
L
[ ,/ ,
\\"J [I'
' ' ' ' ]
t~:-kwQ:ta > t'lIS!:k·..ia.:ta
(we shall catch)
H-L
H
The high tone ~n the first example) and the low one (in the
second) are not represented in the contracted forms because
they are ide~tical to the adjacent tones.
b. :l.f ea±!. of -c;..e -c",IO contracting tones is not id.entical -co -cne
ad~acent
~o=e,
~he fi~st tone or ~oth ~ill be represented
as in :
[t~-~:ndE1 > [bIg :nd~J or r \\I' ')
tW~:d€
(his)
L-H
L
LH
(1) See ;·:EW3SEN (1962)

---

39.
c. It both tones are identical to the adjacent tones, the first
tone only ':lill be represented as in :
[ '
~,
,
' ]
r,' f \\
/
']
u-t~~E:nd-t:nd-a ') lut ji.:ndE:nda
(he is still walking)
L-H
L
To conclude,we may say briefly that Ciluba speech melody is
characterized by the tonemes with their realizatio~and contrac-
tionsin speech. In English and French, things are different (1).
(1) See Appendice3 I,ll or Contrastive ~nalyses

---

40.
1.3.2. Quantity
Quantity is represented in this Nork by the symbol /:/ after
a vowel. It has a phonological status in Ciluba (1); like tones]
it affects vowels. Despite its linguistic significance, the
phonological value of vowel quantity in Ciluba is neutralized in
the follo~ing cases (2) :
1) a vowel is al~ays long when:
(i) it is preceded by the sequence 08-, or *8- :
O+y-: / /
\\
'. /
[ /b' \\
~.]
mu bi<1.: yl.
mu J Cl: Jl.
proper noun
C+w-: /~bu.flc(;
["
/
i']
kubwE:la
(to get in)
. " "-
w-
. /w~nyi/
[i' "1
WCl:l' 1.
(mine)
, ,
y-
/y~:nu/
~£:nt]
(yours)
(ii) it is followed by the nasal phoneme /ng/
/ / / " .
r; .....
/
...
".
/mukd.1.~ ngiJI "mukalE: ~al
(chief)
(iii) it is followed by a nasal cluster :
"
/
/nl~:nl<i/
[ndcf: nd'a]
(cotton)
/mu:ntu/
[mU':ntuJ
Ca :TI3.n)
(iv) it carries a secc~dary tone (rising or falling)
A
\\
/mEL,: md./
[m'~': ma]
(I, ::le) (3)
2) long vowels never occur in ~ord final position in Ciluba.
(1) see the t~o classes of vo~els (short and long), page 11.
(2) See COU2?EZ (1954),
.. ~=lJ3SEN (1962), BURSS3N8 (1972)
(3) a definition of It secondery tone ll is given on pages33-3L+.
I1

---

r
CHAPTER 11. CONTRASTIVE STUDY OF CILUBA, ENGLISH AND FRENCH
SOUND SYSTEMS.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
2.2.1. Quantity
2.2.2. Stress
2.2.3. Rhythm and weakening
2.2.4. Intonation
2.3. S2G~3NT.~ ffiTITS
2.3.1. The base of articulation
2.3.2. Vowels and diphthongs
2.3.3. Semi-vowels
2.3.4. Consonan~and consonant clusters
2.4. CCNCLU;.:)ION

---

42.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
This contrastive study deals with predictable and observed
differences bet~een the sound system of Ciluba and that of
English. The intention is to identify, ~henever possible, sources
of interference from Ciluba in ~iluba speakers' pronunciation of
~nglish. An attempt is also made to identify possible interfer-
ences from French a brief description of ~hich is appended,
together with a more detailed synopsis of the English sound
system. The purpose of this contrastive analysis is to formulate
hypotheses concerning errors that
Luba students are likely to
make, and from which some error patterns or systems may ~merge.
The contrastive study has
much importance both in the
genesis, the historical development of our research and in the
organization of the present thesis. At the early stages of our
'~lork, contrastive analysis p'rovides us 1,\\li th ;:orkirrg hypotheses
on which to base our diagnostic tests (see Part Two).It also serve
to identify those aspects of the English sound system which
require
priority over others. In the development of the
corre~tive tests, in particular, the priorities thus determined
serve
to posit optimal ways in I::hich to interrelate the
various aspects of the sound system of 3nglish and to help the
Ciluba speakers break away from their mother tongue and approx-
imate the ideals of English pronunciation which
are set to them.
At this stage it is important to note that in the ensuing
contrastive discussion we have reversed the order of presentation
adopted so far for the de~cription of individual languages: our
contrastive study opens with suprasegmental features, for reasons
the details of which will be explained presently. Broadly speaking
we may sum up our main hypotheses as follows :

---

43.
(i) Central in Ciluba are the quantity contrasts (long vs short
vowels) and the tonal system (the five tones), as they both
carry meaningful differe~ces - semantic a~d grammatical -
at word level and take over the functions performed by
intonation in English.
(ii) Central in the production of spoken English is intonation
not only in that it expresses meaningful differences at
utterance or sentence level but also because it determines
reduction and rhythm in the production of the stress-timed
English utterance as a sequence of tone ~nits. The produc-
tion of individual English sounds can therefore be seen as
determined by the suprasegmental features of the language.
(iii) We therefo~ posit that the main problem for the
Luba
learner of 3n~lish is (a) to break away from his mother
tongue's sU9rasegmental features that encourage him to
focus on" production at word level and (b) to incorporate
the English suprasegmental system based on sequences of
tone units in utterances; production of individual sounds,
according to this hypothesis, is to be seen as secondary,
as only part of the primary objective of correctly producing
truly English utterances, having the right intonation,
rhythm and stres~ and operating the necessary reductions.

---

44.
2.2. SUPRASEGMENT_:liJ FEATURES
Ne shall deal ~ith the features which present differences
between English and Cil~ba, and discuss general implications
resulting from these differences. Assimilation
and reduction
will be analyzed along 'di th consonant cl usters. The features
treated in this part are quantity, stress, rhythm and intonation.
2.2.1. Quantity
A first basic ii~ference ~etween Ciluba and ~nglish concerns
quantity - a fundamental feature of the Ciluba system. In Ciluca,
all short vowels have their long counterparts; in addition, the
open syllable is the rule; there is no reduction, and the syllable-
timed rhythm very much contributes to vo~el len~ening in speech.
Quantity is also part of the ~nglish system, but it is far less
importa'l.t than i::-: Cilu:·a. Unlike Ciluba, English does not have a
systematic opposition bet··;een. short and long vo'.,els; in addition,'
reduction results in producing many unstressed syllables and in
shortening many vowels. The native speaker of Ciluba will tend to
pronounce most Znglish vO'"els 'Id th equal length and prominence.
In French, vowel quantity has no phonological value. Where it is
used (e.g. /e/ of 'chevre'), its role is only phonetic (1).
2.2.2. Stress
Again, the three langu~ges have little in co~mon as far as
their stress 3ys~e~s are concerned. ~he relevant oppositions
('1) BASTIN, rt., 7xercices Dhon2tiaues et structuraux de la l&n~~e
francaise, p.27. Quantity is sometimes distinctive for
consonants, e.g. "tu lee' lis l1 (you read it); "il repar(e)ra l1
(he '.·:ill rep are it). In Ciluba it never is.
l

---

are :
First, in English, some one~syllable words and all words of
more than one syllable have at least one stressed syllable. Word
stress is very important, not only as a property of individual
"lords ("de' lightful" ,!!l:i.mpolitell) and as a means to differentiate
the meaning and grammatical function of two similar ~ords
(11 'import" noun vs lIim'port" verb; ·'green 'house', 'any house
coloured green' vs"greenhouse~ 'glass building for plants' ),
but also as a basis for rhythm and intonation (Znglish as a
stress-timed language). Ciluba and French present an entirely
different system. In Ciluba, stress is completely absent •
what we have-instead is voice contours characterized as tones.
This is illustrated by the following words whose diagrams are
given below :
"
(2 syllables)
:\\
[mut Ii1
(a tree)
r:" / I;,
(3 syllables)
/ "/
/
linCl:nga/
ldin~~aJ (friendship, love)
(5 syllables)
'.
/
/
"
(.. J r.
/, " / / ")
/ c~zubuzub~
~f~zubuzubu
, (a shell)

---

46.
j- - -
, -- 1- --- I ~- '- - : !
' -':
' L
-,--,-\\--;-
- :.--.~-~~_____
t' ---- -j-
1-..
:
-, ; -- -
-
,---
!-
f '
;-
_....L..jr-...;...L--t''-'----;-........_-:-L---t--'-----..1--....L._-+~_.L.-....L.----L---....j..iI....--~---l..-----'---..J-..--'----'---L..;f
_
_
_
_ <
L
.-- 1. 1
,tL~~-~ _
,
'
i
,
U,-
,
- .
'79
; . -
.._-
,
..
, .~-
-
,:~"
J .. ,
..
!
~ tr-! - ' : ~ _- -
I, -
!, - ,
,-
: 1
j I
I"
. ;
,--
,I ..
:- i~---l---' ,- ... ,-'- ..
1-
!
I
i
" !
I
: . j :
i ,
i-
- .. =---- -
\\- ----- -1
- l ! : i
; r
_':.....__-,-:
...L.~
t-l_ - ' -_ _
' - - _ - ' -
', _ - - - - ' -
___ t..
,___
_'
.L
.__
j
Here is the intensity of each syllable (vowel)
:
(1)
r: '
'J
"
.. - '-~
....
L.m~tS~
:
u (-+i,O G...:;)) ; i
0-+ d3)
"d"
,
' ]
,/ (~~ r'~~
/
(3 r1 d'?,)
,
(""'3 dB)
\\,\\ ~~9:t?a
: l
::?~.:j:
Cl:
l . w
a::;
,-
[
{'"
" 1 ' /
"
/
tS?:zllb.llzJlb~ : l (25 dB)
u (26 dB)
; u (28 dB)
u
(27
d:3) ;
/
u (23 dB).
T~ese ~easures confir~ the intuitive i~Dression that no Ciluba
syllable is ~eard as :eing ~uch more ?rominent t~an any other;
(1) dB = decibel

---

I..
~.
I
all are articulated with more or less equal energy despite the
fact that they carry either a high or a low tone.
French, according to ADAMCZEWSKI and KEEN, has a kind of
prominence marked by quantity. For example, in "Universite" or
"Universitaire", the last syllables are longer than the others,
whereas in the English "Uni.'versity" the third syllable bears a
strong stress, as a property of the word in question (1).
-Second, and most important, English intonation is based on
"nuclei" and "contrastive focuses". Stressed syllables are not
of equal importance in a sentence or utterance. The most
prominent stressed syllables form the nuclei (2), or contrastive
focuses, for contrast with something already said or understood
in the context. In Ciluba, contrast or insistence is marked not
by prominence as in English, but by various means - mostly
syntactic and tonal ~ Nucleus and contrastive focus are both
unknown. Let us consider the !olloNing sentence :
"Hbala has bought a nel,., car."
translated in~o Ciluba as ;
\\,
,
,
,
, .'"
/:."
\\
. \\
"r"Ibala wa: su: mbu mashlnYl mahlamahl.a."
[ b " l '
\\
,
b'
,( J \\
'h . L . '. .']
ID ~:
a w~:su:rn u maJl]I. ma JarnanJa
If the speaker wants to convey the contrast between "new" and
"old", the sentence ';,-ill be :
r I " "
,
. '
\\.
',.:l ~
. ,..,' l '
/ " , "
"'\\0, ,-'
"h'\\""
;':aS~lnYl a_l "",...,3 a !'!1'ls'..::~a m:r;a".l-=-::r.a. la.
t ,( (~ 'd)
, \\
l'
"" \\ ,;' / 'h'" ',.\\)
ma)~ a 1 mDQ:
a musu:moa mrna c~anJa
literally: "=he car that :':oa13 !:ss bought is (a) new (or:e)".
(1) ADAi'ICZE.iSi.<:I, H. and K:t:EN, D., OD. cit., p.136
(2) usually with a change of pitch direction
(see Appendix I)
I

---

I
r· -.
I
I
48.
I
If the speaker wants to contrast "r"lbala" with "Mbaya", the
sentence will be
I
nUd{ m~s~:mb~ m~shi£yi mahi~cili:ta mIvlb11'a."
r. Id "
,. "
LU ~ musu:mb~
,(."
a ma
~
/.h ." "h'
~jU ma JEtma
~ " b'
Ja mm <I.: 1'1
a
J
I
literally : "The one that has bought a new car "is rv:bala."
I
In both cases contrast is conveyed syntactically, by means of
a cleft sentence and by tonal changes (see the words "mahia:rnahia"
and "Mbala").If the speaker wants to stick to the original
sentence, contrast ~~ill have to be conveyed by context; for
example, a previous discussion bet~een the speaker and the
hearer; a question from the hearer before the speaker's answer, •••
French has a type of quantity ~hich, as ADAMCZEjSKI and KEEN
put it, belongs to the rhythmic group and not to the individual
~ord. Quantity is a property of the last syllable of the
rhythmic group. The other syllables are pronounced with equal
length and intensity and the vowels are all fully and clearly
articulated (1). The sentenc e "La vie d I une vieille femme", ':ii th
a long final syllable is translated in Znglish as :
"The 'life of an 'old 'woman".
A third opposition between English and Ciluba concerns t~e
relationship between str~ss and intonation. Stress and intonation
are closely linked in ~nglish Jecause they Joth occur on nucleus
(2). If the speaker empha.izes a particular word in the sentence
(to convey some con~rast) t~e 3tressed syllable i~ this word is
marked by ~Qntrastive focus. In the follo'"ing examples
(Adamczewski and Keen), the nucleus is shifted' from 'help' to 'me'
(1) ADAI';CZE'dSKI and KE:2:N,D. , 015. cit., p.181
(2) Nucleus = stron~ly stressed syllable;h~ch marks a major
change of pitah direction (see page 27'1 )

---

I
I
r
I
49.
.
t
'asked' and 'Peter' .
Peter asked me to helo hio.
represented as ...../.
t
-
Peter asked me to help him.
represented as .../ ...
Peter asked me to help him.
represented as ../ ....
I
Peter asked me to help him.
represented as / ......
(1 )
In other words, to convey contrast, each of the underlined words
(or syllables) bears a prominent stress and an emphatic intonation
(2).
In the same ~ay, some relationship exists in ?rench between
intonation and quantity because, apart from quantity, the last
syllable of the rythmic group carries a pitch movement. In falling
tunes, the pitch is low as in "~uand partez-~?II--__
In risi~g ones it is high as in "Si tu la revois,( ••• )" .- ... (3)
- -
.
Phonologically, Ciluba differs entirely from the other two
languages in ttat it has no stress or intonation. It has its
tone system 't.'hich, together ',.;i th its syntax, performs the functions
performed by ceans of the typically ~nglish interplay of intonation
(contrastive) stress and syntax.
To sum up, the native speaker of Ciluba cannot draw on his
mother tongue to "Jroduce ',lord. stress, nuc:"ei and contrastive focu.3e
that are basic in :nglish. ~u~~a ~a~ara::y, ta ~~ll te~d ~o
(1) Ope cit., p.234 ; /
= nucleus
(2) Follo'.'ing I:..eech and Svartvi:<, it shcu2.d also be pointed O'lt
that contrast (contrastive focus! can come in addition to the
nucleus as in : {Her 'father lis ").ustria~lbut her'l~therlis \\:?rench!
(4 tone units) (p.172)
(3) ADAf-1CZ3.fSKI, ~. and KEEN, D., Ope cit., p.224

---

-----~---------~----_._- .
50.
produce all English syllables with roughly the same force, none
of them being more prominent than any other •.
Most likely also, he will assign each syTIable of English a
tone. Generally, he will tend to replace stressed syllables by
high-tone ones, and unstressed sy~lables by low-tone ones as a
fransfer of respectively Ciluba 'marked' high tones and 'unmarked'
low tones. The sentence "He went to school yeste~day" for
example,
s
s
s
...
of
..
r'rJ.i "..ient t~ 'sku: I 'j estadei]
is likely to be produc ed as,
L
H
L
H
H L L L
+
..
+
..
-4.
-4.
+ ....
[hi: went tasku:l jes~deil
(1)
Consequently, the Luba learner of English runs the risk of being
misunderstood, whenever English stress and intonation are
::e:mingful.
2.2.3. Rhythm and
'Neakening.
The three languages differ fundamentally as far as rhythm is
concerned: English rhythm first is stress-timed, i.e. based on
the regular succession of stressed and unstressed syllables, the
latter filling in the intervals bet~een the former. The unit of
rhythm (the rhythmic foot) is determined by the presence of one
stressed syllable (~hich is prominent' ~ith or ~i~hou~ the
rhythmic foot are grouped together a~d spoken ~ithout any pause
bet-:een them. ?rench ar:d ,'=iluca on the contrary, are syl::'able-
timed, i.e. their rhythm is primarily ~ased on the syllajles.
Every syllajle has the same value in these languages, ar:i the
(1) S = stress, L = low tone, H
high tone

---

I
1-'; .
~ ..._•..
_-'
t
51.
t
syllables succeed each other with fairly equal force and rate.
I
The unit of rhythm at sentence or utterance level is the rhythmic
group, consisting of syntagmatic chunks of syllables, all having
equal length, except for French ~here the last syllable is
lengthened (1).
We may say that rhythm is crucial in English and is the main
'stumbling block' for the Ciluba speakers because ~CTHING is
common to the three languages as shown in the following ,table:
(1) cited by ADAr·iCZE.,SKI, H. and KEEN, D., Ope cit., p.180

---

52.
CONTRASTIVE TABLE (STRESS,RHYTHM,INTONATION)
- JENGLISEf:
STRESS
RHYTHM
INTONATION
1
1
~
rhythmic foot
tone unit
~
+
{stressed syllables
) speed ----~) nucleus (+ contrastive fOcus)
1unstressed syllables~weakening
!
prominence + pitch change
significant, meaningful
~attitudes
~ystematic contrasts
- IE'RENCEl :
STRESS
RHYTHM
INTONATION
rhYthmiC~ groups
(or chunks, syllable
groups; each syllable
being produced ~ith
equal energy, length
and rate)
jlast syllable:
.., rise or fall on the last
length ened
syllable of the rhythmic
others : equal
group
stress
- ICILUBd :
STRESS
RHYTHM
INTON).TION
of .
.J,
~
equal for all ~ same as for ____~) tigh or low to~e on
syll ables
?rench
each syllable

---

I
I
I
53.
r
For example the English utterance :
I
III Here's the Ipaper I I bought ~Sterdayll, 1
r
has four rhythmic feet, and one tone unit (nucleus = "YESterday").
-
In French we shall have :
-
!"VOici l'jour'naljque j'ai achete hier maitin ll
(1)
I,Ji th two rhythmic groups, and a rise on ",j ournal", and a fall on
II matin", the syllables -'nal and -~ being pronounced longer than
the others. In Ciluba things are still different : the same sentence
can be uttered as follows :
"Tangila tshibejibeji tshimvua musumba malaba mu dinda ll
[ " ;' 'I ;"
\\ , ')"
,
.... ,
"
'\\;'l'
,; ,=, i"]
ta.:?ila 't)ibt3i':)~3(i tSI:ml/wa. 't'nusva""ba m Cl: aQa. MU cal.nGia
The following diagram show the analysis of this sentence by the
pitchmeter (2) :
(1) ,.1,DA;·;CZL",-iSKI, H...... KEEN, D., 00. cit., p.18'1
(2) The diagram gives in (1) information about ~uantity, most
important for interpretin~ rhythm; in (2) it gives intensity
for each syllable.

---

54-,.
The diagram suggests the follo~ing observations
1) this utterance is divided into two rhythm~ groups or chunks,
','i th a Dause aft er the verb 11 tangila ll ( literally lIlook at 11 );
weak sylla~les w~ich are
reduced
and grolioed ~rcund stror-s
.
--.
. . . . .
l::
-Jngll3f:;
the last one ;

---

I
I
I
I
55.
I
4) each syllable is assigned a tone (low or high);when hearing,
the utterance is produced with a monotone.
I
Nith such a totally different situation, Luba students Nill meet
I
~ith serious difficulties When attempting to produce the ~nglish
rhythm, i.e. 'Nhen attempting to produce both the strong syllable
prominence (as : HERS'S, PAper, BOUGHT, YESterday) and especially
I
the appropriate reductions of the ~eak ones (as: the, I, -terday).
As to the rhythmic feet themselves, they are likely to ~e ignored
and the utterance divided into various parts or syllable groups,
I
and a high or lo~ tO~2 a3sig~ed to each of the sy~:ajles. Their
utterances will consequently ~e produced at a slow speed, Nhich is
entirely un-English.

---

I
56.
2.2.4 Intonation
.{hereas English has. an intonation system which, as 0' Connor
& Arnold put it is "significant", "systematic", and "character-
istic" of the la~guage (1), Ciluba has no such system and is
typically a tone lan~Jage. To take an example that is relevant
to this discussion, the follo~ing utterances were extracted from
a recorded conversation ~etween two Ciluba speakers (2) :
A. "Kuena mumanya diba dLia,jikija ani?"
(
"
" ' . . l .1' ,\\ d""
(, J: \\
,
'. )
k'tlt.:na mumaJ"S- ul.::Ja
l.·;ct:3l.L<1.;a Cl:Jl.
corresponding to t~e ~"glish :
A.
II~O .yOU kno'", '."hat -:1.:::e you're ~oJ.niS to fi:lish?1I
:3 • " Ii0 ,
I
don' t • 11
(1) O'CONHOR, J.D. :.: .':"R:;OiJ, G.F.,
Ir:tonation of Colloauial
'::nglish, '0.1
(.:...:) ',,'e ~.~-'Te
"'-',.c-."t-:-,-',
I
_ =-
~l...i.. :..:v-=_
3.~:-u"": -::-.~ t9r~3
'L..:.~-:er.:?.. :1cetl
2.r_d Itsg~~te::cel ,
'?~~ i..:ttera!':8'9 i.3 If a 9iece of comr:lu.nica-cion
......., ~ "':"-
.; ...........:
II,-,L''-'''''''·S!'')
_ ... C.i...i __, " .
' ; "~:;;r-,J.'
' : : ; ' ' ' ' ' 0 ' '
-ar-J.'
..)
,~"l
-'
",-:;;"
-"'oJ __
(13.;::-. l:'l:'hank ,ycu!") and
"artic'u1 atoll (:;;,~
,,- ~h,;:",l.r ~TOU III \\
..L..
-
........ 0 .
.1.
'-'
... '--... ;._~
v'
•
J .

---

I
I
I
57.
I
After listening several times to these t:iO Ciluba utterances,
we became convinced that they did not display any audible sort
I
of pitch prominence which an ~nglish ear would identify as an
intonation pattern. That is, no pitch feature was heard Nhich
I
could differentiate the first (a Yes-~o question) sentence from
the second Nhich is a declarative sentence.
!
The two utterances were later analyzed by means of the
pitchmeter and an examination of diagrams confirmed that each of
I
them was pronounced at the same pitch level('l) : there was no
sign, for instance, in the first Ciluba utterance of anything that
could look like the rising movement commonly found in 3nglish
Yes-~o int9rroga~ive sentences. :~e frecuenc~es of t~e last ~ord
syllables in the t~o languages does not present any significant
difference:
(2)
,
".
\\.
" ,
anyi? (a. :1"1.1
a.: = 34-4 "7
J::.Ll
/ sec
"i = 35C HZ I/ sec
.,;
to
/
J
352 :::z / sec
[ t::> J
=
~uite different from 3nglish, each syllable does carry a tone,
i.e. a feature of the '. ord as such as distinguishable from other
~ords in the language.
,(,":)'~
d'
l '
~ee
la~r?~S 8~ ~O~~O··l~~ p~~9.
(2) Frequency is expressed in nertz (HZ) per second.

---

58.

---

I
I. ~
1---
I
59.
I
English intonation and Ciluba tone fundamentally differ as
I
to identity, distribution and function in language
I
(i) ?irst, English intonation is determined by prominence
identified as nucleus and contrastive focus which carry the
change of pitch movement (tone) and, thus, convey various
I
functions (e.g. "Coming?" (inquiring)), attitudes (such as
impatience) and contrasts (e.g. "I ~ himll vs "1. saw himll ).
I
English uses a large variety of tones the most important of
which are rises and falls. Ciluba, on the other hand, is
characterized by tones (~ainly two : ~igh (/) and low (,))
and their combinations ~~ich are syllable-bound and which
convey, together j;ith vowels and consonants, different meanings
of words and grammatical distinctions.
(ii) Second, most characteristic of Znglish, intonation patterns
are generally distritu~9d over tone-units and ~hole
utterances or sentences; the word is independent of any
pitch characteristics. :he tones of::iluba, ho':ever, are
~,ord-bound, i.e. they are attached to individual word
syllables
-and not groups of syllables.
(iii) Third, English intonation carries the meaning of the
sentence or utterance. As an example, the sentences
~
HO
,..,E?"
IIThis is the
RS-. 11 3.::d
.w.
11 'rhis
is t::e, H7 (11 Jo you think. .• '
3.re ide:1tical
sen~ences
or utterances, they have different meanings due
~o difference in ir.~o::ation patterns. ~~e ~ea::ing conveye~
jy intonation in ~L~lish is essen~i3.117 sy::tac~ic and
attitudinal. ?unctionally, the tone of Cilu~:a contributes
its share in gram~atical differences. 70r example, the ~ord
Ilmp~t~1l (doubt)
a change from high to 10':J tone in the first

---

I
I' ~
I
60.
I
syllable ',,,ould yield "mp1.t'a" (meadow); similarly, in
I
nudt'n (you are), a change from high to low in the first
syllable '.vould yield "~d{" (he, she, it is). :ile may
I
therefore say that the meaning conveyed by tones in
Ciluba is a lexical one; it is defined by the word
I
consonants along with vO\\olels and tones.
As far as the French pitch system is concerned, it is far
I
less differentiated (functionally and physically) than the English,
even though the t~IO languages have some basic features in common
not shared by Ciluba. ?rench shows
-with 3nglish- the opposition
I
between falling and rising intonation patterns, the rising patterns
being predominently used (1). Unlike in Lnglish, the pitch (high/
low) is carried in French by the last syllable of the rhythmic
group or of the sentence. In falling patterns, the pitch is low,
while in rises it is high, but less low and less high than in
.2nglish.
To conclude, the Luba learner of English is likely to have
to unlea~n all the basic features of his native tone aystem if
he is to approximate the English system. Everything in his native
system favours a production of English that is fundamentally
un-English, and may be characterized by ~hat, to an English ear,
sounds syllable-bound,
'flat' and poorly differentiated pitch
move=ents, carrying little or no functional, attitudinal, or
contrastive value. The syllable-oound falls and rises of ~iluba
get ~o~fused -~ith - and ~re pro~ected onto - the :nglish utterance,
com~ensatin~ for both lack of pitch contrast and absence (or poor
ap~~oxi~ation) of contrast bet~een stressed and uns~ressed
syllables. The compensation manifests itself among other things
(1) A:J_,:;.HCZE.;SKI, H.
- ==3:2N, D., OD. cit., p.22l+

---

I
L
I
~.
I
by too much force given to the production of unstressed syl1bles,
I
that is, absence of reduction. The fact that the Ciluba speaker
has usually learned French - an intonation language - before
learning ~nglish may be more of a handicap than a help; the ups
and downs of French intonation, being as they are far less
differentiated in French than they are in Znglish, may favour
rather than discourage his native or natural tendency to produce
pitch movements which - to an Znglish ear - are too limited (both
in relative highs and lows and in their distribution over stretches
of the utterances) to work contrastively.

---

..
62.
2.3. SEGNENTAL UNITS
2.3.1. The base of articulation
Base of articulation is, as A. BOILEAU writes, "l'ensemble
des habitudes articulatoires qui caracterisent une langue, un
dialecte ou un idiolecte (1)". Its importance in foreign
language learning is best appreciated by contrastive analysis
of the native and foreign languages. ~lso from this articulatory
point of view, ~nglish and Ciluba are thoroughly and characteris-
tically different.
Comparing Lnglish and French, A. 30IL3AU writes the following :
"L'anglais parle en remuant tres peu les levres. 11 les avance et
les arrondit le moins possible. L'articulation est beaucoup moins
mobile qu'en franGais ( ••• ), et les muscles de la bouche, surtout
de la langue, ne sont jamais aussi tendus. La consequence ( ••• )
est que les sons anglais sont ~oins nets. L'anglais recule aussi
la langue autant que faire se peut. Il en releve meme souvent la
pointe dans la direction du palais et l'arrondit en arriere" ••• (1)
The articulatory habits of Ciluba run counter to what has just
been suggested about those of English :
First, Ciluba pronunciation is predominently based on labial
articulation. Sixty-three per cent of the sounds of Ciluba are
articulated either labially or dentally. ~ypically, the Ciluba
speaker moves ~ce lips as often as possible, bringing ~hem into
c:or..':;a~"': ··.. i th t::e o-:jer speec:h orga.ns "':;0 e.rticulate the :Jost
frequent consonants-/m, p, b, f, vl- and consonant cl~sters -
1mb, ~p, mf, mvl-, rounding them as ~ucj as possible to pronounce
the back vowels ~/~: , u/u: , or spreading them to pronounce the
vowels i/i: , fiE:
•
(1) 3CILLrtU, ~., 2lements de nhon6tiaue, p.31

---

-,
63.
Second, the distinction between tense and lax vo~els is
essential in Ciluba. Though less so than in French, tenseness is
more marked and systematic in Ciluba than it is in 3nglish. To
articulate the vowels /i, u/ as well as the long vowels, for
instance, the muscles of the mouth and tongue must be tense t
contrary to what happens in Znglish where they are lax. As a
consequence, most sounds of Ciluba are easily perceived by native
speakers of French ~ecause they are articulated more distinctly
than in English. The fact that each vowel carries a tone contrib-
utes very much to this clarity.
Third, as just rr.entioned, Ciluba articulation is predominently
front rather than back (as in English); and mostly labial or
dental. Thus,the Ciluba speaker typically makes use of the front
part of the mouth, though front articulation is never accompanied
by a forward (~?outingll) projection of the lips as is the case
in French. ~his mear-s ~hat front unrounded vowels li~e the ffrench
08, ~, y, se are lliL~no~n in Jiluba. In addition, palatal articu-
lation plays an i~portant part : a quarter of the consonants are
pronounced using the hard palate. i,:oreover, when associated with
such palatal vo~els as /i/, consonant palatalizaticn is common:
- /t/ + /i/ is realized as
[t5 i]
/ , /
.... ,
I.
/r:utatl./ .., [mutat ~l.)
(the one Who suffers)
- /s/ - /i/ is res.lized 3.S
ni1
, /
,
r.""
'1
/cuse:~l./~L~ust:il
(tte one who frequents)
- /z/ - /i/ i3 res.lized 3.S
(~i)
/ '\\
(
['"
'1
/cubo~/.., !nUb.:>}:)
(the one who breaks)
- /n/ + /i/ is re3.lized as
fl i)
/
\\ ;
[ ' "
/='.lI:iO~/ ~ :::um ~
(the one who sees)

---

64.
Fourth, unlike what happens in the production of English
vowels, the tip of the tongue is not frequently raised towards
the back of the oral cavity. The points of articulation of front
and back vowels are determined by the raising of the blade or
the root of the tongue towards the corresponding parts of the
roof of the mouth. Use of the tongue tip, or its backward raising
are infrequent.
Consequently, the main problem to \\~hich special attention ~ust
be paid in tje Ciluba speaker's learning of English pronunciation
are his overtense pronunciation of vowels, and his te~dency to
front most consonants which manifests i~self in labialization
and, especially in dentalization.
2.3.2. Vowels and dinhthongs
The follo~ing is a contrastive c:-art of 3nglish (a), Frenc~ Ce)
and Ciluba (0) vowels. (1)
fRONT
C.~NTRRL
~f\\CK
.A.
-'Le
OJA.;
01
.y
~E:t'" 0/0-
01
a.u. 0
-,:/-:>
0
:):
LO\\N
.~/~
:>
CJ.jo.
a
(1.;
Cl".-
(1) The sources are the same as for descri0tions : English:Gimson
Cl 972) ; French: P .&fvI. LEON (1964-) ; University English 6.

---

65.
The three systems present important contrasts which can be
described as follows (1) :
1) Phonologically, Ciluba operates with a limited contrast between
front and back vowels, whereas English has front, central, back
vowels, and diphthongs. As a consequence, serious problems are
likely to arise ~ith the production of the English ~entral
vowels l': ,Cl. "1 and diphthongs. The c:entral vowels are likely to
be replaced by the vowels of Ciluba such as (t) or [a] (2), and
diphthoDgs can be either monophthongized or pronounced as sets
of distinct ~~its.
2) Unlike cvhat happens in English, Ciluba has a system of short
vowels and their long counterparts. Together ~vith the syllable-
timed rhythm and the absence of reduction, this importance of
vowel ~uantity i~ the 8iluba system is likely to encourage the
learner of -:::.::§;li3h to lengthen all vO\\vels, even '..;~en they sh ould
be short.
3) Ciluba vowels, contrary to Zn~lish, are characterized by tension
long vowels are ~ense, and, in addition, the vowels /i, u/ are
pronounced more tense than their Znglish equivalents /i , u/.
About the latter,~e should mention that teachers in Zaire tried
('i) 'I'~-:e system 0: -S:ar.dard Jrench includes '!:5 vo·.vels. Synthetically,
this syster:1 ~c!::?3.res ','ith that of Ciluba as fcllo'ds : (i) :?rench
has two categories of vowels unkno\\vn both in Ciluba and in
~nglish; ~hey a~e : the front rounded vowels y, ~, oe,3
and :~e
nasals Oe, a, a, E ; (ii) ::french vo';:els are tense' (even :TIore
tense than ttose of C.iluba), like in Ciluba there ,are no central
vowels, as those of English (3:,a ,A), no diphthongs and no
triphthongs; each vowel is pronounced distinctly; (iii) French
has no contrast of long vs short vowels, all vo~els are short.
(2) or even by those of French such as (oe].

---

· .
66.
to insist on the quantity (long i:/u: vs short i/u) rather
than the quality difference (tense i:/u: vs lax i/u).' We may
say that too tense a pronunciation of the English vowels is
a predictable tendency in the Luba learner's pronunciation of
English.
4) There is a marked difference in realization between Ciluba
and ~nglish vowels that have a (misleadingly) similar place
or point of articulation. This is the case for :
1° ~n~lish [e] ~hose closest Ciluba equivalent is (E]. The
students ~ill thus tend to e~uate this vowel not only ~ith
English [e] but even ':lith [aa) unkno'..m in Ciluba.
2° (Cl:) : this vowel (back and long) is likely to be given an
advanced pronunci~tion as the Ciluba a/a: are pronounced
advanced.
:3 ° ['J, ':):) : the equivalents of these vO'.'lels are in Ciluba (:>,:>:] •
The ways these vowels are articulated are very different in
the t~o languages: in English (~)is very back, very open and
short, 'Whereas [:):)'.'lhich is also back, is long and more close
than['J). In Ciluba, on the contrary,?:/~ have the same point
of articulation (back and mid) and are both more tense than
tte ~nglishLJ). =here is therefore a risk for s~udents of
;,,:-o::o''::::c in.'" S :--:0:-+ ':::bgl ish [:» :::>,s. . tense.
To recapitulate, due to a completely different vowel system
used in ~ilu2a, serious - phonolo~ical and articulatory - problems
are likely to ~rise in the learners' pronu~ciation of ~nglish.
Some 3nglish 'ords and diphthongs - missing in Ciluba - are likely
to be replaced 8,7 the Dhonemes of :'::'iluba, ';hile otters - "ith

---

67.
apparent equivalents in Ciluba - will be given a Ciluba
pronunciation, marked, for example, by tension and quantity.
As to French, it is of no help to such a tendency as most of
English vowels (long and central) and diphthongs do not exist
in the French system. On the contrary, the French pronunciation
is likely to lead to some reinforcement of these errors, espe-
cially vowel tension, as the vowels of French are more tense
than those of Ciluba.
As far as vowel distribution is concerned,
Snglish vowels
cannot normally present major difficulties to the learners because,
unlike in :::r:glish ·..:here vowels such as (e, ae, '))u, "1 do not
occur in word final positions, all the vowels, in Ciluba, occur
in any position.
2.3.3. Semi-vowels
The situation of semi-vowels
greatly differ s from that of
vowels. Briefly, the [j) and [w) of Ciluba are common to the
other two languages, and, in addition, do not present any
difference as far as articulation is concerned : (j] is front
unrounded and
lW) is back rounded. As a consequence, interference
from articulation is not a likely risk for the learners.
2.2.4. Consonants and consonant clusters
The follo~ing is a contrastive ~hart of English, :iluba and
French consonants. It is based on the follo~ing c~iteria :
ma~ner and 90i2~ of articulation, ahd, contras~ jet~een voiced
and unvoiced consonants (1).
(1) The sources are the same as for descriptions.
I
fl

---

•
PLAce
01=
AR'T\\C.ULY\\"'ON
CX)
ill
.
..
-a
dl
(;I
~
ti
~
-""'
,
.,
--e
,..
-0
VJ
td
-
~
7
r:J
oJ
to
:>
ti
c;;
...
,...
.
to
~
•
-0 -
It-
=>
-u
-tJJ 1S
..w
~
~
~
,
I
(0
<4
..w
:J
.
0
()
0
~
0
J
,...
oJ
III
. ;
0
0-
- C
d
~
-tG
-
0
bo
- ~ ~ ~
:>
~
:-
CS"
~
-
-
..D
"1t
'"d
( I
11-
~jb.
- - .k d - -
l.
-
c
a .. 8\\
~b
.t
do - -
E
-l'b
...
- - - - -k cl
~ ~
r
- -
41
I"M
~
- m. -
.~
. "
fT1\\
~ 'J
c
>
1'\\Q\\a.\\
- ""
F
f'ff\\
-
-
-
-
-
..J
- en
t;)
I!!
-
"
tj
0-
- -
-
C
'2
an"ka~f
-~~ - -
Q
-
d,
-
F
,.,
- -
£
c
»
- -
))
'Z
- -S
J
,
3
h
c
-4-t ''It\\ \\09\\
..u ..\\
J.)
Q
?
-
h
-
Z.
} 1
-
,
•
-
v
-
- -
h
E.
...
~
-
..
:>
-
c
III
~
-t"it.\\\\
F
et:
Clt\\
,:
-
....
~
I.J
-
!.
If&
C
G
-0' l'il,\\t.••\\
1
P
a.
cat
u
-tit
E
2
,
i
~eMt-
-
\\,J
~:
c
'f
IoJ
~.
%
"0 \\.I t.l\\
- \\J
E
NOTE:-I" QIH_h e.o\\\\Jrnn: \\~\\\\=vYV\\lo\\c.@d c.c)Y\\~oyu~n~~ } t'\\~"~::\\J()\\c..td
c..o,,\\'~ 'f\\.'C''f\\h
-c= C.\\lub ~; rs ~""e"c." j E~ ~,,~l\\'i\\'
_..... - - -

---

69.
There are very clear differences which manifest themselves
both phonologically and phonetically :
1. The consonant system of Ciluba is simpler than the English.
The following English consonants do not occur in Ciluba :
Igl
in " gun"
Id31
in "gin"
191
in "thin"
ItI
in " the"
Irl
in " right"
The consonants Igl a~d Id31 are known to the learners through
French ("gomme", Il::natch"). As to Irl ("regIe"), the learners
are familiar with the French variety only; there is therefore
a major risk of pronouncing these sounds (especially Ir/) b~
analogy with, or after the model of French. The consonants
19,11 will be 'replaced' by other sounds from their own system,
i.e. It,s,fl for /9/, and Id,z,v I for Itl. Furthermore, these
consonants are likely to create serious difficulties in
combination with other consonants, especially fricatives.
To these syste~ic differences, we may add two others
concerning the Ihl and I~I sounds, which may also be a source
of interference. I~ ~nglish, these consonants are phonemes
hhereas in Ciluba, they are allophones of respectively Ipl
and Icl or It I
a~j, ~herefore, have no distinctive value.
2. Ciluba has also a si8pler and less diversified sys~em of
consonant cluster3 :~an ~nglish. The follo~i~g are co~trastive
tables representi~g all the main clusters of :iluba, French
and English. C stands for Ciluba, F for French a~d 3 for Englis~.

---

70.
1) '.Vi thin ',fJords
Position
Type
Example
'iJords or Sentences
C
E
F
Initial
tce
pl,pr,sp
play, proud, spine
- + +
tCN
sm,sn
small, snake
- + -
i-Ne
mb,nd,nt
\\ .\\
d
'
, \\
mbu:J1,n ~:ta,ntatu
+
- -
iCS
tw,pj
t·Nice, pure
- + +
tcce
spl,skl,skr split, sclerosis,
- + -
scrupulous
lccs
spj ,sk'.....
spurius , square
- + -
l'!edial
-cc-
tr,kt
attractive
- + +
-CN-
sm
Christmas
- + +
-NC-
nd
endeavour;K;:nd~
+
+
+
-CS-
k'tl
acquire
- + +
-ccc-
:.<:sp
expell
- + +
-NCC-
mpl
employ
- + +
-NCS-
nk....
inquire
- + -
-CCS-
sk'tl
esquire
- + ...
Final
-ccI
bd
robbed
-
..
+
-NC.
mz
homes
- + -
-CN'
lm
film
- + +
-CCC~
kts,pst,ldz contacts,collapsed
- + -
__ ,.,:::J,
___ '"'
-
r"'''''~'
""'"'--
.,...,'"!"'"\\+-
I '_/\\-'
_~~'
'- ~ -~,.,
tents, attempt ,hands
- .;.- -
""T"'f
-I....;.:.. 'v
l::z
films
- + -
-GCCC~
ksts
texts
- + -
-i";CCC 1f,
:;l~~3,
r::~s~
exempts,~li~psed
- , - (1)
(1)
. ,
.\\
(
\\.-
)
mCU:J1
a sLe-goat
,
nd~:t~ (dreams)
ntatti (difficulties);
~
K«:nda (Droper name)

---

2) At word-juncture
Type
Example
','lords or sentences
e E F
CC
sf:
nice fellow
- + +
Ne
nk
thin kids
- + +
eN
tn
a bit nice
- + +
cs
dw
red window
- + -
eee
kgl
dark glasses
- + +
Nee
ntr
I
can try
- + +
Nes
mzw
He seems ".,reak
- + -
CCS
stw
the first ',.,rife
- + -
eeee
tstr
That's true
- + -
Neee
ntkr
r~y aunt cried
- + +
NeeS
mzkw
He seems quiet
- + -
eNes
lmzw
Fil:ns 'tlere nic e
- + -
eees
stk'..,r
Here's the first queen
- + -
eeeee
kstsr
Texts ;.,rritt en by •••
- + -
NeCee
ntskr
a bent screw
- + -
NeeeS
mptsw
He exempts women
- + -
eeees
stsk\\"
last square
- + -
eeeece
kstspr
next spring
- + -
Neeeee
mptstr
she tempts travellers
- + -
NeeeeS
mptstTtl
he attempts twice
- + -
Neeeeee
mptsstr
she tempts strangers
- + -

---

72.
The differences c~ be summarized in four points :
(i) There is nothing in 8iluba like the diversified set of clusters
encountered in English. Ciluba cluster patterning is essential
restricted to an initial nasal plus its plosive or fricative
counterpart (mp,mb,nt,nk,mv). English clusters such as pS,st,
ft,f9,skl,ksp,pts,pst,kts, ••• are not found in Ciluba and are
therefore a major stumbling-block for the learner (1) (2).
(ii) Since the Ciluba sylla~le is open, clusters occur in ~ord
initial and oedi31 ~ositions only, never finally or at
':lord junction: /mvUl'a.J "rain" ,jmba.:ya./ (proper name),
Imu:nt~/ It a man", ••• In :2nglish, clusters can occur in all
posi tions ·..... i thin 's'ords, or at ',.,rord junction : for example
in "spine", "expell", "texts", "he seems quiet". This
distribution of ~luste~s is therefore an additional source
of difficulty fo~ tje Ciluba learner.
(iii) English clusters can have up to three consonants ,~ithin
·..fords, and up to seven consonants at ~"rord junction. In
Ciluba, clustering is in general licited to two or three
consonants (3).
('1) 'rhis \\vas emphasized by SCHOLLAERr:I:, 3., "Consonant clusters:
A stum~ling-block fo~ :airians le3r~in~ =nglish'~ in A8T, p.7S
(2) ]rench has cl~s~er3 0: :~e ~ypes con30nan~ plus ;rl or /11
~hich do not occu~ either in the Ji!uba system.
( - ~
)
3ee description and ~he cont=3stiv~ chart above.
/

---

73.
(iv) English clusters also differ strikingly from those of Ciluba
in realizations. In English spoken at normal speed, there is
a strong tendency towards assimilation and elision (1). Such
processes play a far less important role in Ciluba, as the
number of clustering consonants in Ciluba is smaller than in
English. This may help the students in pronouncing clusters
of two related consonants, but the Ciluba speaker's difficul-
ty is serious when he has to produce clusters of up to saven
and, at times, very different consonants. Consequently,
learners are likely either to reduce the clusters to a single
consonant (pronounci:1g Itsl of 11 gets" as rge~l, for example)
or to insert a vowel between the cluster members by analogy
with the open sylla~le structure of their mother tongue
(consonant + vowel) : "contacts" pronounced as
C' k3n, taekt2s]
or 11 gets" as rget~s) , for example.
Similarly, under the i:1fluence of the open syllable of Ciluba,
the learner of ~nglish is likely either to add a vowel to the
final consonant of an English syllable, or to voice a final
unvoiced consonant because he is used to producing a voiced
(vowel) sound in this position.
(1) See Gimson and Gillisn 3ronn on this tendency in R? and
British ~nglish, bo~~ word internally and at word junction.
The tendency seems to be even ~ore pronounced in some dmerican
varieties of En~lish. In his recent Language The Loaded .veapon
(London, 1sec, p •.+2), J',dght Bolinger suggests that (kaent]
seems a likel'T "Dhonolo~ically legitimate descendant of
candidate".

---

3- Difference between English and Ciluba realizations of similar
consonants :
1) [P,t,k] are aspirated and tense in English but not in Ciluba
or in French. Consequently, lack of aspiration in words such
as "pit", "take" and "cat" is a likely mispronounciation.
2) Alveolar rt,d,n1 in English have alveo-dental equivalents in
Ciluba and French. The tip of the tongue is pressed against
the upper teeth in Ciluba. Thus, Ciluba [t,d,nl are slightly
front (use of the upper teeth rather than of the alveolar
ridge). Interference from this alveo-dental articulation is
likely to be a risk for Ciluba learners.
3) (l]Ciluba /1/ is always realized clear, whereas ~nglish has
t~o varieties : a clear ll] before vowels, and a dark one (~J
after a consonant or word finally. The danger here is that '
students Hill substitute clear [lJ for dark ones.
4) (r) : since the ?rench version is known to the students, the
latter will tend to produce ?rench rather than English [r] ,
i. e. 1:lith uvular instead of post-alveolar articulation.
4. English and Ciluba phonemes also differ markedly as to their
distribution : In Ciluba, consonants always occur before vowels
because the syllable is open. It is characteristic of Ciluba
that no consonant or consonant cluster occurs in ~ord final
position or before another consonant. English consonants on the
con~rary occur in all word positions before vowels or before
other con30nants.

---

75.
2.4. CONCLUSION
•
To conclude this chapter on contrastive analysis, we need
mention the following : There is nothing in common between the
three language systems as has been shown by the preceding discus-
sions. Ciluba and English sound systems totally differ as to both
seg~ental units and suprasegmental features. As a consequence, Luba
lea~ners of English are likely to produce a speech which is based
on their native language system and thus characterized as
un-English.
To begin with the suprasegmental features, the system of Ciluba
is completely different from that of 3nglish in the following
points : English has a different type of stress, rhythm and
intonation system. In other words, ~nglish makes use of :
(i) prominence by means of contrast between stressed and un-
stressed syllables;
(ii) rhythmic foot as unit of rhythm, i.e. a regular succession
of stressed syllables - ~ith the unstressed ones - the
former being given prominence (or speed) and the latter being
reduced or
weakened. Reduction is of most importance ,in the
English rhythm because the rhythmic foot is based on the
inter~lay of strong and weak forms.
(iii) an intonation system determined by nuclei or the most
prominent and most stressed syllables (or words) carrying
a pitch change, or/plus contrastive focuses by means of
which systematic contrasts ar9 9xpressed by the spe~ker.
Nuclei are determined not only by prominence, they are

---

76.
also meaningfUl, as they convey various functions and
attitudes in the sentence or utterance.
Intonation, stress and rhythm are all essential, and even
more essential to English speech than individual sounds.
As to Ciluba, the situation is not alike : nona o£ the above
elements is used in the same way. Stress, first, is
non-existent,
the native speaker utters sentences with relative equal force on
all the syllables, and the contrast between unstressed and stressed
syllables is completely unkonwn. Concerning the rhythm, as we have
no contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables, it is first
based on the syllable pronounced at the same rate as the others;
at the sentence level, rhythm is identified by groups or stretches
of syllables which, ultimately, are quite different from the
English rhythmic feet. The most important contrast between Ciluba
and English manifests itself as to intonation : Ciluba is
characterized not by tone-units as in English, marked by nuclei
and whose value is significant, prominent and contrastive, but by
low and high tonemes assigned to syllables whose role is particu-
larly semantic and grammatical and which have different reali~ations
in speech. In such a case, a tendency to use tones and to give
force m each syllable are likely to be the learners' most impmrtant
mistakes as the contrast between prominence (stress) and reduction
are totally ignored.
As far as the segmental units are concerned, differences are
also important :
(i) absence in Ciluba of the
English diphthongs, the central
vowels and the consonants such as e,6 and r is likely to

---

77.
produce phonological confusions on the part of the students;
(ii) absence of the many consonant clusters of English such as.
kts, ldz, pst,9s, ••• - within words and at word junction -
is likely to bring the same consequences;
(iii) a totally different articulation of vowels such as i:,i,
u:,u (tense) and consonants (t,d,l) is likely to produce
.errors of articulation.
This gives evidence that, when learning English, the Luba speaker
deals with something very difficult and radically opposed to his
native language, as a consequence, he may be expected to encounter
a lot of difficulties.
We shall end this discussion by saying something about the
French system. The French sound system also shows differences with
the other two languages (Ciluba and English) in that its supra-
segmental system includes stress identified by length of the last
stressed syllable of the rhythmic group. Rhythm is based on the
syllable uttered with e1ual force and on the rhythmic groups -
small or larger - made of stretches of syllables, and intonation
(based on rises and falls) does not display all the varieties used
in English and is not based on the nuclei as described above.
On the segmental level, French also stands in opposition with
English and.Ciluba. It is characterized first by the existence of
front rounded vowels (~,ea,y,~) unknown both in Ciluba and English.
Its vowels are generally pronounced tense, contrary to ~nglish,
t,d are dental (vs alveo-dental in Ciluba, and alveolar in ~nglish)
and clusters are typically made of consonant plus I or plus r. Ne

---

78.
must remember that the Luba student'knows French before he starts
learning English. We may say that the sound system of Standard
French, instead of helping the student produce correctly the
English speech, is likely to favour a pronunciation based on the
learner's mother tongue (Ciluba) system. We shall try to check
all this in the following field work.

---

P A R
T
TWO
ERR 0 R I D ENT I F I e A T ION
( D I ~ G NOS TIC
T EST S )

---

80.
Synopsis
Part two essentially consists of tests whose purpose is to
help identifying the students' errors and error systemain
spoken English. The tests ~ere developed by ourselves on the
basis of the main contrasts between.Ciluba and English with
regard to both distinct sounds and suprasegmental features.
They were administered to groups of Luba students representing
various levels of proficiency in English.
The learners' performance was evaluated and analyzed with
the help of native speakers of English and of Pr·ofessor
EOILEAU and Dr QUENCN for segmental units, and intrumental
phonetics ( a pitchmeter ) was used to check the analysis of
suprasegmental features. The role of this error identification
is significant as it serves as a jasis for the development of
corrective tests dealt with in Part Three •
..

---

CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION AND ADMINISTRATION OF TESTS
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.2. TEST ONE : DISCRIMINATION OF CONSONANTS
1.3. TEST TWO : DISCRIrUNATION OF VOwELS AND DIPHTHONGS
1.4-. TEST THREE :. PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS AND .JORD STRESS
1.5. TEST FOUR : PRODUCTION OF SUPRASEGl",;ENTAL FEATURES
1.6. TEST FIVE : PRODUCTION OF SUPRAS:2Gl·:ENTAL FEATURES
..

---

82.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
We used five tests, each conce~trating on a specific aspect
of English pronunciation. Test One and Test Two Rere intended
to check the learners' perception of distinct units ( consonants
and vowels ); Test Three had to deal with the production of the
same units and of word stress. As to Test Four and Test Five,
they had to evaluate the production of suprasegmental features
such as quantity, stress, rhythm and intonation. In other words,
both the learners' perception and production of distinct units
and ~peech features ~ere checked in this battery. As to production
in particular, it was evaluated in a reading text ( Test Four)
as well as in free conversation ( Test Five ). This was intended
fo find out ,Jhether or not the sucjects' pronunciation of English
could be different in these tNO types of speech.
The main features of our tests can be summarized as follows
1) the ~ords, sentences and texts used in each test were those
with ~hich learners ~ere assumed to be acquai=ted (1), or
borro~ed from books in use in ZaYrian schools.
2) each test was adapted to Ca) particular level(s) of proficiency,
that is ~hy some of them ~ere taken by the three levels, others
by the interffiediate and ad7anced levels, and the most difficult
ones by the advanced level alone. (2)
(1) personal ju~gment
(2) for "levels", see belo',v.

---

3) the tests were administered to the subjects in exactly the
same conditions according to the procedure and instructions
described for each.
4) where a spoken model was needed, it was supplied by a native
speaker of English recorded on a tape.
Sub.iects
Three levels of subjects were distinguished according to the
testees~ proficiency in English: elementary, intermediate and
advanced level. (1)
(i) the elementary level was represented by pupils of the third
and fourth years of secondary school;
(ii) the intermediate level by pupils of the fifth and sixth
years of secondary school;
(iii) and the advanced level by University and postgraduate
students.
Eight sub~ects were tested for each group and each of them
was assigned a n~mber. All included Luba girls and boys studying
in schools and universities of Zaire and 3elgium
(2). 3efore
(1) we have already said that 3nglish is taught in Zaire at the
secondary school level from t~e third to the sixth year, and
at University. The reason ~hy ~e distinguish three levels of
proficiency is to ~et a~ ~ll-ro~nd ~i~ture of the learr.ers'
pronunciation of ~nglish.
(2) Institut Jibwa(:-:bujimayi);Institut d'Application(:.:bujimayi);
Insti tut :':ua :;j adi (;';buj i:!:ayi) ; Insti tut l'Cola~liCJgandanj ika) ;
Insti tut :';0 butuC-:uene-Di tu) ; Insti tut 3uperieur Feiagogique
(r,jbujimayi)and also ULB, reuven and Liege Universities •
...

---

(
84.
taking the first test, they were asked to fill in a form which
supplied the following data :
1. ELEMENTARY LEVEL (1)
N~
NAME
SEX FORM
CILUBA
FRENCH
ENGLISH
S1
BINTU Kabeya
F
3P
Good
Good
Fair
S2
BONSO Katende
M
4SC
Good
Good
Poor
S3
MBlKAYI Lt1IIll)aya
M
3SC
Good
Good
Poor
S4
MBOMBO Kamalenga
M
4SC
Good
Good
Fair
S5
MPUTU Mubenga
F
4P
Good
Good
Fair
S6
MULUI"lBA Nkashama
M
3SC
Good
Good
Fair
S7
MBUYAMBA Mulundu
M
3P
Good
Good
Fair
S8
NSAI"!BA Kalanga
F
4P
Good
Good
Fair
2. INTERl13DIATE LEVEL
N~
lfAi'iE
SEX troRM
CILUBA
FRENCH
ENGLIBE
S9
ILUNGA P.
M
oBC
Good
Good
Fair
S10
KALALA Kanku
M
5SC
Good
Good
Fair
S11
KANKOLONGO K.
F
OP
Good
Good
Fair
812
T3HI BEf'IBA fir:
M
5P
Good
Good
~air
313
~;3r~~u Kalernba
F
SP
Good
Good
Fair
814
;'IUBE~JGA Lukusa
M
53C
Good
Good
Fair
S15
NYEr'ffil'iE Kashala
N
63C
Good
Good
Fair
S16
l';UTEBA M.
M
5P
Good
Good
Fair
(1) Abbreviations and exn13nations
good, fair, poor = proficie~:y in each of these :a~g~ages
r1 = male
? = fer.1ale
6SC = sixth year, scientific section
5P = fifth year, pedagogic section
..

---

85.
3. ADVANCED LEVEL
Ne
NAME
8EX SPECIALITY CILUBA FRENCH
ENGLISH
817
ILUNGA Lutumba
M
Geology
Good
Good
Fair
818
KABENGELE M.
M
English
Good
Good
Good
819
KABEYk TshikuKl M
Economics
Good
Good
Fair
820
KABONGO Nkanza
M
African
Good
Good
Fair
Li-terature
821
LUKUMUENA K.
M
EIfglish
Good
Good
Good
822
MBIKAYI Ntumba
M
English
Good
Good
Good
S23
NTUMBA Mpoyi
F
Secretary
Fair
Good
Fair
824
TSHIBANGU 11.
M Veterinary
Good
Good
Fair
The following are to be noted from the data :
(i) all the subjects speak Ciluba dialect dealt with here;
S23 has a fair knowledge of Ciluba; the reason why she
was tested was to check the probable impact Of, any. other
Zairian language on her English (1) ;
(ii) all have a good knowledge of ~rench; their proficiency in
English is ~cst of the time fair;
(iii) they speak Ciluba or French out of school; half of them
practise English at home from time to time, especially
the reading skills.
(1) she ~as brought up in Kinsh.S~ a Lingala speaking milieu.
She beca~e fa~iliar with Silu2a throug~ cer parents and a
fe'"
re~atives •
..

---

86.
1.'1. TEST ONE : DISCRlhINATION OF CONSONANTS
a) Description
The discrimination of consonants by students was checked in -",
this test through minimal pairs : the subjects had first to
listen to different pairs of words read on a tape by a native
speaker of English. Then, by means of an answer sheet, they ~ere
asked to determine whether or not the two words of each pair
~ad the sawe sounds.So, the subjects were supposed to work with
the tape and the ar.swer sheet, not with the word list. The test
was ta~en ~y all the testees.
b) Administration
(1) subcec~s sit in rows
(2) they a=e given answer sheets
(3) they ~rite their names, etc ••• on the answer sheets
(~) they are given instructions and examples
(5) instructions are repeated if any student fails to understand
Instructio~s to t~e sub~ects :
«
You will ~ear different pairs of words on the tape. Determine
~hether or not the two words of each pair include exactly the
same sounds. You are required to use your answer sheet and to
indicate yc~r choice by ticking the appropriate answer. A YSS
means that all the sounds are the same; a NO means that they
are different. For example:
1 .
[fei:!1 -
fseirnl
(different sounds)
2.
rfat1
[fat]
( same sounds )
3 •
..

---

87.
ANSWER
YES
NO
1.
V
2.
V
3. I---f--~
After each pair has been read out, a few seconds are allo~ed
to enable you to ~rite the ans~er. Start as you hear the first
signal, stop at the last one. Do you have queations? 11

---

88.
c) Answer sheet
Test One
Subject
Nr
School
Form-
Date
YES
NO
YES
NO
1 •
26.
2.
27.
3.
28.
4-.
29.
5.
30.
6.
31 •
7.
32~
8.
33.
9.
34-.
10.
35.
11.
36.
12.
37.
13.
38.
1-+.
39.
15.
4-0.
'16.
4-1 •
17.
4-2.
18.
4-3.
19.
4-4-.
20.
4-5.
21.
4-6.
22.
4-7.
23.
'+8.
2!.l..
~?
25.
50 •
...

---

89.
c) Word list
Ninimal pairs ( and distractors )
Consonants to be
djscovered
1.
some - some
2.
fan
van
" f/v
3.
three - tree
eft
4.
sit - sit
5.
fine - fine
5.
tie - die
t/d
7.
gin - chin
d3/t 5
8.
thing - thing
9.
cup - cup
10.
rise - rice
z/s
11.
hat - hat
12.
leaf' - leave
f/v
13.
promise - promise
14.
thy - die
~/d
15.
coat - goat
k/g
16.
bed - bed
17.
call - call
18.
live - live
19.
pit - bit
p/b
20.
would - ",lould
21.
pupil - pupil
22.
lady - lady
23.
cup - cub
p/b
24.
heart - hard
t/d
.25.
clever - clever
) r
_ 0 .
back - be.g
k/g
27.
staff - st"3.ff
28.
":iing - win
~/n
29.
zinc - sink
ir/s
30.
sick - thick
s/S

---

90.
~inimal pairs (-and distractorS) Consonants to be
discovered
31.
man - man
32.
sand - sand
33.
they'll - veil
34-.
thy - thigh
35.
eyes - eyes
36.
singer - sinner
37.
ridge - rich
38.
than - than
39.
ones - ones
4-0.
beg - beg
4-1.
draw -
jaw
dr/d3
4-2.
night - night
4-3.
cold - cold
4-4-.
teethe - teeth
4-5.
bird - bird
4-6.
path - path
4-7.
rise - -tlri the
z/5
4-8.
thin - fin
elf
4-9.
trees - cheese
tr/tS
50.
food - foo<:1
..

---

1.3 TEST TWO: DISCRIMINATION OF VOw~ AND DIPHTHONGS
a) Description
Like in Test One, the perception of vowels and diphthongs by
the students was tested by using a tape-recorder. The subjects
were asked to hear a word on the tape and to select it from two
possibilities offered on the answer sheet. All the words given
on the ans~er sheet were presumed to be kno~n by the subjects. In
order to avoid the problems of proficiency in the subjects'
answers, we began by checking the pronunciation of each word by
the subjects. Correct pronunciation and word meaning Nere then
provided by ourselves whenever necessary before the test
administration. This test was taken by the subjects of the
intermediate and the advanced levels.
b) Administration
(1) students sit in rows
(2) they are given answer sheets
(3) they write their names, etc ••• on the answer sheets
(~) the pronunciation and meaning of each word is checked
(5) they are siven instructions and examples
(6) instructions are repeated if any student wishes to
Instructions to the students
" The voice on the tape will pronounce one word at a time. For
the two words offered for each number in your answer Sheet,
choose the one you think you have heard on the tape. Do so by
ticki:1g -:.That is appropriate. Here is an example
~l. (si: t 1
2.

---

92.
ANSWER:
1.
A. sat
B. seat
V
2.
A. ...
B. ...
A small pause follows each item. Start as soon as you hear the
first signal, stop at the last ona. Do you have questions? "
..

---

93.
c) Answer sheet
Test Two
Student
Nr - - - - -
School
Form - - - -
Date
1.
A.cub
16.
~.ply
46.
A.boat
. ,
I - -
I - -
r -
B.cab
B.play
B.bought
2.
A.match
17.
~.tool
32.
47.
A.car
I - -
-
-
B.march
B.tall
B.coo
A.bit
18.
lA.mare
33.
48.
A.mow
I - -
I--
-
B.bet
B.more
.lier
B.mower
4.
A.coat
19.
lA.coin
34.
.sheep
49.
A.shot
' - -
'--
-
B.cot
B.com
.ship
B.short
5.
A.bun
20.
A.pull
35.
.set
50.
A.barn
f -
r--
-
B.barn
B.pool
.sat
B. born
,..
o.
A.hour
21.
~.so
36.
.tour
f -
-
B.how
B.saw
7.
A. beard
22.
A.player
37.
, - -
'--
B.bead
B.play
8.
A.high
23.
A.low
38.
B.higher r-
B.IO'.·/er -
9.
A.seen
24.
A.pot
39.
B.sin
I - -
B.port
f -
10. A.bed
25.
A.employ
40.
f -
I - -
B.bad
E.employer
11. A.sure
26.
A.cup
4-1.
r -
I - -
B. shoe
B.cap
12. A.care
"7 .
~
.
A.cat
42.
' - -
B.car
B.cart
I - -
B.call
)Q
A.mai::
.
-~
A.sit
43.
A.dare
B.men
r -
B.se":
f - -
B.door
;0
14. A.man
-
.
~'
A.roed
'+4.
A.part
r -
I"":'"
B.men
B.rod
B.port
A.one
30.
A.hut
45.
A.full
I -
B.,farn
B.he&rt f--
B.fool
...

---

94-.
d) Word list
Tested ·...... ord / Distractor
Tested sound / Distractor
1.
cub
cab
1\\
0It
2.
match
march
'at
<1:
3.
bit
bet
i
e
4-.
coat
cot
au
')
5.
bun
barn
1\\
<:1:
6.
hour
hoW'
aua
au
7.
beard
bead
ia
i:
8.
high
higher
ai
ai~
9.
seen
sin
i:
i
10.
bed
bad
e
ae
11 •
sure
shoe
.u..a
u:
12.
care
car
la
d.:
13.
main
men
e~
e
14-.
man
men
'de
e
15.
one
-.'iartt
1\\
:):
16.
ply
play
ai
ei
17.
tool
tall
u:
~:
18.
mare
more
£a
J:
.
19.
coin
corn
:>:
J\\
20.
pull
pool
u
u:
2'1.
so
sa1tl .
au
?:
22.
player
play
eia
ei
23.
low
lower
dV
aVa
24-.
pot
port
;:)
j :
25.
employ
employer
~\\
:)\\0
?,-
cup
cap
f\\
Ci.
_ 0 .
27.
cat
cart
C£
<:1:
28.
sit
set
i
e
?O
- ..
",
road
rod
dV
J
30.
hut
heart
1\\
a.~

---

I
r
95.
!
Tested word / Distractor
Tested sound / Distractor
31.
bower
bow
a.u~
du
I
32.
beer
bee
ia
i:
33 •
lie
lier
ai
aia
34-.
sheep
ship
i:
i
35.
set
sat
e
a
36.
tour
two
ua
u:
37.
bear
bar
ta
cL:
38.
tale
tell
ei
e
39.
bad
oed
~
e
4-0.
but
bought
1\\
:):
4-1.
fight
fate
ai
ei
42.
cool
call
u:
:l:
4-3.
dare
door
£a
~:
44-.
part
port
a:
;):
4-5.
full
fool
u
u:
4-6.
boat
bought
au
~.•
4-7.
car
coo
Cl:
u:
4-8.
mow
mower
d U
~u~
4-9.
shot
short
;)
';):
50.
barn
born
CL:
:>:
..

---

96.
1.4. TEST THREE
PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS AND WORD STRESS
a) Description
In this test, each subject was presented a list of twenty-
five pictures with their names and phonetic transcriptions on
a list. After ten minutes, the list of names was removed; the
subject was then asked to assign a name to each picture and
his performance was recorded. This test was intended to check
the production of sounds and word stress, not vocabulary. That
is why a phonetic transcription was provided for each name. The
list of names was removed to allow direct production of sounds
and avoid reading. The test was administered individually to
all the subjects.
b) Administration
(1) the student sits in front of the teacher
(2) he is presented two lists, one for the pictures and another
one for the names
(3) he is given instructions
(4) the list of names is removed after ten minutes
(5) the student begins the test
Instructions to the student :
" Look at the pictures and at their names on the second list.
You have ten minutes. Jhen you hear a signal, stop looking at
the names. Looking at the pictures only, try to give the right
name. Start as soon as you are told. Do you have questions? M
..

---

r
97.
c) Pictures
~
1.
9.
o
2.
10.
18.
20.
6.
14.
22.
O~ El
' - . . . . l _
< ~ ca
_ _
-\\.J
23.
15.
~O<l/-/
~O::
A0 /
24.
1\\
LY
16.
..

---

98.
d) Names
1 •.. app:l.e
(~p~1
2.
hat
(h~)
3.
cake
[k"eikl
4.
shoe
ffu:)
5.
handbag
[t hC!ndb~g1
ro.
saucepan rl s,): span)
7.
bottle
rl b)t~)
8.
car
(k"rt:)
9.
suitcase
f' sju:tkeis)-
10.
umbrella ("m'brel~1
11.
flowers
(I flauaz1
12.
tomato
[ta'mCl:t-au]
13.
fish
[fi~l
14.
watch
[~,)t5J
15.
foot
[fut]
16.
bicycle
r'baisik~l
17.
plane
[p~ein)
18.
bird
[bCl:d]
19.
tree
[tri:1
20.
horse
[l11: S )
21.
house
(:-:dus]
22.
glasses
[' g3=C1:siz)
23.
sun
[sAn)
24.
cup
(kAp)
25. telephone
(I th.elif'1Unl
..

---

99.
1 • 5. TEST FOUR
PRODUCTION OF SUFRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
a) Descri'Otion
In Test Four, each sUbject is asked to read out an English
text. We had selected three texts, each corresponding to one
of the three levels : Text A ("The l"larket ll )
was intended for
the elementary level; Text B ("On an African Farm") for the
intermediate level; Te·xt C (" An ~nglishman abroad") for the
advanced level. The test Nas administered individually and its
purpose was to evaluate the production of suprasegmental features
by the subjects. However, the grammar and vocabulary of each
text were revised before the test in order to make sure that
the subjects understood everything.
b) Administration
(1) the student sits in front of the teacher
(2) he is presented the text and asked to listen to a model
reading on tape (instructions)
(3) grammar and vocabulary are revised
(~) the student starts reading out the text while his voice is
recorded on the tape
Instructions to the student
n
Listen carefully to the tape. 'N'hen it stops, say if you wish
to hear it a second or a thi~d time. Then ask questions about
vocabulary and grammar. Nhen you hear the signal, start reading
out the text. Do it as clearly as possible. Do you have other
questions? "
..

---

100.
c) Text A ( elementary level)
THE MARKET
Yesterday Marie had a holiday. She stayed at home and helped
her mother, Mrs Malu. At nine o'clock they went to the market by
bus. There were a lot of people in the bus. Mrs Malu took a
basket. They arrived at the market at hal~'past nine.
Mrs Malu stopped at a fruit stall. She bought some bananas
there. She bought twelve bananas. She bought a dozen. She wanted
to buy some potatoes too, but there were no potatoes at the stall.
There were plenty of onions and carrots, but no potatoes.
Then they went to a grocery stall. Mrs Malu needed some eggs.
The eggs were quite cheap, and she bought half a dozen. She
bought h~lf a kilo of sugar, too.
Marie looked at some chickens. She asked the price of the
chickens~ but they were very dear.
They visited many stalls, but at last the morning ended and
it was time to go home. Marie walked ~ith her mother to the
bus station. They naited there, and at last a bus came. They
got into it. It stopped near their house, and they arrived home
at quarter to one.
from CARTLEDGE, R.A. and BALY, T.J.C.
An ~glish Course for French-Sneakers,
200k~Lcngman, London, 1965 •
..

---

101.
d) Text B ( intermediate level)
ON AN AFRICAN FARM
Every year it was the same : there were always great flocks
of birds that laid waste the crops and we, the children, had
always to drive them away.
If
I've got my sling If, I said. I had brought it with me, and
here I carried it all the time, both when I was watching the
cattle graze and when I was guarding the crops from the top of
the look-out post.
These posts played an important part in my visits to Tindican
everywhere these platforms could be seen, mounted on forked
stakes that seemed to be floating on the great flowing seas of
~he harvest fields. With my little· playmates I climbed the ladder
to one of them and scared the birds, and sometimes the monkeys,
that came to raid our fields. At any rate, that is what we were
supposed to do, and we did it Nithout grumbling, for it was a
pleasure rather than a duty. But it sometimes happened that we
were absorbed in other games, and forgot why we had been sent
there. And though I did not suffer for this forgetfulness, my
playmates often did; their parents were not slow to discover that
the crops had not been carefully watched, and then, according to
the quantity of damage that had been done,. careless 'Natchers 'dere
scolded or beaten, and in this way they were made more vigilant.
from CARTLEDGE, R.A. and BALY
T.J.C.
t
An English Course for ?re~ch-SD9akers,
Book 11, Longman, London,
..

---

102.
e) Text C ( advanced level)
AN ENGLISHMAN ABROAD
Tom Delaney, a well-known journalist and foreign correspondent,
is broadcasting a short talk on some recent experiences. Listen.
I've travelled much and seen mankind in its various forms, but
I'm always more surprised by our similarities than our differences.
We drink, laugh, eat, sleep and die more or less the same way
everywhere. That we manage to be different at all amazes me. And
soon these differences too ~ill disappear. We'll become one world-
wide nationality - and perhaps the better for that - speaking one
language, wearing one style of clothes, eating the same tood,
driving the same cars, with the same appliances in our homes and
the same programmes on our television sets.
This was made clear to =e recently on my last trip abroad, when
I was travelling in a remote part of the North African desert. I
was approaching an old fort ':ihich
1
'.vanted to see, when suddenly
I felt a figure behind me. I turned and saw a tribesman pointing a
gun at me. Neither of us could speak each other's language. I waved
my hands ~ildly in a gesture of inquiry, but he made no sign and
pushed me forward'towards a tent standing nearby. I ~ent in, never
expecting to see daylight again. The T.an followed me in. Then he
put down his gun on the floor and got a kettle out of his bag. A
smile spread across his face. "Tea?" he asked.
A cup of tea! I who had feared for my life was being offered a cup
of tea. Two thousand miles from ho~e the hajit was the same, and
the kettle ',\\"as one of British ::la::e. I '",as filled"'i th relief. I felt
in that moment that'.e cOllld solve all "'Che ':.orld I S ~roblems by
dissolving t~9m ~ith sllgar i~ a si~p19 ~up of tea!
froo De ?REITAS, J.F.,
To start you Jractising,
i'-:acr!1illan, London, 1974, p.39
..

---

103.
1.6. TffiT FIVE : PRODUCTION OF SUPRASEGl"IENTAL FEATURES
a) Description
The testees Nere asked to talk about themselves in this test.
The main purpose here was to find out whether or not there was
a difference between the subjects' pronunciation in answers
formulated freely and their performance in reading out a text
( Test Four ). In order to elicit such free answers, we devised
questions about the testee's name, home-address, village of origin,
education, profession he hoped to engage in, family background and
relations, likes and dislikes, •• (1~The test was administered
individually and lasted about fifteen minutes. It was taken by
the subjects of the elementary, intermediate and advanced levels.
The questions were simple, anything that was not understood was
explained until everything was clear. The conversation was recorded.
b) Administration
(1) the student sits in front of the teacher
(2) he is given instructions
(3) the teacher starts asking questions; the conversation is
recorded.
Instructions to the student
" Listen to each qt:.estion and try fo provide an anSi-ler. Tell me
whenever a question is not clear to you. Do you have questions? "
(1) Particularly with the advanced level,we sometimes used a
student to ask questions •
..

---

CHAPrER II. ANALYSES AND RESULTS
2.1. ~NTRODUCTION
2.2. PERCEPTION OF SOUNDS ( TEST ONE + TEST TWO)
2.2.1. Analysis
2.2.2. Results
2.2~2.1. Consonants
2.2.2.2. Vowels
2.3. PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS AND ·,<JORD STRESS ( TEST THREE)
2.3.1. Analysis
2~3.2. Results
2.3.2.1. Errors due to Ciluba
2.3.2.2. Errors due to French influence
2.3.2.3. Errors due to spelling pronunciation
2.3.2.~. Errors due to lack of attention
2.~. PRODUCTION OF SUPRASEG~ffiNTAL
?EATURES
TEST FOUR + TEST FIVE
2.~.1. Analysis
2.~.2. Results
2.~.2.1. Quantity
2.~.2.2. Stress
2.~.2.3. Rhythm and segmentation
2.~.2.~. Intonation
2.5. CCNCLUSICN
..

---

105.
2.1. INTRODUCTION
In order to analyze the results of our tests, we divided the
subjects' performances into three groups according to the aspect
of English pronunciation that was tested :
1) perception of sounds ( Tests One and Two)
2) production of sounds ( Test Three )
3) production of suprasegmental features ( Tests Four and Five)
For each aspect, the subjects' performances were analyzed into
scores and an interpretation of the results ~asgiven. Sound
discrimination was analyzed by correcting the answer sheets; Sound
production was analyzed by ourselves with the help of a native
speaker, of Professor BOILEAU and Dr QuE:rc~, the production of
suprasegmental features was analyzed by using a pitchmeter.

---

106.
2.2. PERCEPTION OF 80UNDS
2 .2<~1. Analysis
The scores for Test Une ani Test Two are given in the following
diagrams.
For Test Une, the first column on the left lists the number of
each item, the second lists the consonants tested, while the third
gives the word pairs in ~hich the sounds were found. Each word (
served to test only one consonant. The columns numbered 81, 82, 83,
84, ••• (1) give each student's performance: a hyphen (-)
represents correct discrimination; a "c" means confusion between
the two consonants.
As to Test T~o, the diagram is the same as for Test One, except
that instead of using "c", we give the error heard by the student.
A hyphen alw~ys stands for correct performance.
(1) 81=Subject Nr 1;82=Subject Nr 2; •••
..

---

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- - - - - -
- 3"\\1,0 V 'SI
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- -
- \\tP"\\lJJ ae .~,
a
-
-
- -
- - - -
- () -
- ~ -
- ~'UJ Y1) '£"
-
-
- - -
-
:'P
-
-
\\1)
:0
tl'
:p
ro
-
-
N'p)
e3 ·tl
:lY
-
- - : TY' ~l\\'" - - -
- :'T - :Y\\"' : W" :,-y- : yY"" Nf'\\f;J e"'1Y"' ."
-
- ae - ~ - ae - - ~
-
{C
~
ae ?e
-
rn~
~ '0\\
- -
- - -
- - - - - - -
-
- -
- '\\)(tfbu :r 'b
- - -
- e~e - - -
- e)e -
-
- - e~e - +'!'J( le '8
- -
-
- - - - - - ~r. - - - - - - ~~ er 'L
- -
-
- - - - - - - - - 'Tl~ - - - vn0't e,,'P '~
-
-
-
\\1)
-
:1)
~"O
rp
':"0
-
tU
rn
:-p
:17
- :p
WT'fC'J
V
'S
- - - C
- I•.
-
-
- - - - - - -
-
-
lPO) ne 'If
-
- - () -
- () - -
'f:
- -
-
-
- -
-
,~~
l"
-
- - -
-
-
:1)
- rJ) -
- - - - ~"JJ <e 'l;
-
--
- - - -
- -
- -
- - te - ~ v ' r
-
-
-
-Ites re c; rt~ les °te; ,,'s l'C; tIC; "s 9'5 ""5 us t,~ ifS Ol~ b~ <i: tt ()fll\\ (fVnoc;
-
O~J.. ..1-; 3.1..
"

---

---

111.
2.2.2. Results
2.2.2.1. Consonants
Observation of the scores of Test One reveals that the
discrimination of RP consonants does not present much difficulty
to the students. As a matter of fact, 70,7~ of t~e subjects'
performances were correct in this test; errors-were found in
2~,3~ only. Moreover, ~1,7~ of the· subjects recognized the
majority of the consonants ( more than 25 sounds out of the 50
that were tested ), while 2,5% only recognized less than 25 sounds
and thus appeared to encounter some difficulty as to consonant
perception.
The most important confusions appeared bet~1een the following
sounds
a) dental [e ]and the consonants
et ,s ,f1
, e.g.
a - t
in
three - tree
e - s
in
thick - sick
Q- f
in
thin - fin
b) dental [J] and the consonants
~ , e.g.
J- v
in
they'll - veil
8 - z
in
writhe - rise
c) unvoiced consonants and their voiced counter-Darts, esoecially
in -,-lord .:'inal oosition, e.g.
t
-
d
in
tie - die ; heart - hard
s - z
in
sink
- zinc
; ~ice - rise
e.

---

~-cf
in
teeth - teethe
p
b
in
pit - bit ; cup - cub
.
k
g
in
coat
,
~
goat
back - bag
tf
dj
in
chin - gin ; rich - ridge
d) the nasals C and n ; e.g.
n -n.
in
singer '"9 sinner
in
wing - win
~ -no
e) the affricate d~ and the cluster dr , e.g.
d3 -clr
in
jaw - draw
As may be seen from the preceding, those
confusions
particularly concern two types of sounds; first, sounds not
existing in Ciluba such as e, g,
dr, d5' and second, sounds
existing in Ciluba but occurring in a different environment,
e.g. the nasal ~
and the unvoiced consonants which never occur
finally in words in Ciluba. In other words, although there are
no major mistakes, tte perception of RP consonants is made
difficult by interferences from the sound system of Ciluaa.
2.2.2.2. Vowels
RP vowels and diphthongs present almost the same difficulty
as consonants : 78,3 % of performances were correct in Test Tw·o,
while confusions were made in 21,7~ only. The most striking
confusions were between :
u - u:
in
pull - pool ; full - fool
in - pot - port ; shot - short
..

---

b) diphthongs and single vowels, e.g.
.
ei
e
in
tale
tell ,
main
men
u3
u:
in
sure - shoe
;
tour
two
3u
~:
in
so
saw
•
, boat
bought
c) vowels with different quali trY or aDerture, e. g.•
e
- a t
in
bed
bad
•
, set
sat
Cl:
- 0:
in
barn - born
1\\ - 4:
in
bun - barn •,
hut
heart
d) diphthongs Nith triphthongs, e.g.
ai
aia
in lie
liar
::>i
:Ji,.a
in employ
emnloyer-_'
As already observed, most confusions are due to interference
from the sound system of Ciluba. They occur when a sound (vowel
and dinhthong) does not exist in Cilu;'a : for example, the sounds
I A , ei , ai , ~i ,au
,u~ I. However, other confusions such as
those between u - u: ,
~ - :): , a: - J:
,~:a - a.:
,:>i - :>ia , •••
are to be accounted for by such things as lapse of attention, noise
in the classroom, model voice difficult to hear when played, and so
on.
To conclude, we may say that interference
from mother tongue is
the main source of difficulty in discriminating individual sounds,
it also accounts for semantic confusion •
..

---

114.
2.3. PRODUCTION OF 80UNDS
2.3.1. Analysis
80und production was evaluated in Test Three. The tables for this
test are provided in the following pages: the numbers 1,2,3, •••
(first column on the left) refer to the items. The second column
gives a model pronunciation, while the third one gives the word.
Each subject's pronunciation is indicated in columns 81,82,83, •••
and one can find out the error(s) made by the subject by comparing
each transcription with the model pronunciation.
In order to transcribe the subjects' pronunciations, we
basically relied on the English sound system, that is, on the
symbols provided in our description of the English sounds. For
example, if a sUbject pronounces the second sound of "hat" as
[ei) instead of CM) , the transcription will be [hei ~
• However,
the following li~itations were noticed in this method:
a) For some errors we could not find
rI8ht symbols in English
as the sounds did not belong to the English syst"em. \\ve therefore
made use of diacritical marks which were added to the existing
sounds. For example when a subject pronounced an open [E)of
Ciluba instead of the English (e1 , we transcri bed it as (to)
(the diacritical mark here meaning "open variety").
b) other sounds were difficult to define with regard to any of
the three systems (Ciluba, English and French), due to the
subject's hesitation or to the noise in the classroom \\~hile
recording. In such cases the sound ~vas assimilated to the
nearest sound in one of the three systems and represented
according to :he ~Jove sectioced ~ethod. ?or exa~ple, ~n [e)
':;hich was pronounced bet':leen "Che English re) and the Ciluba tE)
could be assi~ilaterl to [t) and transcri bed
[~].

---

115.
c) For some sounds, it was necessary to use more than one
diacritical
mark. For example, t t:) means that the sound
was pronounced long and front; and [_:~means that the sound
+
was pronounced long, front, with lips rounded. For others, no
diacritical mark was available. For example, shortening of the
English (a.:) by the subjects was simply transcribed as [Cl) ,
no diacritical mark was found to indicate vowel shortening.
Here are the diacritical marks that we used: (1)
· placed after the letter means that the sound is long (a:)
+
placed under the letter means an advanced variety (~)
indicates that the following syllable has strong stress, e.g.
[im'p~:tl
indicates that the following syllable has secondary stress,
e.g. [kan,sid~'rei~n1
placed under the letter means an open variety (e)
c.
placed under the letter means a close variety (e)
•
•
•
placed after the letter means that the sound is halt-long (~.)
,
placed after the letter means lips rounded (~,)
~ means lips spread (u~
"
placed under the letter means dental articulation (t)
1'1
•
placed above a letter means palatalization (z)
placed under a letter means a retracted variety (£)
h
placed above and after a letter means aspiration.
Absence of
h after a p,t,k means lack of aspiration.
e
placed after the letter means weak aspiration (p&)
~
placed above a letter means a nasalized sound (a)
~ sou~d written a~ove as 1 in (b~tllmeans weak articulation; the
sound is hardly heard.
(1) See The PrinciDles of the International Dhonetic Association,
pp. 16 s q q
•

---

116.
a ~phen used alone means that the word was not read by the
subject (it is regarded as a mistake)
It is important to note that our evaluations in this test
are both subjective and relative :
(i) By "subjective" we mean that, working with
the recordiI].gs,
it was hard for us to observe, for example, the position of
the organs of speech while the subject was uttering the
English sounds. As a consequence, evaluations are mainly
dependent on our personal ear, which is a non-native's one.
(ii) The evaluations are "relative" because we think that if a
non-native is said not to have a good accent of English,
reference is made not to an ideal level, but to the average
level of the speake~ in question. To put it differently, our
students are evaluated with reference not to an ideal native
level but rather to an acceptable pronunciation. We may give.
an example, in 821, we note [u) like in English for the word
"foot" because ~hen compared with the other non-natives'
pronunciations , it seems to us more English. ';;hereas for
824, for example, this sound seems far from being acceptable
in English (long French or Ciluba (u:]
). That's ','ihy we
noted ['!:). '..ie have to make it clear that our purpose is not to
~et
spies, i. e. people ;;hcse level is exactly the same as the
native speaker's; this is quite illusory arid seems to us the
thing aimed at by English in their English classes. We indicate
as correct a form pronounced not as a native speaker should
~o, but ,qith an acceptable level in English. =~e spy~s level
is very hard to reach.
ef course, ~hat has j~st been said concerns all:phonic or
errors of articulation. Phonological errors are ve~y dangerous
,

---

117.
because they are of much handicap in communication, that's why
we have transcribed all of them. For example, pronunciation of
(t] instead of Cd) in (bid) brings in a coni'usion between [bid)
and [bit]". Such errors are regarded as most dangerous and are
always noted in the following tables. However, pronunciation of
a French (ul instead of the English one in "foot" "as mentioned
above does not bring in semantic confusions, such errors show
differences of accent; they are regarded as less dangerous than
the former.

---

118.
Items Model
Word.
81
82
83
84
Transriotion.
1.
.p~
apple
eipat
f.:~
hca:tJ,
R.: -t'
2.
hMt
hat
"'~=.t
h<At
- L\\..t
+
3.
kheik
cake
kh.eik
kttik
Lc~ik
ke:k
4.
Su:
shoe
Ju.
~IA:
~~:
~I,,(~
••
.
5.
'h88ndb_g
handbag
I h't:W\\dbe:a~ I hel"db?1
'~el'\\cl~
le:~~
6.
's~ :span
saucepan
'A~U:4fn.
4')-1'1'4:-n.
.1,4'):t--
14?~""
7.
b~t%
bottle
b':)t~~ .
b~tt
),.a~~
1-~ +
1'\\
~r'\\
8.
khCS:
car
~Q.:
~ Clt.~
b~
~
9.
'sju:tkeis
suitcase
I~~u.·tkt:%. 'Awi~'<ei'2.. IA,uk.t:2- J4wi~:z.
10.
Am 'breI'
umbrella
I I\\Mbt-~13
1~W\\b,"wQtra l h2.Mb~ 1~~elQ.
il.~llaz
...
+
11.
flauaz
flowers
~\\ a.u~z.
f1?h.t "
l!~UZ
12.
t4)'m((:tau
tomato
X'4'WI a: t')~
,cj1mCl: t~
Ik~MQb~ k';)lmd.:b
,. ..
" . 1\\
+1'\\
"
"
13.
fi$
fish
,~r
i~:S
1at:1\\
+::5
14.
WJtr
watch
W~~
W,?:t)
?~~
'):~
15.
fut
foot
1u~~
~
~.};-
-{u:l:
16.
'baisikl
bicycle
'baisikik
'ba.i~ik*,
Ib~~
I b~~ikt
to
17.
pl'ein
plane
t±eif't
1'-.te~",.
~:'l'\\.
~:'l\\
18.
b a:d
bird
1.ra:d
.t-'d: cl
+h~:d
.k:cl
19.
tri :.
tree
kr\\:
lr,ie
kri
.t.ri
20.
h :>: s
horse
h?:4
~j:~
'nQl:~
hauA
21.
ha.us
house
hau.z.
haloA2.
hauA
~
..
22.
gtCl: siz
glasses
~.e:4i2.
~si:'2.
~t:z. 1c:l:~
23.
sAn
sun
AAY\\.
AA: 'Y\\"
~,,'V\\
,«{""
24.
k~p
cup
k 1,'",",
kA~
kl\\-1V
~
25.
'thelifaun
telephone
\\bJ.e.f~n..
I~
l.oJ.f'J~
l~~
..

---

119.
Items Model
Word
'S5
S6
S7
S8
Transcription
'1.
_pt
apple
Q,.t-a*
he:+l
..c.:~
eipk
2 ..
haet
hat
e.:t
h.: ....
~~~~
"e:b
3 .-
kheik
cake
k.c~\\(
k.t.ik
k."e:k
~ik
4.
~ u:
shoe
5104:
.
5':1:"1.
h~
$I.l'
.'
5.
'haendbaag
handbag
'et\\cl~
'~et\\dbt~
l~e~be:1 'awdbt~
6.
's =»:span
saucepan
l4):4P~~
'A~:t-'a.
4~A.'1'4:~ "h~4fan
7.
b:;,ti:
bottle
b~tak
Q~t-a*
b:)~':)k
b~tA:
h
k 4:
~:
'"
l~a',
"
8.
car
~:
kt~r
a
4W'
:1.
. / .
'sju:tkeis
suitcase
14~: ~~(i'Z.
4wi:J1'\\c.aMz. I
.tk.£
'4Jl.lttti2.
10.
Am'brell
umbrella
'~~~bra~a. ~W\\'bYelCiill '~:W\\br-af(;4 1\\W\\'br,.l«
+
...
+
11.
fl.au~z
flowers
{r?e~z.
,ta"U'i~
1b~~2.
-tlalA~2. -to
12.
ta'm4:t,u
tomato
1;hj ' rt'\\GL:t~
X.,'MCl:b
t\\
*..~IVt\\d:t? t?'"",,~·b
~+:~
"
"
"n
13.
fi!
fish
~~tS
~:r
ff:~
14.
W)t~
watch
wJ~~
,:~
W?:~
W?:t5
15.
fut
foot
~
~:t--
tf:t-
~:r
16.
'baisik3:
bicycle
.t.G~'si~?~ '6.ai1i~t
bca'4'lk3~
Ibai\\i~t
+
thiV\\
17.
plein
plane
~~'"
thir\\
-rJ.ta~'\\'\\
18.
ba:d
bird
~'a:d
t-e:~
.t-a:d
.9ra:)d
-+'
k ...i
krwi
tri:
19.
tri:
tree
A"n:
20.
h':>:s
horse
l-ta\\M
~?:-1
'):~
?=1
21.
baus
house
auZ.
~ac.M
~a:~
h~
22.
g'ia: siz
glasses
~I:'Z.
~:4i:2
~:J1i:2. ~~2
.
23.
SAn
sun.
-1~)~
41\\~
4M\\
AI\\ '\\'\\
+
24.
khAP
k,,~
k.e.l'"
cup
kl.~~
"-"~
25.
' thelif"aun
telephone
I t....t.i~?:"Y\\
1~~W\\
't"-~':l:'" '.tL\\it')~
n
"

---

120.
Items Model
Word
89
810
811
812
Transcription
1.
aep7
apple
e:tk
hep~i:
~..t~k
e~~
2.
haet
hat
ne'='
he:r
~'a':-t'
~dA;
3.
kheik
cake
k..e:k
kei.k
~:k.
kt.:k
4-.
~u:
shoe
S~~
ju:
.s lA :
5u.-a-
•
•
5.
'haendbaag
handbag
'~be~
I'.e.~~:~ h~nd'be:, 'l-t--r\\Ciba3
6.
'sJ:sp~n
saucepan
I S~d:~r\\
-1 ?A re:'V\\. . -1,~lfe~l\\.
4?~<:il~'\\'\\.
7.
b'Jt%
bottle
bJt*"
b'J~t:k
b~t-,*
k'J
8.
khcU
kc~"
-6:
ka.~r
hl\\
car
k. GIC.:
+-
9.
'sju:tkeis
suitcase
l~wi~k(lt·1. 'Awi~k.Q12.
'~witk.t.~4 '-wt-ui2,
10.
" nr'brel-a
umbrella
eW\\'b...e\\d.
lh~mbr~\\et <:C.MI b...~ l<:C. I~~,,"~\\~
+-
...
+
11 •
flauaz
flowers
,\\ au~,-
tl":)w~'2.
~'auer4
t\\aua'l
12.
t~'mCl:tau
tomato
l
t3 Me:ba4
t?'MQ(.:b
X.,Imc;A.: t-~ \\~.,~t?
13.
fi~
fish
~:r
n
'"
~\\r
~:~
h:s
14-.
iV;,tJ
watch
W':lCS
W?:tf
W?:t}
W?tf
15.
.ru~
foot
~
~;t:
~~.t
16.
'baisikl:
bicycle
b.1;'-1i k~
'b~:Oi~:~k
t.:·IM.k.l~r I~k.t
17.
p3:ein
plane
¥et~
~:"t\\.
1le-:n
~i\\'\\
18.
ba:d
bird
~:J
.k:cl
Jr~~rd
bi:d
krwi :
lA. .
Xr~:
1:1"'\\:
19.
tri:
tree
V".c.:
.".
-
20.
h~:s
horse
h;:):~
h.,~.4
~~r..,.
~"j:~
21.
haus
house
~~
~auA
a.uA
h.~
22.
gi~: siz
glasses
,J,.~:~l2.. ~:2 ~:"2. ef.a.:..4iz.
23.
SAn
sun
4'\\';\\"
4"~
Aa.:"Y\\.
~;~
24-.
khAP
cup
'~\\i~')n l~~
25.
'thelifaun
telephone I~~
,~,:"t\\,. k.~~
k~14~•~u\\'\\.

---

121.
Items Model
Word
. 813
81~
815
816
Transcription
1.
-p~
apple
?\\1'-
"-ar-a!
ttk
.act*
2.
heet
hat
GK
"-tt
+
~t~t
"-e.r
"
3.
kheik
cake
ke·k
~~ik
ktik
~t:k.
~.
Iu:
shoe
S~·
SU~~
~U·
S:) •
5.
'ha.nbaeg
handbag
, ef\\db~:~
'~tMdb~ '~ ..
t"abtca
I~!l~
6.
'S;): sp~n
saucepan
'A')~1"'~:~ IA'Mr'AW'\\
1~':l:4r~n
I ~~ I"f-\\'\\
7.
b,tl
bottle
b:>t~*,
~;)~*
b"')ti:
1\\
b<:ltk
8.
kh<a:
"
car
k«:
ka:
"
k.ca:
+"
k.ci:
9.
'sju:tkeis
suitcase
4Flal~ 'A Wi~k.e:l~ '4..-.1iti<.eis.
I~Jufuli.
10.
Am 'brel~
umbrella
'~W\\Io~t~
l~';l'l'\\brf.'<a l~mbl"'e\\Gl
'1\\l'V\\brcIQ
11.
fJau~z
flowers
,l')~: ~I~~'l + or
~la:~
ila:lAz, +
12.
t ~'m(l:t)u
tomato
k.,'m<:ilt-:>
n
,..
K~'WW\\a:b
t'Mt:b
r'M4:h
13.
fiS
fish
f~
~~r
"
"
"
1eS
~~
1~.
w:>t)
'/latch
w')"\\-:S .
IN'~~
w~tS
loJa~
15.
fut
foot
~~
,t~i~~ ~4ik~ 1t.J-'
16.
'baisik~
bicycle
'b4i~ik~k
'bci4il&
17.
plein
plane
~~
,pt:.iW\\
~Ll~
++~r"
18.
b~:d
bird
k~~rd.
~:c:l
6&~d
b~,)d
19.
tri:
tree
-ed:
J:,wi
tri
frwi;
20.
hJ: S
horse
?:A
~"}~4
h')·.~
h'):4
21.
ha.us
house
.l.I.l.4
~~A
haJ.4,4
h..llM
22.
glCl:siz
glasses
~i:4
~:4':2. 3+.e:4,i
ate.oi:l.
23.
SAn
sun
4~-n
~AW\\
Aj\\r'\\
~ I\\W'\\
24.
kh"P
sup
k"f"
k~r-
~r.
kt.r-
25.
'thelii'~ut\\
telephone . I ~.,:'\\'\\.
\\t:e.li?"
'~.l~W\\
'!tli{'·'r\\
..

---

122.
Items Model
\\'/ord
817
818
819
820
Transcrintion
1.
aep2
apple
~
aet*
e~tl
t.:-t!
2.
heet
hat
kaer
~..
~
~e:t
3.
kheik
cake
k.e~lt.
~kf..ik.
~"t.ik.
~:k
~.
S' u:
shoe
StA~
SlAt
S\\A:
StA~
"
•
•
5.
'haendbaeg
handbag
'~~~ l~aewv1~. 'h.at"'<1~ 'heNlbCJe3
6.
's:>: sp'~n
saucepan
~':14'~<lt:'"
'~~:.at~r\\
'~~\\ ~ p.1t.~
'.a.,:.A r~n
7.
b,ti:
bottle
b:Jrak
b:>d:
~t".t
Jr~t~
8.
khca:
car
lc.(il:
k";"~
"
k.«:
k.a:
9.
'sju:tkeis
suitcase
'Ar:~1ai4 '.QJI.A:kUi4 'A}u ~tk.t.i%. '4i~t4i~
10.
"m.'brela
umbrella
1\\""" br.ele.
I\\M'bt"&~
erI bt"91Cl
te.~re\\a
11.
flllU~Z
flowers
{1~U(2
*\\au~2.
+
~Ia:""z.
~\\alA'dz
12 •.
t a'mQ:tau
tomato
t 'Ma: fa\\t
K.e.'MQ( :t.,
t.,'~~·b
.t:>'~: t~
II
n
"
1'\\
"
'
n
n
13.
fiJ
fish
"
+'1
-\\if
~:r
+;~ ~
1~.
w:>tS
watch
W')~
w~tS
W?:~
W?:t)
15.
fut
foot
~r
ftr .
~·t
16;
'baisikz
bicycle
'Jrai4iIc.k'
tb~A;~~
\\b~~ik.al 'r~,~
~JI
17.
p~ein
plane
+~~:..:~
+t.e.ir\\
f.'hi~
t-Ui~
18.
ba:d
bird
J,~~ cl
,t.~:~d
't
-
be:d
19.
tri:
tree
..tr'Ni:
tri:
£1"1 :
tri~
-
20.
h~ :s
horse
1\\1~4
~')~~
h')~4
~?:4
21.
h((us
house
kouA
~~
~Ql:J.t..4
~au.4
22.
gtC1: siz
glasses
3*<A:4i~,
3-tatAi: '-
~:.Q~
~h.4i:~
23.
SAn
sun
-aA V\\
41\\r'\\
A ~l'r\\
4/f)'n.
..
2~.
kh"p
cup
k",...
•
"I\\~
k3" '1"
k.f.....
25.
'thelif~ui3
telephone I t f.lifG'V-V\\
I tLlit'_1A '"
I tc,"1.. -\\-')W'\\.
~
't;.q.,~
l'\\
..

---

123.
Items Model
Word
821
822
823
824
Transcription
1.
_pi
apple
~rJ:,
~
~~
.t.:tJ.
2.
haet
hat
~~
h.;et"
~
~e·.r
~.
kheik
cake
k..kc.ik.
"'~~lt.
u~
~etk
4.
5u:
shoe
~i~:
~IA:
~\\A'
Su:
.
5.
'haendb.g
handbag
t~..~b~ '~~~ .'~&~Ia~ l~e~loe:3
6.
's~:sp~n
saucepan
~J:.6'~4:'\\'\\ ~')4 rat: '7\\ IA'):Arn
'.o)4~Q:~
7.
bJti:
bottle
b~~
b~t£
b'):.t'
b::ht..t
n
n
n
8.
khCl:
car
~"Q\\
~~
k.a.'•
6:
9.
'sju:tkeis
suitcase
'J1~:\\Ui4
I~
'-1jut'ui 2-
4wiHt4i2.
10.
I\\m'brela
umbrella
/\\M'\\aral-a
1\\ M' brell.
/\\W\\I\\a~1A.
MlNl'bnlGt
1"
't
11.
flcau ~z
flowers
~IGI:~2.
t\\4U.tt.z.
+\\.~t'2.
{1.11A~
12.
t~'m~:t'au
tomato
to'MCIl: hrtt
t"'IMe:t: tbU
t-:>'l'\\'\\(l,b
t~'W\\Cld:'')
~S
"
n
n.
n'
13.
fi5
fish
f·r
1l:}
~:S
14.
w~tj
watch
\\oII~tJ
lrJ~
Wj°tf
\\oJ~·tS
15.
fut
foot
tu.t
,i~.oi~ ~ ~:t-
16.
'baisik~
bicycle
Ibai4ilc..t
Ibai,oik
I~l:lc.(
17.
plein
plane
-tJA.i~
#l'\\
~V\\.
+le:'\\'\\.
18.
ba:d
bird
~;)e\\.
J,.~:)d
..
+-
-t.~:'cl
t.~~~
19.
tri:
tree
t~i~
td:
trl':
fori,
. .
20.
h~:s
horse
,"".,~~
~'):~
h.,:.o
h?t4
21.
heaus
house
ha~
hd1A4
h.1A.4
~
22.
~Q:siz
glasses
3"\\ COCAh '2.
~a.:4.\\'2
~i:2..
,lCl~~
23.
s"n
sun
Ae:t:'V\\
AI\\Y\\.
41\\n.
~d:)'t\\.
-t
24.
kh"P
kl\\l'"
cup
k" t"-
kAr-
K.ll't-
I~
'thelifaun
It~~t~l.lL'\\
'tl.. ~
,~t.~4";'V\\.
25.
telephone
.t etl~n
n et
..
I

---

125.
the initial consonant; four only did in "telephone", and
none of them in "cup". We saw in Part One (Contrastive
Study) that aspiration is unknown by the speakers of
Ciluba; this can explain why the production of the
above-mentioned words is affected.
2°. /g/ in "handbag", "glasses"
Contrary to what we had expected, this sound was, in general,
produced correctly. The /g/ sound is not typical of Ciluba,
as said before;only its voiceless counterpart /k/ is used in
this language. Though the students are quite familiar with
it through French, we had expected errors such as [baek]
instead of [baegl
; however, two students only made this
error in the \\'iord "glasses". The correct productions genertily
observed
here can be assigned to a particular effort made
by most subjects.
3°. /t,d/ in "telephone", "tomato", "bird", "foot"
The articulation of these sounds was generally alveo-dental
like in Ciluba. The English alveolar pron~~ciation was
observed in few performances only. Th~ error may also have
been reinforced by the pronunciation used in French : some
students, indeed, pronounced /t,d/ as dental consonants.
4°. dark (-3:1 in "bottle", "bicycle", "plane", ":rlasses"
Dark er] was articulated by some subjects as clear(l]due
also to Ciluba where the latter variety alone is used.
However, a large number of subjects came to pronounce it
correctly as a result of ~ersonal and conscIDus effort. In
addition, the results s~o~ that this .variety is eas~er to
pronounce medially after initial consonants (e.g. "plane")
rather than in ~ord final position.
I
I;

---

126.
5°. v01c1ng of final unvoiced consonants
This error was very common with the fricative /s/ tested
in "suitcase", and in "horse" : about 7096 of learners
pronounced it as /z/. As was mentioned in our description
of Ciluba,syllables are predominently open, that is, they
generally end on vowels. The errors in theawords can be
accounted for by this syllable structure typical of Ciluba.
As a matter of fact, the learners tended to replace final
voiceless consonants by their voiced counterparts because
they had been used, in Ciluba, to ending words on vowels,
or in other terms, on some 'voice'. This feature is
compensated for by the voiced consonants observed in the
performances.
6°. Consonant clusters
Serious difficulties were also found out in consonant
clusters. Both clusters typical of 3nglish (as /ts/ in
"Visits") and of French (as /tr/ in "tree" and /tl/ in
"bottle") were pronounced with vowel insertion. Here are
the examples :
(i) Clusters tYDic~l of French
/pl/ as in "apple"; /tl/ as in "bottle", /kl/ as in
"bicycle" and /tr/ as in "tree" ·.~-ere pronounced as :
eip~~ }
" apple"
e·p~l
b:>t a~ l
"bottle"
b')t~l r
,
baisi~
"bicycle"
t'ri
"tree"
The inserted vowels are : /a,~,i/ and chiefly /a/.
Vowel insertion can be interpreted ~s a means to
faciUtate tr.e ~ronu~ciatiJn of c~us~ers; students try

---

127.
to get the model of Ciluba syllables (made of C + V)
whose pronunciation is easier. Also interesting here,
the performances show that clusters are more difficult
to pronounce word finally than in initial position. Again,
good performances illustrate a kind of effort on behalf .
of some students.
(ii) Clusters of English
They were tested in "helped", "fields", "posts",
"visits", "forked", "what's". (Tests 4 & 5).
The subjects generally (50%) inserted an lel or an lil,
giving :
fi: ldez
" fields"
1
pJstes
"posts"
P;)stus
vizites
"visits"
W')~
"what's"
But,very few pronounced clusters as single consonants,
for instance in "l:elped" (helE] t " visits"
rvizit) ,
which can be explained by the same reason, namely lack
of clusters in Ciluba. One exception, however, can be
mentioned : clusters with initial [s1 were all correctly
pronounced probably because they are known by the
students from French, e.g. [sp) in "saucepan", est] in
"stayed", "stalls", "stakes".
No problem was oet with by the suajects as to nasal
clusters such as Irnb,nd,nt,nk, ••• I, which are typical
of Ciluba.
7°.
a/~: ":~orth", "thous:::.::d", "··:ith sugar", ":::other", "the",
"they", "than", "these", "other", "there", "',vith
relief", "neitr-_er rt , "that ll (I'ests 4 .:c 5)

---

128.
These sounds were generally replaced by other sounds :
e by t, giving: (n':):!]
"North"
[tauznd) "thousand"
(wit Jug~l " with sugar"
1 by d,z, giving : (mA~) , m".!a)
"mother"
C9: a , ~a)
"the"
(dei ,zei]
"they"
-
-
r£_n ,!.818nl
"than"
r~i:z , .!iz)
"these"
[1\\ d ~ , ".! ~]
"other"
@.ea , ~t~l
"there"
[widrili:f It·
"with relief"
r·....i.!rili :f] I
[naida ,nai.!)]
"neither"
G!aet , zaat]
"that"
The sounds G,J are among the most difficult ones as
they do not occur in Ciluba.
b) Vowels
1°. /i,u/ in "fish", "foot"
About 70% of learners articulated each of these vowels as
tense or close like in Ciluba. Such pronunciation is, of
course, different from RP /i,u/ which must be lax. The same
feature ·,;as observed for /i:,u:/ (e.g. "tree", "shoe") :
each was generally realized as lengthened Ciluba /i/ and
/u/. /i:/ and /u:/ are also different from the latter as
to quality. Our experiences of English classes in Zairian
schools showed, ~nfort~nately, that for these sounds,
teachers were tending to emphasize quantity correctness
almost at the expense of quality correctness, though both
are equally important. ~~e learners therefore continued to
produce the sare ~uality as in their ~other tongue.

---

129.
2°. /ae/ in "apple", "hat"
The results provided here are the following : six students
only articulated this sound correctly in "apple",while in the
~ord "hat" only five sucdeeded. The reason is also that this
sound is new to the students and therefore·presen~impor- _
tant articulatory difficulties. In order. to solve such a
problem, the subjects make use
of various sounds available
in Ciluba, especially the le:, el sounds. "This error shows
that the subjects pronounce the la-I sound more tense than
in RP. Quite different from what has been said, the lael
sound was generally produced by the students with initial
Ihl in the ','lord "apple" pronounced [he:pll, [hepai1 , [hepl},
etc ••• This tendency probably results from too much tension
being used at the beginning of the word.
3°. 1(1.:1 in "car", "glasses", "tomato"
Here again, we observed quality errors. A few learners
realized this sound as a front rather than a back vowel.
The error is accounted for by the fact that a front lal
also exists in Ciluba sound system and is used by some
students instead of I~:I. It Nill be noted that many learners
pronounced it correctly.
~o. I~,;:): I in "watch", "horse"
These sounds also presented minor problems to the subjects.
A few of them only articulated them more tense, in the way
they are said in Ciluba. As regards the word "horse", very
few subjects too pronounced tau) instead of [-:3:1. Such error is
probably resulting from confusion, while pronouncing these
~ords, with the ~ord "house", ~hich immediately followed
"horse" in our \\vord-list •
...

---

130.
5°. Central vowels /I\\,~,a:/ in "umbrella","cup", "sun", "bird",
"tomato"
(
In some performances, /A/ was replaced by the sounds /e;e;/
while in the others it was articulated as the French /ee/
(traEl8cribed in the tables as (·f)). As it does not exist
in Ciluba, learners tried to replace this sound by any
sound borrowed from their sound system (or from French).
The same is true for the other two vowels·/~,9:/ - also
pronounced /e,e:/ or [';{]- and of all the English triphthongs •
•
The words "umbrella", "bird", "cup" and "flower~" ~espec-
tively came out as
§m'br_l~) , lb!:d] , lk:.:pl and 1!l~Z].
c) Diphthongs
1°. /ei,ai,aul
The testees' performances were far better as to the pro-
duction of these di~hthongs. /eil was tested in "cake",
"suitcase" and "plane" : 61% of pronunciations were correct
with this diphthong. As to lail and lau/, they were tested
in "bicycle", "house" and a higher percentage of performances
proved to be correct: 87,5% for lail and 83,3% for lau/.
This surprising percentage (there are no diphthongs in
Ciluba or in French) may be due, like in the former cases,
to conscious effort and desire from the students to overcome
the difficulty in individual ~ords.
The main error which was made by the rest of the students
(a minority) was monophthongization, i.e. the articulation
of lei/ as [e:1 or (e]; of course, it can be interpreted as
due to the lack of this sound in the subjects' langu~ge.
Very few performances too, have provided cases such as :
leil pronounced [e:i] 9.:1.'1. /aul pror:ounced [(1:U] , ·,',here
two vowels are ~roduced, but the first o~e bei~g lengthened •
..

---

A new tendency, following the articulatory. habits of
mother tongue, is revealed in these cases, namely, that
of splitting diphthongs into distinct sounds.
2°. /au/in "tomato", "telephone"
Monophthongization -a,~:,~ - was also generally observed
in these words. Some students gave the [ou] pronunciation.
About the last case; the reas.on could be the follo',ling :
during many years, the sound I~u/ had been taught in Zairian
schools as lou/, so that the students were acquainted with
this pronunciation only. The~u] pronunciation has developed
very recently and is known by a minority of the subjects.
Therefore, only few cases of correct
pronunciation were
observed in the test performances(about 12%).
d) Word stress
Influence of Ciluba was also revealed by location of word
stress. 'l'he follo:/ing -"'ords were used to test this feature :
"saucepan", "suitcase", "umbrella" and "tomato". The tendency
observed was that in words of more than one syllable, stress
was, in general, correctly placed when occuning on the first
syllable, for example in the ~vords "saucepan" and "suitease" ;
problems, however, ~ere encountered when stress was carried by
a non-initial syllable. It was for example the case for the
',vord "umbrella" ';;here about half of the subjects moved the .
stress on the first syllable. Such phenomenon is not at all
surprising as E~glish stress was something completely unknown
by the su·cj ects.

---

..
2.3.2.3. Errors due to spelling Dronunciation
Some subjects' errors are resulting from the so-called spelli~g
pronunciation, i.e. tte tendency ~y t~e su:jects to pronounce
sounds according to the spelling of individual .letters. Illustra-
tion is provided by the following performances:
- [h<L:t] ,[h~t] or f.G.t]
for " hat"
-t
..-
- [plCl:n)
for "plane"
- [S':)~J, r S:>: '10... [S':)]
for "shoe"
- [wa.tS]
for "watch"
- [oi:d)
for " bird"
- [' swi: tkeiz1
for "suitcase"
[t';) 'ma.: t")1
for "tomato"
- [um' brelQ)
for "umbrella"
...
[helped)· (Test 4)
for "helped"
- [f:> :ked]
(Test 4)
for " forked"
As it is explained below (1), the tendency here was favoured
by the language teaching system formely and still in use in
Zairian schools. Students are taught first to write words and
afterwards, to pro~ounce them. Pronunciation in this case is
produced by referring to the written symbols rather than to sounds.
2.3.2.4. Errors due to lack of attention or poor proficiency
A last category of errors can be regarded, due to their
strangeness, as resulting from the subjects' poor proficiency
in English or lack of attention while taking the test. They are
for example :
(1) See conclusion on page 159.

---

134.
['hemb:::' d 1
for ll um"8rella ll
[fl ~he:1
for llflowers"
[fae: s] or [re J]
for" fish"
[' t :}!n a.t:) s1 or (t~'rne:tsl
for "tcrr:ato"
T
[IS,) :pscl1,
~ ~?:tpen) or [s':pl
for "saucepan"
fswi:skauzJ or
fS~ke:zl
for "suitcase"
[ha&~begl
for "handbag"
nu:zl or fSu:'d1
for "shoe"
To this factor we can also assign quantity errors such as
[fi :5]
for "fish"
[tri]
for "tree"
[Su]
for "shoe"
[ko.l
for "car"
All those errors are found in a fe~ performances and, most
of the time, by the same subjects (S3, S6) (1). We could not
find their causes in the sound systems known by the subjects or
in s~elling symbols. That's Why we assigned them to poor
proficiency or lack of attention.
(~) Elementary level

---

2.4. PRODUCTION OF SUPRASEGi·:ENij1)":' E_.;.mURES
2.4.1. Analysis
The suprasegmental features were evaluated by means of
instrumental phonetics. Each.subject's voice was analyzed by the
pitchmeter into three diagrams (sometimes two) providing the
following types of information (1) :
1. guantity or the length of each vowel and consonant, was
provided by the first diagram. It is expressed in Hs (a
hundredth of a second) and it helps us infer the rhythm of a
whole utterance.
.
2. intonation or melody contours, was provided by the second
diagram. From this diagram, one can find out the number of
nuclei (points where major intonation changes occur in the
utterance), their types (fall, rise, ••• ) and the frequency
(highness or lowness) of each of them. The nucleus highness
and lowness are expressed in Hl (Hertz per second).
,. stress or the sound's intensity is indicated in the third
diagram. It is expressed in dB (decibel). Of particular
interest here is the relative energy used by the speaker
for each sound.
Most important, in order to interpret the sUbjects' perform-
ance ,as to these features, it was necessary to rely on some
model pronunciation, for example the one by a native speaker of
English. We therefore managed to get the native speakerts
(1) See for example the d~agram on following page. The utterance
that is analyzed is "The man followed me inl1 • 1 = quantity;
2 = intonation contours;, = stress (intensity).

---

Alb
' a t A -
I---.:-'-~:-;-r--:---' ._-- --.'--L--I---:---- - - ----- ------.-
-. ~--~-------j------------j------I------i
'+--.~--.-'----
--~~
. . ----k,--- ---------.----
-Ar.- 1--' _.-L --. r- f- '
-- • ,
• .
.c_ - . -
. -
"
"
-
1--
f--
-
-
,.
~
-~
,
C' - ,
--
---c----
,
I
I
, ,
,
I
h+
-("--;±
:1
, ,
, ,
I '
, ,
'---,
,
I
--
- -t------
1--
-.--'
--- r
--,--- - - -
, ,
1--
- : - - ' -~ -
---c-
.t-~
--
- - - t - - - I -
_~·r.::JO:-'IiQ::--=t-====t;=.-----t---
1-'---'
=-
I
- - -
l=-;:- I-- ,
'--:'-
.,-1 ---- ..---.::- -----=~~--~----:
_ - - . - - f _ - - - - - p=~'~:_--~::=j--_::=.
1--::-.:.'-+-----'-~f-;...< ........+-.'----'c--·-·--,
:
.
- ' -
-- -.•-
- ---
. r~ -
--- --r·
c--- --f-. :-
, I
f-:-,--:
"
~:--ff--.-.----t--.-'--,--+----,--~-';;~.""r--''--
-
tft. - - . _-$---'- -----'-
, .....- r-c--:~ ._f-
t--- - " _
_~ --t-o -~- - -
t--
..c:..--t- ~:-0~ .. -i:--. -t-
I '
--,-
- :---j-- ~::
'it--t- ---!' --' - ---
---r--"
-.
1--_..
.~-
. . _ !
L
-
- -
--.
r -- - -
-
':1=+
-_.
:-:--~-.. -;;o-c-: - a -- --r-
, ,
.-'-±::.
, -.- - . :..
"
~~ f-.---=---..t, --1-- --.
,-.'
- - - - , .
.
-
"'.
-
. -
' .
·l
'-
:~
- .-.. ~--- '--' ._~ ==±.
__----1 r----t-_~t_~...;.C~=-:=
_ _ :
+
--
~.
-- --,...
--
~~
---,
.-
-- - --C---
- - --,-:
- ' -
- - -~-
__ ,.-t-----.,
c--.- _. '~.'
'L.___
.:..--:. ---__-j__---j
. - - I - - '
-~,---
- -
- - " -
- .
r----:-:'
- - -
:--T-:-
. - -
_._-
, ..:.. .
- - - - - . - - -
, !
-~-
I
I
- - - -
--
"
,
, ,
r-;-:~ -,-;-;-
! '
, ~--~ .":'-=;--' -
,
!
I
I '
,
'--
'-c--- - -
C":"--"
- -'- 1-' ---:-
- -
~,-f-.,.-:'
.-...,-----;-'
----:- -- ---'-C7--
" -
._-
-.-
-, : ,_tC--
'---t'>__-l-
.
,
- -
- '-
,
- - , - - -
.
-- ~-
-;,-. ---=r:-::--=r= ---=. _.

---

..
136.
pronunciation of the same sentences a~1 t~en had it analyzed
by the pitchmeter. Later on, the subjec~s! diagrams were compared
with those of this native speaker &~1 errors found out. The same
procedure was used with conversations : identical situations were
recreated and one or two native speakers of ~nglish were asked to
play the different roles and reproduce the testees' conversations.
The reproductions were also compared,later, with the students'
performances to find out errors.
As we could not analyze all the sentences uttered by the
sUbjects in Tests Four and Five, we selected only some of them
for analysis on the basis of various criteria (type, length,
grammatical aspect, elements included, and so on) :
Text A : 82, 83, 8~, 86
1. Yesterday Mary had a holiday.
o
2. 8he stayed at home and helped her mother, Mrs Malu.
Text B : 89, 810, 814, 815
3. These posts played an important part in my visits to Tindican.
4. But it sometimes happened that 'we were absorbed in other games
and forgot why we had been sent there.
Text C : 817 ? 824
5. I waved my hands wildly in a gesture of enquiry.
6. But he made no sign and p~shed me forward towards a tent
standing nearby.
7. A smile spread across his face.
Conversation
:
8. What's your name?
My name is Kabengele Mbambu.

---

9. ;~ere do you live?
Yes! I live in e~ ••• at Tshibuyi.
10. ~hat's t~e name of your native village?
My native village? is er ••• Bena Tshimungu.
11. And where's that?
This village is not far froM here.
12. Do you lik~ English?
Yes, I do.
13. Do you like teaching?
No, I don't~really! ••• I don't want to talk from time to time.
14. ~hat's your hobby?
My hobby?
15. Yes!
er
••• I enjoy football.
As far as conversation was concerned, we selected one passage
in which two advanced level students were talking, with questions
by 817 and answers by 818.

---

..
138.
2.4.2. Results
2.4.2.1. Quantity
Sound quantity should normally be treated in our segmental
analysis. We have decided to present it in this section, as it
introduces the notion of 'reductionf
referred to in our analysis
of rhythm and intonation (1).
The main error in quantity essentially consists in a tendency
to lengthen vowels, both in guided and free speech. The most
frequent situations ~ere the following :
a) In word initial and medial positions, short vowels were length-
ened when followed by consonant clusters, especially by the
nasal ones:
[i :nkwaiari]
for "inquiry"
[h_:ndz]
for "hands"
[t~ntl
for "tent"
[w~rit1
for "want"
This tendency is probably due to Ciluba where, as we said,
vowels are pronounced long before nasal clusters.
b) In final position, single vowels were also mostly lengthened:
[rtt~]
for "lne"
rwaildlii]
for "wildly"
[ri~li:)
for "really"
[h")~i:)
for "hobby"
(1) See pages 145 .... 157.

---

A second error, diphtho~gs were ~onc~~t~on5ized, as in
"'waved"
pronounced
E·i€Vd. ]
"v.;ildly"
pronounced
[w~ldli1
"face"
pronounced
[fe: s1 or [fes1
tl where"
pronounced
[w~1
" I"
pronounced
[Cl)
...
"my"
pronounced
[m-~l
"don't"
pronounced
Cd:>: nt1
" name lf
pronounced
[nem, ne:m 1
The most important feature observed in the subjects'
performances is that lengh.ening 'r:as generally accompanied by lack
of reduction:
almost all, the subjects lengtan vowels in stressed
AND unstressed syllables. An example , theta]vowel which is the
most common in English weak forms is pronounced as Ce] or [e:]
(1),
so that we get the following pronunciations :
[e:)
for " a"
(instead of r ~1)
[j:>:]
for ,~ your"
(instead of [j d] )
Carat)
for tlat"
(instead of [~tJ )
[:>f]
for " of"
(instead of [;}v] )
[tu, tu:]
for "to"
(instead of [t~] )
fund, e:nd) for " and"
(instead of [~nd, nd, n1 )
Such tendency is evidence that subjects are not aware of reduction
and of its role in spoken English. In other words, the students
have no personal experience in real life situations, or simulations,
of the way English native speakers produce utterances communicati-
vely, i.e. not only with correct articulation of individual sounds,
BUT ALSO and mainly with right reduction, rhythm and intonat~on.
(1)
For example in the initial "a" as shown by the following
diagrams-Oompare the length for "a" in both cases (NS" = native
speaker; S20 • a SUbject ).

---

..
....
I
I
- - j
- ._. I
I
'.
I
1- -'
- .-
I
!
I
I
I ~~:_-': 1~ -::._:I -- I
I_
T
t
-I
----\\- -- -I
-,
!
i
1
.J
_=.:;c.. j
- --
1 -
I
-'
!
~:-:~
i
I
I
I
-j
i-
I
!
i --
I
I
1-
1-
!
I~
1
•
-1---
i:-
-\\
.
,
I'
I
!
-~---.
i
:
I
-i
Ii
I
, :
i I
I
!
I
I '
; :
. I

---

..
140.
To prod~ce correc~ ~nglist speec~.
each of these eleme~ts is
essential, and this is unkno~n i= Giluba.
Quit e interesti!1~, ho',':ever, o::e ·.·ord. - '.:hic~ is an utteranc e -
presents an apparent counter example in relation to quantity :
"Tea?" (expressing astonishment). In order to emphasize puzzle-
ment, the native speaker pronounces the [i:) of "Tea?" longer
than usual. Such use of quantity to express personal feelings
is unkno~n in Ciluba, and all the subjects pronounce this vowel
much shorter than the native spea~er. Here are diagrams where
quantity is expnssed in a hundredth of a second (hs) ; NB means
" native speaker" and S17, S18,
••• mean the sub,j ects.

---

..
.......... a- .
141.
"TEA?"
N8
(63 hs)
(17 hs)
(35 hs)
819
(41 hs)
820
(35~- hs)
821
(29 hs)
822
(24 hs)
823
(37 hs) --
824
(12 M)

---

142.
2.4.2.2. Stress
The first error observed here ~as one of where stress pro~inence
occurs i~ tte students' utterances.
~uite frequently, =ost st~dents'
performances, especially in free conversation,showed that stress
prominence ~as assigned to syllables in an un-English ~ay. First
of all, there is no reduction of the unstressed syllables, and we
do not find unstressed syllables grouped around the stressed ones
as is the case in English rhythmic feet. This tendency can be made
clear by the following examples
a) In the question "Do you like :Sn,;':'lish?", ",;e noticed that most
emphasis was carried by the auxiliary "do'· 07 dB), which
does not suggest anything special or any imnortant meaning or
function conveyed by the speaker; the remaining syllables are
assigned a weaker force thanU:'do"
S17
d~ ! laik J,gli~
dB
37 34 34 25 30
(1 )
This way of placing stress is, of course, not English, because
it does not show the interplay of unstressed and stressed
syllables illustrated in the native speaker's performance, i.e.
with pro~inence on a word belonging to a major word-class(e.g.
here, the verb "like"), and the other syllables pronounced
weaker :
NS
: du j~ laik l,gl~S
dB
: 39 39 49 32 36
(1) See diagrams
on the following page.

---

. ;
;
f-,-': : _.
·1
~-­
~---;t-~-~~~
~+.
.:..... f"~""':"
. ,
-_-:-.~ ...
--
R .~---4---+-_
----.
-
f - - -
-.,·t- --'3- ---
~'=:~--: ~~- --.=)=f?:'=-- _-:=-=
b':'-'=~I-r-~'
':-- ~~~
.
_
~-----·t ~.-
• ':-
I,~.=
"1"-1-'-- .
- - - - - - - - - -
~~-~._- I -~'3 --.~~=i- =~--~i=~

---

143.
Instead, we have three degrees of force in the subject's
performance : the stronger at the beginning of the utterance
("do"); the secondary on the second and the third syllables
("you like") and the weaker at the end of the utterance
("English"). Such performance is evidence that English stress
is unknown by the speaker.
b) The most evident contrast between the native speaker and the
subject is revealed in the question "What's your name?" where
the subject also emphasizes the auxiliary "is", 'tlhich is
reduced by the native speaker
S17 : WJ: tis j~ neim
(1)
dB
32
37
34
36
The difference between stressed and unstressed syllables is not
significant in this utterance, and the auxiliary "is" is
pronounced 'a bit stronger than the other syllables. In addition,
no reduction is observed here : most syllables are lengthened,
and the interplay of a stressed syllable ("'What's") and the
unstressed ones ("your name") observed in the native speaker's
utterance is also absent :
NS
: w~ts ja neim
-
- -
dB
48
43
42
As a second tendency, all the syllables are produced ~ith
almost the same pro~inence, especially in guided speech (reading).
In the sentence "A smile sDread across his face", for example,
-,;i th t- 0 rhyth~ic feet C~S) (speed on "smile" a:"_d 11 spread" ),
most subjects put equal stress more or less every~here :
(1) See dia~rams on the folloNir.g page •
..

---

,
---.-
1
I
I
U
..
iI
!,
i
1---
I
I
,
I
; j
L
I
;
r t-
I
·1
or
IIi
f
J
I!
V\\
X
-...,..
-i--
II
L-
\\
I
~
~
~,
f
l
a:-
j
~.
,
• ,.."J
f~/
+-
1
-··---1-
~_._--------
~
.... -
1
1
~
I
-L
i
. .."
,
/
--
v
..

---

144.
"~ smile spread across his face"
(1)
817·
25
25
26
23
24
20
21
818
50
52
53
48
50
43
45
819
32
36
42
33
39
34
39
820
41
48
50
40
47
47
42
821
44
49
55
52
54
44
53
822
45
46
50
52
45
50
47
823
41
42
42
40
40
43.
39
824
42
40
41
40
41
40
40
In 824, 823, 820, 817, and even in the others, there is not
much variation of prominence ahd no clear contrast between
strong and weakened syllables; prominence seems to be syllable-
bound as tone in Ciluba. Other examples which can illustrate
this discussion are (Conversation):
"Yes, I do"
and·
"My name is Kabengele Mbambu"
j~s ai du
mai neim iz kabE:?El£ mb4:mbu
- -
N8
36 40 30
NS
-t-
45
40
43
.
818
.
29 31 30
518
30
31
27
the syllables are assigned almost the same energy by the
subject, difference between strong and ~eak syllables is not
significant.
Considering these performances, we may be entitled to say
t~at the problem here is that of rhythm, segmentation AND
reduction. First, English stress is made difficult in those
ut~erances due to a slow rhythm (utterance ~peed) which
e~phasizes syllables and ~CT rhythmic feet, and to a wrong
segmentation of the utterance. ie shall return to this in the
next section. 3econd, lack of reduction also plays a signifi-
cant role as it encourages the sub.iect ~o assign prominence
eve~ to t~e unstressed syllables.
(1) 8ee diagram ori the following page for 823 •
..

---

.
I
i ;
ft
f',.
j
.. .
fr
~.'
\\
I"+~~~\\...
)
-
')
Lt.
{
:'
--
..,
n
a:
,
'\\
l
"
'"
\\j
'"
)
r;
\\,
")t>- -
'f
J
(
=
(
(
~r~
..
-) ~.
!

---

..
145.
2.4.2.3. Rhythm and segmentation
A syllable-timed rhythm and ~rong segmentation a~e the
basic features of the learners' speech, and contrast with the
native speaker is also important :
First of all, it was noticed that, being assigned prominence,
syllables were mostly pronounced as CV sequences, like in Ciluba
(1). As we saw in.segmental units, the tendency here is that
the subjects produce lengthened syllables, with no reduction or
assimilation, and insert vowels in clusters. Here are a few
examples :
The sentence "These posts played an important Dart in my visits
to Tindican" (Intermediate) was read by the subjects as follows
89
diz p,:)sts ple:d en em 'p ':)·tent pa:t in m~ vi:ts tu 'tendik~n
810
di:z pJsts pleid e:n im'pJtment pa:t in mai vizi(t) tu'te:ndik
..
814
di:z PJ:stas ple:id en im'p~:tant PQ:r in mai vizi:ts tu
+ -
'tindikcl
815
diz p~:sts ple:id en (i en i) i:m'p)tnt pc:t in mai vizis tu
, te:ndikn
Pronunciations such as [em,e:n] , "an", [en!p:>-tent ~ im'p):t4nt]
"important", [di: z] "these", rp): sts] "posts", [pIe: id] "played",
[tu] "to", .••• are quite common and illustrate lack of reduction.
Of course, some errors are due to French influence, for example
"part" [pQ.:r) , "Tindican"
f'te:ndika.j instead of ['tindikn],
+
I
lIimportant" [em Ip:). tent] , •••
. ,.
(1) CV = Consonant + vowel

---

..
10+6.
In conversation, the question "What's your name?" ['tJ~ts j~ neim] ,
though short, was also pronounced by the subject vlithout reduction
[w~:t iz j~ neim1 • Lengthe~ing and prorr.inence may be observed
here [,:):, i,J:] and this pronunciation is quite different from
the native speaker's mentioned above.
Even in "Where do you live?", full articulation of all syllables,
even those omitted by the native speaker, could be noticed :
N8
w~~ dju liv
817
we. r du ju l~v
In addition, two syllables ("where", "live") were lengthened by
the subject.
A second feature, utterances are often cut off into various
segments, generally more than the native speaker~,and recognizable
both by ear and on pitchmeter. For ex~mple, the follo~ing sentence,
which was uttered by the native speaker in two parts, was pronounced
by the subjects in more than ~o segments
(1)
"8he stayed at home and hel'Ded her mother Mrs Malu" (Elementary)
N8
/Si steid at haum/ (&)nd helpt ha: ml\\f~ mizis m~lu/
82
IJi staid aat h-;,em/ end elp~')d/hi:r m&dar /~i:zis met:lu!
+
+
83
I~i e:zt aet hJ:m &end /helpt (er m~:d)/er ma:de: mezes mtt.:lu/
84
I~i steid aet h:>:m!aand! help her m4.i~/misiz mQ.:lu!
86
IJi steitik/aet h~:m / aend!helpt he:r met:de /misiz mq,:lu/
.
Number of segments
N8
2
S2
4
83
3
S4
4
86 : 5
(1) See diagram on the following page for illustration (NS,S2).

---

147.
or : ItI waved my hands wildly in a gesture of inguiryll (Advanced)
N5
lai weivd mai haendz waildli in a ~3estsal ~~ i~kwaiari/
517
lai weivd mai haendz I waidli in 'et d3estJ~ I ~v i?kwairi/
518' lai we:vd mai haendz waidli in e d3e:stS~ I JV i?kwairi/
519
lai wevd mai endzl waidlil in e diestS~ I .:Jf i?k'....airi/
820
la:il ·....evetl ma:i hendsh~.I/ weitli: I in e: 3estju:./",:fl
e,kwairi: I
821
lai weiv4 mai haendz waidli (in) in e d3estjdljvi,kwairi/
822
lai wevd mai bae~~~aidli I in e djestJ~ Jvi?kwairi/
823
I Cl: I wevd mCl: hends I waildli in e d3 estS:'I.)f i?kwairil
824
lai wevt mai hends I w~:dli I in ;} d3est?' I Jf e?k;"aiIlil
.
Number of segments
N8
· 2
·
817
·
, 3
818
· 2
·
819
· 4
·
820
· 7
·
821
2
822
2
823
4
824
4
Except for 818, 821 and 822 (personal effort); the other subjects
have produced more segments than the native speaker. In free
speech the same tendency was observed for example in "No, I don't,
really" In~u ai d-aunt rialil divided into three segments by the
subject (see diagram on following page) :
818
Inoul ai dJ:nt / ri:li:1
..

---

148.
Though we can say that wrong segmentation (pauses) is mainly
due, for the elementary level and intermediate students, to poor
proficiency in English (for example the presence of ~any hesitations
in speech), for the advanced students, and this is imDortant, it is
mostly due to t~e habits from Cilu:a : as almost all the syllables
are pronounced with equal length and force, students naturally
feel it necessary, from time to time, to make pa~ses in the course
of the utterance. Even in free conversation where subjects must
be more natural and relaxed, syllable-timing, typical of Ciluba,
is so constraining that utterances are finally segmented and
un-English pauses created.
The impression is that an incorrect rhythm is produced : the
utterance speed is so slow (i.e. the sentences taking longer for
the students than the native speaker (1)) that the ~~hole thing
becomes a ~ere string of ch~nks of words or ~ord ~roups. Apart
from these general characteristics, exceptions are also to be
mentioned, for example the above-mentioned cases (818, 821, 822);
we have to insist here on proficiency of English (Advanced students)
but mainly on ;ersonal effort. 8uch effort really pays as ~e can
see, for example, in the utterance "-:ihat I s the name of your native
village?" (Conversation) : [w:)ts d"a neim ~f j:>: neiti0lid3)
(817) '.'!here reduction and linking ·are partly obtained
(see diagram
on following page especially the forms "wha~s","the","of",nnative
village").
(1) See next section (I~tonation)
..

---

..
149.
2.4.2.4. Intonation
The most serious obstacles ~~ere encountered by the subjects
in intonation. This is made clear, i~ Tests Four and Five, by the
important'differences between the learners' production and the
native speaker's speech. The learners' errors can be classified
into two categories, namely : errors about tone-unit or nucleus
distribution, and those related to tone-types.
(i) Tone-unit or nucleus distribution
Instrumental analyses clearly show that a large number of
learners' utterances are produced with more tone-units than
the native speaker's. This can be illustrated by the sentence
"I waved my hands wildly in a gesture of inquiry" (Advanced
students) for which we got the follo~ing representations
(1)
~
'""
~.........
-~~
N8
11 waved my hands '~ildlyli~ a gesture of illqulry.1
~
3--"
~ ~ - .,-~
817
11 ~vedlmy hands ~dlyl in a ~ture'of ingulry.1
-.......
"'"
,
~
-
........... 3
818
11 waved my ~SI"11dlY in a ~sturel of inqulry.1
--...
;t---
~
-........ 3,
819
11 waved my bands ~'ildlylin a ~turelof inluiry.1
-~ _
~
'- _"
' - -
.....
'+
_
5
820
11 ~ved.1 my handsl ltiild1Ylin a ~sturel of ~quirY.1
~ - i ~
~
':!l
821
11 waved my handslwildly in a ~turelof in~ry.1
----"'"
11 waved ~
822
-...-:
my handsfwildlY
~~-
in a ~ture/of
~
~quirY.1
-
~
~
~
823
11 waved my bandslwildly in a gesturelor lnQulry.1
824
I~~ , ~1~7.
~
I waved my bands ~dly in a gesture of inquirY.1
(1) 8ee the following diagram for illistration (N8,S17).

---

150.
Thus, exception for 824 (who succeeded, like the N8, in
pro4ucing ~JO tone-units), there are MANY more tone-units
in ~ the learners' utterances than in the native speaker's:
2 tone-units (for N8 and 824)
3 tone-units (for 818, 819, 821, 822, 823)
4 tone-units (for 817)
5 tone-units (for 820)
8uch wrong distribution can be explained as follows : as we
said above (1), the subjects generally cut their utterances
into various segments (due to a wrong rhythm and lack of
reduction) which include, each, a prominent syllable and thus
are regarded as equivalent to tone-units. Since the number of
segments is generally superior to the native speaker's, we
therefore get a larger number of tone-units.
Here is another example": "Yesterday Mar! had a holiday"
(Elementary):
.......
__
~ -
J - - - -
N8
IYesterday rilary had a £9liday.1
82
IYeste;t;yl MarY h~ holiday.!
83
IYesterday rIary had a \\holiday.1
84
IYesterd;yl MarY (had-a- hOlid;y.1
----::--- - - -~--
86
IYesterdayl Mary had a holiday.1
In this utterance, students also produce mpre tone-units
than the native sneaker
(1) See rhythm .
..

---

..
151.
Tone-units
N8
1
82
2
83
2
84
3
86
2
The same can be said about free conversation
(1)
"'what 's your hobby? It
N8
lWj~s j~ h~:bil
: 1
817
IW,ts I j:>: I h,bi : J
: 3
"fvly hobby?"
N8
\\mai ~bil
1
818
Im~lh":bi:1
2
"Where do you live?"
N8
lwt- dju livl
1
817
I~l du ju li:vl
2
"This village is not far from here lt
N8
'diS vilid3 iz n~ fa.: fr'm hia I
1
818
\\<f iz l vilid3 iz n,t fet: \\ fr.)m hi. 1
3
A correlate - or additional aspect - of the learners'
segmentations is1he time needed to produce the utterance,
as measured by the pitchmeter. The native speaker needs less
time than the average learner (2):
(1) See illustration for "What's your hobby?" on following page.
(2) We did not take into account the time taken by pauses or
hesitations.

---

152.
"8he stayed at home and helned her mother (lIrs. 1"Talu", (Elementary)
N8
•
•
2,9 sec
82
•
4,26 sec
•
83
3,24 sec
84
•
3,36 sec
•
86
•
4,16 sec
•
In conversation, we got similar results
"Do you like teaching?"
N8
•· 72 hs
817
93 hs
(1) sec = seconds
hs = a hunc=edth of a second
..

---

..
-
~
153.
"'dhat 's the name of your native viII a&re? 11
NB
•
•
99 hs
817
•
•
1,71 sec
"I enjoy
football"
N8
•· 79 hs
818
•
•
85 hs
"I· don't want to talk from time to time"
N8
1,34 sec
818
· 1,74 sec
(11) Tone tyPes
Examination of the performances also reveals that most
learners' tones markedly differ from those of the native
.speaker, especially the rising ones. Here are some cases:
(1)
(1) n = nucleus

---

154.
_ "1 waved my hands wildly in a gesture of inguir:ylt (Advanced)
N8
1st n.
·• I,&ldly
2nd n.
· u!,p.quiry
•
817
1st n.
•• "~ved
2nd n.
: "~ldly
3rd n'.
: "~sture
4th n.
: U !Equiry
818
1st n.
• 'hands
•
2nd n.
: \\ ~sture
3rd n.
: ...., ;nquiry
819
1st n.
• /wildly
•
2nd n.
• '~ture
·
3rd n.
· Vinquiry
· -
820
1st n.
: '''~ved
2nd n.
• 'hands
•
- "
3rd n.
· wildlY
·
4th n.
"~sture
·
5th n.
· inquiry
· /-
821
1st n.
· ,hands
·
2nd n.
· ,~sture
·
3rd n.
•
i~Q.l!.iry
·
822
1st n.
· "hands
·
2nd n.
· 'gesture
· -
3rd n.
· 'inquiry
·
823
'1 st n.
· 'l,.,raved
•
-
2nd n.
:
gesture
,----
3rd n.
· inauiry
· ,-
324
1st n.
· 1\\ ',ildly
· -
2nd n.
· i.lf'r'~iry
·
..

---

..
155.
_ "My native village?" (Conversation)
I~~:-----
8
J
N
, i'ly native v1.llage?
( 1\\ ::tise-fall)
(1)
'---
'---;..,,--
818
My native village?
( "High fall)
_ "This village is not far from here" (Conversation)
.--
N8
r This village 1.S not far
--
--'"
.--'"
. - ' from here~
( ....... High fall)
---
..........
818
{ThiS village is not far(from here.\\
( 'High fall)
-"My hobby?" (Conversation)
N8
( / High rise)
818
(/\\ Rise fall)
( 2)
-
"Yesterday Mary had a holiday" (Elementary)
N8
t ---
Yesterday "---
Mary -
had ./
a
'----
~liday. I
( ...... Low fall)
82
(Yesterd;;l ~ ~ ~iday~
( _ ~evel)
83
IY~sterday Mary had a[ h£.liday.[
(_level)
84
[ Yesterdayl Ma;ylha"d a holiday.t
(_level)
86
[Y~-s-t-e-r-d-;lMary had -; ~iday.[
( ........... Low fall)
"Do you like teaching?" (Conversation)
( ~ Fall-rise)
(2)
( ......... High fall)
(1) Here
and in the preceding examples,we give the tones of the
last nuclei. The contours are taken from pitchmeter diagrams.
(2) 8ee also diagrams on following pages.

---

..

---

· .
156.
"A smile spread across his face n (Advanced)
~
N8
A smile -
-
spread across his face.
( "High fall)
817
A
........
spread across his
-
siale
face.
( - l_evel)
- - ' : '----
-
818
A smile spread across h~s face.
( "" High fall)
--
•
-
819
A smile spread across his face.
( -level)
820
-
A
-
smile spread ----
across -
his· -
face.
( , slight low fall)
- - --
...
821
A smile spread across his face.
( -level)
----:--
822
A sm~le
-
spread
-- ~
across his face.
(""" slight low fall)
823
A smile spread across his face.
( - level)
-
824
A -
smile spread across his face.
(-level)
In short, these performances show that the learners generally
fail to produce the tones used by the native speaker. Their speech
melody is predominently made of monotone or ~he falling tone :
in free conversation, the tones of the rising type (for example
in the above Yes-No questions) are most of the time produced as
falling ones. The use of a monotone or slight fall is frequently
found in reading. Ne have already said that English intonation is
unkno··n in Ciluba, this is the reason TNhy learners fail to produce
correct tones.
Another tendency, in reading, some students present a kind of
irregular - if not random - alternation of high and/or low tones
assigned to various word syllables. Once again, this is an obvious
reflex of the Ciluba pitch system where high and low tones follow
each other on the word syllables. Some examples are :
...

---

_ "I waved my hands wildly in a gesture of inguiry" (Advanced)
820
1-I '---\\-
waved my hands I\\... , -,
wildly ""-
in a '"
gesture \\-
of inquiry. I
(5 low tones)
822
II~d 6- ha's wildly i~ ~ture of-in~uirY.\\
(3 high tones)
"But he made no sign and pushed me forward towards a tent
standing nearby· (Advanced)
, /
818
I
,
~
/
I
But he
-
made no sign and pushed me forward towards
a tent
----
---1
standing,nearby.
(4 low tones)
821
~el~ sign and ;;shed ;e furwaci towards \\
I ~ -
But he
;- ~t ;tan~g nearby. \\
(5 low tones)
- ---- ./ ,/' /
"'I
-
\\
824
, But he made no sign and pushed me for',';ard towards
---.--
a tent standing
---I
nearby.
(4 high tones)
In such performances the learners' speech melody is heard
as a monotonous and 'feelingless' staccato with
a) high a~d/or low tones following each other;
b) a falling tone at the end of most tone-units ;
and Which ulti~ately sounds unintelligible and un-English.
II
..

---

158.
2.5. CONCLUSION
At the end of this part, we cab say that the results of
diagnostic tests support the hypotheses put forward in our
contrastive study which can be summarized as follows :
1. Luba students' spoken English is
un-English
not only as
to pronunciation of individual sounds, but also and mainly as
to suprasegmental features. This was made clear, for the
latter, by the significant differences between the native
speaker's and the students' performances. As far as individ-
ual sounds are concerned, errors were made more about
production than perception. The level of proficiency in
E~glish (elementary, intermediate and advanced) does not
make much difference : apart from a few performances produced
correctly by the advancea students in individual sounds, most
errors occurr.edas a result of interference from Ciluba and were
common to all levels. No difference either was found out
between girls and boys, and, even 823 did not show any partic-
ular error due to Lingala, this probably because being a Bantu
language, Lingala system has ~uch in common with Ciluba. The
errors made by the students appeared both in guided speech
(reading) and free conversation. Among other factors we can
mention :
- French pronunciation: that is, pronunciation of a number
of sounds after the French model. This was frequent with
English sounds not existing in Ciluba and Whose substitutes
were borrowed from French. ~e have already repeated that
Zairian students know ?rench bef~re starting to learn 2nglish
at secondary school level.

---

159.
- Spelling pronunciation : this is a tendency by the students
to pronounce English sounds with re£erence to the spelling
of individual letters. It is important, at this stage, to
mention that in Zaire, like in Belgium, students have been
(and are still) taught with the traditional method of language
teaching ultimately emphasizing written language at the
expense of spoken language. Zairian students first learn how
to write words; it is only afterwards that they are taught
how to use words in speech. As words are regarded as more
important than sounds, students are unable to pronounce sounds
without referring to graphical representations, hence spelling
pronunciations mostly observed in reading texts. Overemphasis
on the written language may also partly explain absence of
reduction and un-English rhythm.
Poor uroficiency or lack of attention : a few errors were
made by some students - very often by the same students. As
they seemed a bit strange, and as no clear reason could be
found out in the systems of Ciluba, French or in spelling
pronunciation, we assigned them to poor proficiency or lack
of attention during the test administration.
2. The majority of errors and error patterns are accounted for by
the basic differences between Ciluba and English (1). The most
important errors are :
Suurasegmental features
(i) monotonous and 'flat' intonation and wrong distribution
of to~e-units;
(ii) a syllable-based rhythm and wrong segmentation;
(iii) lack of reduction of the unstressed'syllables and incor=ec~
placing of word stress.
(1) See Contras~ive Analysis

---

160.
Segmental units :
(i) closing of front and back /i:,i,u:,u/;
(ii) fronting and labialization of the central /a:,~,A/;
(iii) monophthongization of diphthongs;
(iv) devoicing of voiced consonants;
(v) no aspiration of plosives (p,t,k);
(vi) dental contact in alveolar plosives (t,d);
(vii) fricatives 9,t pronounced reppectively
t and d,z,and
dark ~ pronounced clear;
(viii) uvular contact in post-alveolar r;
(ix) splitting of consonant clusters : no linking plug vowel
insertion.
All these errors seem to hold together : the students do not
produce the English suprasegmental features correctqbecause they
are the most different fro~ their mother tongue's. As their
intonation, rhythm and stress are incorrect, they fail to assign
prominence to the stressed syllables and to reduce the unstressed
ones, ~hich ultimately affects the pronunciation of individual
sounds. In our corrective approaches, ~e propose to start by the
correction of those suprasegmental features to help the students
break away from the habits of their mother tongue and then to
concentrate on the pronunciation of the individual sounds. fhis
aeems to us the best ~ay to remedy those errors.
One important element, however, is worth mentioning about the
diagnostic tests, that is, the students' conscious effort. Ne have
observed in some cases that, ~~hatever the difficulty encountered,

---

161.
some students managed to produce correct perrormances thanks to
consious effort. This was the case in segmental and suprasegmen.
tal features. This element cannot be neglected, because we are
convinced that correction of errors depends on bqth methods and
the students' will and effort.

---

P A R
T
T
H
R
E
E
ERR 0 R e o R R E C T ION
( COR R E C T I V E
T EST S )

---

163.
Synonsis
Part Three of our thesis deals with the approaches that we have
used to correct the Luba learners' errors in spoken English. We have
concentrated on errors of production rather than on those of
perception simply because production proved more.difficult to the
learners than perception (1). In the procedure we have opted for,
we begin by the correction of rhythm,. stress and intonation as those
features "are the most important elements for the message under-
standing and reproducingll (2). Only after the students have tried
hard enough to break away from the speech habits of Ciluba, i.e.
to acquire an acceptable rhythm and intonation and produce correct
English utterances can they correct the errors related to individual
sounds.
We shall return to this working hypothesis in our discussion of
individual tests a~d try to assess its werits in terms of the pros
and cons of each aoproach. ~hat can be said at this stage is that
we have assumed that logically there was no other alternative but
to give primacy to suprasegmental production. To take just one
stri~ing example, conside~ the English Ca] sound. It would have been
self-defeating to concentrate first on the production of this sound
in isolation considering that it is one of the main ingredients of
reduction in English. The learner must first try to get the rhythm
ar.d the stress right, at utterance as \\~ell as at word level if he
is to produce correctly the reduction ot saY,the first syllable of
'cor-siderll • Note that much the same problem arises here for French-
(1) See pa~e 124.
(2) ?ERGUSON, N., 00. cit., p.190

---

164.
speaking learners of English: some'Belgian graduates in English
still fail to produce such reductions. We shall show how essential
it is for the learner
to speed up his rhythm (by the method of
'time factor') if he is to produce reduction correctly.
For each type of error, we have tried to suggest the right
method of correction, followed by a corrective test (i.e. the list
of words and sentences) to be administered to the "learners. Briefly,
the methods ~e have used can be summarized as follows :
(i) the 'time factor', the most important, is essentially based on
the speed of utterance; it enables the learner to correct
rhythm, stress, intonation and reduction;
(ii) the articulatory ~ethod - the ~ost traditional one - will help
to correct the pronunciation of individual sounds. It is based
on the use of speech organs to show the learner how to articulate
some specific sounds;
(iii) optimal position anQ (iv) shaded pronunciation were borrowed
resnectively from B. 1ml~IC and ~. RENARD (1). They are also
used to correct i~dividual sounds, the former by placing the
sound in 'optimal position' or environment and the second by
varying the sound pronunciation in order to facilitate its
pronunciation;
(v) physical attitude plus shaded pronunciation is used to correct
difficult sounds such as[G151
• It is bas~d on the use of the
'~hole ~cdy a~d the s~gech 0~ga~s.
pp.S5-S3.

---

165.
A detailed decription of each method and assessment of its
,
relative productivity for Ciluba learners are provided in our
discussion of individual tests (Chapter I). The results of these
tests will be reported in Chapter II, along with alternative so-
lutions in case an approach turns to be unsuccessful.
Six learners have taken part in the corrective tests. Like in
the previous tests (diagnostic), they are all native speakers of
Ciluba ~:@o are University students. It should be remembered that
three levels of proficiency Nere analyzed in diagnostic tests. This
was to get an all-round picture of the learners' pronunciation in
E~glish. The analyses of those tests showed that all the errors
were common to the three levels and were mainly due to interference
from the learners' mother tongue and to the traditional teaching
methods used in Zairian schools (spelling pronunciation). We ~ay
therefore assume that though the approaches mentioned in Part III
have been experimented with the advanced level students only, they
should be also satisfactory ~hen adapted to the lower levels
(secondary school students)since the types of errors ~hich were
made ~ere co~mon to all the three levels. Here is tee list of
testees :

---

166.
N°
NAME
8EX
81 '
ILUNGA L.
M
82'
MULUMBA N.
N
83'
KABEDI
F
84'
rlUTOMBO
M
85'
KABUYA
rvI
86'
1"!POYI K.
M
(1 )
(1) tl' tl is used to avoid co::.fus ion ":i th thg lear:1ers ',Yho took
diagnostic ~ests (e.g. SI is dif:erent :rom S1')

---

CHAPTER I : CORRECTION OF SUPRASEG~ffiNTAL FEATURES
1 .1. DESCRIPrION OF j,jETHODS AND TESTS
1.1.1:' Rhythm
1.1.2. Intonation
1.2. ANALYSES AND rtZSULTS
1.2.1. Rh.ythm
1.2.2. Intonation
..

---

168.
1.1. DESCRIPTION OF ~ETHODS AND TEsTS
Our diagnostic tests showed that the rate of most subjects'
utterances was ~, i.e. their nerformances' delivery generally
took. longer than the n~tive speakers' and utterances ~ere
characterized by lack of appropriate reduction and assimilation.
The best way to correct this error is to act on speed of delivery,
that is, to help the learner to a?proxi~ate the time taken by
the native speaker of English to produce a given utterance. This
can be possible thanks to the use of a timer and a pitchmeter;
~e call this method 'time factor' method.
To our knowledge, nobody has experi~ented the learners'
rhythm by such a ~ethod, i.e. by gradual approximation of the
model's rhythm and speed of delivery ~hile using a timer and a
pitchmeter for assessments.
~s assumed by Adamczewski and Keen,close relationships exist
in ~nglish between the rate of utterance (delivery) on the one
hand and the syllable length and prominence (rhythm, stress,
intonation) on the other hand (1). By gradually approximating
the model's rate of delivery and voice, the learners' speed of
utterances gets faster and, consequently, appropriate reduction
and assimilation are achieved, hence, the rhythm of the utterances
gets improved. Such a method also helps correct intonation and
stress because grad~al improvement of s?eed and i~itation of
~~e model's voice have to enco~=age ~~e learner to produce :o==ect
pro~inence of stressed syllabl~s and nuclei as well as the
~eakening of the unstressed ones. Brief~y, the 'time factor'
(1) 00. cit., pp. 1SC-1S3

---

169.
method aims at correcting the learners' rhythm (slowness of
speed, wrong segmentation), intonation (incorrect use of·
tone-units, nuclei and tones), lack of reduction (use of
prominence on weak syllables, lengthening of short syllables
and lack of assimilation) and stress.
The procedure that was used to correct rhythm is described
below. Correction of intonation needs separate description due
to its importance and detail about it is provided in the
following section.
1) Checking the student's understanding of ~hat he is asked to
imitate :
The student first listens to a text recorded on tape by a
native speaker of ~nglish and he is NOT shown the Nritten text
or script. To make sure that he understands, he is asked
(after listening three times) to tran~ribe each sentence he
has heard. The text is then corrected (spe}ling and meaning)
by the testee.
2) Imitation by the student
At a second stage, the student listens to each sentence and is
asked to imitate the native speaker and to take much the same
time to produce the utterance as the latte~. The use of a
timer is essential here. ~ost important s~ill at this stage,
to avoid spelling pronunciation, the student no longer uses
the written text. The only model he has to imitate is the
native speaker's speed and voice, as they are heard on tape.
ilienever he exceeds tte ~ative s~eaker's ti~e of delivery,
the learner is asked to repeat the se~tence (one at a time)
even if he hasn't reached the end of the ut~erance. He will

---

170.
begin it over again as many times as is necessary until he
has reached the native speaker's speed. At the end, to make sure
that the right speed has been acquired, he is asked to repeat
the utterance another three times.
3) Recordin~ and analysis
The learner's production of each utterance is recoraed and
analysed, together with the native speaker's model, by means
of the pitchmeter and the various diagrams are compared.
Our hypothesis is that onee the suudent has achieved the
native speaker's delivery, he has succeded in breaking aNay
from the syllable-ti~ed rhythm of Ciluba, and that errors
such as lack of reduction, lack of assimilation, wrong
segmentation ~ill a~tomatically disappear.
The following ten sentences were used to correct rhythm :
1. There're indications in Iran
of new moves
by Ayatullah
Khomeini
to curb the excesses of the revolution,
and to
try to impose central ~uthority.
2. President Banisadr
who addressed revolutionary guards later,
has said society had to feel it was under the rule of law.
3. They speak of mass graves, and survivers telling horrifying
stories of adults and children being hacked to death.
+. Cr.e
sai: Joth her daug~~e=s had tteir heads
cut off, a~d her ~e~-day-old ~r~ndchild ~as killed ~ith a
spear.

---

5. A BBC television programme has said Pakistan would be ready
to carry out its first nuclear test by the end of next year.
6. According to the programme, Pakistan's been able to develop
its capacity with the aid of huge sums of money from Libya
and sophisticated technology from the ~est.
7. South African police shot and "Wounded about 350 people during
demonstrations yesterday marking the fourth anniversary of the
Sowetho riot in which hundreds of people died.
8. There ~ere other disturbances in Cape Town and ~urban.
9. Officials said, that none of the injured 'NaS seriously hurt.
10. The Egyptian govern~ent is to reimpose martial law in the
North west of the country bordering Libya.
(from BBC World News, June 17th, ,930)
1.1.2. Intonation
The Luba learners' intona~ion ~as described in :~rt T~o
as being monotonous and sometimes made up of slight falls. In
other words, the students failed to groduce correct and meaning-
ful nuclei as ~/ell as the falls and rises used in utterances by
the native speaker. The 'time factor' method has to help them
forget about the rhythmic habits and the syllable-sound tones
of ~heir ~other tongue a~~ ~~y ~o encourage tte~ :J ~~oduce
rhythm an~ intonation bot~ ~eani~~fully and co~tra3~ively as in
'::ng2.ish. 'l:he proceciure is tte r'ollo'·,'ing-

---

172.
1) The learner listens to a recording of a set of sentences
produced by the native speaker. Sentences include various
tone patterns of English, especially those of the non-falling
type because they proved to be the most difficul~ ones.
2) He is asked to write down each sentence and to correct it
with the testerts help to make sure that he understands.
3) The model sentences are played again one at a time. The
learner is asked KOT to use the manuscri;t and he repeats
one utterance at a time, trying to imitate and approximate
the native speaker's speed and voice as already said, until
his performance is correct.
4) Cnce we have 2ade sure that speed and voice are correctly
produced by the learner, his production is recorded, then
analyzed by means of the pitchmeter and compared with the
native speaker's.
If they succeed in imitatin~ ar-d approximating the native
speaker's speed and prominence, ~ve posit that monotony and
incorrect use of falling tones will disappear from the learners·
intonation.
The follouing sentences have been used for correction
(1)
1. Story telling (neutral, cool: Falling intonation)
1) ~resident 3anisadr who addressed revolutio~ary 1uards
later, ~as said societ7 ~ad to feel it ~as under the rule
of law.
(1) 0ymbols i~dicate the ~ative 30eaker's tones-

---

173.
2) There were other disturbances in Cape Town and Durban.
3) Officials say that none of the injured ',.;as seriously hurt.
2. Dialogues (uersonal involvement)
/
1) A.\\Hello?
I(neutral ques~ion)
Benchley ~o nine one
-
\\ -
nine eight 'nine (29 19 89).
B. Is ••• is ~hat you,'liQward? (surprise)
2) A.~"h({ 's that? (inquiring)VGeorge? (doubt) Is that/you?
B.,Yes. ( ••• ) (urgent)
3) A. I ~ant to report a'theft. (emotional)
B. A'theft? (surprise)
4) A.\\~ ( ••• ) (urgent)
B. Sergeant Schwarz,~adY. (neutral)
5) A.~tbo?~Hhat? ( ••• ) (inquiring)
'.:l
...... \\ ' "'d
'
l'\\.::n,V.
('lnvo1 ~d
v~
+
'~.
L,Vl t·lng ) I I ve go t a th
J.
e ft h
'
ere.
~
\\ - -
(dispassionate)
6) A.IT~o hundred (200)./~?1/~?1(inquiring, calling for
a reDetition)
B.(Poundsl\\English~mQney!\\(emphatic)
7) A.ISorry I'm\\latelbut I ••• (involvement)
3. \\So,~the~~ you are!\\(em?hatic, challen~in~)
l~ell\\~~hat's\\your excuse this time?ICvery emotive, desoair)
-
/ -

---

174-.
8) A.\\Stop shoutingl\\Peoule are lookinglat .you. (pleading)
/
B./But'you won't let me\\explain.l (regret)
/
9) A. II'd like to'~ you some questions.l (involvement)
B.1Qn, you vJant me to'mswer questions .1'All right 11
(mildly surprised)
10) A.1I'm '§.Qrry, dad,\\ but you can't'do that11 (protest)
lIt's forV~ to decide.l(contrast)
B. 'Oh, I\\~.l You've already decided,A~ you?l (challenging)
11) A.\\I've got to tell you now.[
,-
~
B.I~~l me?jVTell me 1f!liat?1 (greatly astonished)
12) A •
•• tSo I'd like to'settle the bill now,
please.l
:3. lSettle the "'bill ?\\/Pay?\\ (inquiring)
A·IYes, r~ctlY.1 ( ••• )
13) A.IHelloj.'Hary.I/How are you tOday?1 (inquiring)
B.[ Oh, hello,Denis.\\ All right,' thanks.l And "'you?!
14-) A. IYou don't mind if I smoke,Ado you?\\(challen~ing)
B.j ..iell ••• to be frank, yes, I'J~11 (opposition)
15) A.IWe met at a party\\therel! (emotional)
B.l Are you./~e we did?j (continuation)
16) A.lHello poor'George.(How are you?!
3. ~ Gh, I'm all right. 1 Zxceut for !!1y'knee.: (iC1.terested)
,
\\ -
-
.
- ,
'17) A.\\Did it('-1urt a lot?
~
........ .j It'ell ,
l.·t~n-"g-
J
~o~
~
~...
1'1.

---

175.
18) A.\\But you're being~vell looked after? {
B~~ yes.1 There's aAlovely Irish nurse who looks "after me
\\very well.} (emphatic, emotional)
19) A.lLocal pOlice,station.l Can I\\help you?\\(dispassionate)
B.I Yes, I want to report a 'car theft.\\ (emotional)
20) A.IDid you see it~eing stolen?1 (inquiring)
B.!No, but it's notVwhere I le~t it last night.1 (point of
query)
21) A. [You're quite sure that you left it there, sir?1 (inviting)
/
B-tll\\Oh yes!~~e sure!1 (emphatic)
22) A.!Do you/think so?1 (inviting)
B-!Aill!ALdo.t (emshatic)
23) A.lvlhy don't ',ve ef'change jobs then?! (challenging)
B. I'!'lhy, not?/. •• (serious)
24) A. lYou'll go to the office today in'2L place land I'll
I
\\ stay home.[ (involvement)
B.(#nat?[(calling for a repetition)
I
25) A. t~cuse me l'Iiss d'iJould you mind turning this '.-.jay '..Ji th,me? (
B.t'Oh q'What do you mean?! (surprise)
. (1)
(1) from
O'NEILL, ~., Interaction, Pp. 5,13,17,21,15,29,
37,4'1.
HAYCRA~T, J. 2'{,. .3., Gecr~e and .2:1'!ira.
Conversati0r.s in Z~~li3~, pp.5C-51 •
de ?R3ITAS,
J.?, ~o start you cractisin~,
pp. 9,83.

---

176.
1.2. ANALY8ES AND RESULTS
1.2.1. Rhythm
The following table gives the times of performance for each
of the ten sentences used for correcting rhythm. The times are
expressed in seconds : N8 indicates the model performances
( native speaker), It,hereas S1', 82',. 83', ••• refer to t~e testees'
performances. (1)
IciENTENCE
N8
81'
82'
8~ ,
.?
85'
86'
1
8.9
8.5
9.7
9.1
8,5
9,4
2
,...
r
0.0
6.6
8.2
7.3
6,7
6,9
3
5.4
6,5
10,6
6,6
6,5
5,7
4
6.6
8,4
7,4
7,3
7
10,8
5
7,08
7,3
7,4
12,4
7,4
10,8
6
8,5
9,3
10,8
8,2
10,9
. 9,2
7
9.6
10.5
17.2
11
14.2
15.4
8
2,1
2,8
2,2
2,1
2,4
;:)
;:)
-,~
9
2,3
3,2
3,4
2,5
2,7
2,5
10
5,08
5,01
5,7
5;7
5.3
5
The table shows that 50% of performances have been uttered
~ithin more or less the same time as the model. ~;ore satisfactory
performance was provided by 81', 83', 85' and 86'. Examination
of some utterances by these learners indicates tte following
improvements : (2)
(1) C~ly ~i~sl ;er~or~a~ces ha7e been recor1ed a~~ analyzed.

---

177.
Sentence 1 : "There're indications in Iran of new moves by
Ayatullah Khomeini to curb the excesses of the
revolution, and to try to impose central authority."
S1~.
Anyone who listens to the recordings may notice that 81'
no longer uses un~Bhglish pauses. The utterance is segmented
into two groups ~ith the first pause afte+ the word
"revolution" and the second at the end : this segmentation
into meaningful blocks is quite different from what we
observed in diagnostic tests and t~us shows some improvement
by the subject. Thanks to a faster speed, the subject
manages to pronounce the clusters (e.g. in "moves ll [t'M.o: ~ )
with no vowel insertion; more i~portant and for the first
time, a contrast between strong and weak syllables is
noticeable : prominence is assigned i~ this utterance to
the following syllables : indi~tions / iran I Ayat~llah/
Khome'ini/
cili-b/
excesses/
revorGtionl
imD6se/ auth2.rity/;
and all the others are reduced. This interplay of strong
and 'fTeak syllables is a proof that the 'time factor' method
has actually encouraged the su~~ectto produce correct
rhythmic feet ~ith a regular s~ccessi~n of stressed
syllables, and to forget about the syllable grouping of
Ciluba.
83'
A meaningful segmentation is also observed here: there are
pauses after "Khomeini", "revolution" and at the end. Though
some hesitations can be heard, un-English pauses have
completely diaappeared. ~he contrast bet~een syllables is
also significant ; the following syllables are assigned
prominence:
inditatL:ns/ :r{"'1 ! -:-,{w/ ':Jt::es/.~yat,il::':lhl
/"! /, I/"
/
- r
1 / ,
/
/d It / /.
/' I
~offi~n1
c2Eo
exc;sse~
revo_~t1on
~
-El
1ffiE2se
•.

---

178.
autl!§rity/ •
Except fort-No ·"eak syllables ("of" , "of") still pronounced
open, reduction is observed in all the remaining syllables.
85'
This subject uses the same type of segmentation as 83' :
pauses are heard after the words "Khomeini" /
"revolution"
and "authority". Cdrrect production of clusters is also
heard gere in the \\oiords "indications" CS h'Z.] and "mo~" (:V'1.1
where vowel i~sertion is no longer heard. Although word
stress is incorrect in some forms, eSDecially in proper~
names with stress on the first syllable ('Iran,
'Ayatullah ,
'Khomeini ,
'revolution) regular succession of the stressed
syllables is heard in this Derforrnance and the remaining
I
syllables are Neakened : Iran / rn~es / K~meini / cUrb /
exc~sses / r~volution / i;Dbse / auth~rity / • Thus~
-
-
- . - . . . - .
can say that approximation of the model's rate of delivery
has encouraged a correct segmentation, assimilation and
correct production of rhythmic feet. The subject no longer
produces syllable-timed rhythm as in ?art Two.
Sentence 3
"They sneak of mass graves, and survivers tellin~
horrifying stories of adults and children being
hacked to death."
81 '-
This utterance is segmented by 81' into t·:o blocks, the
first pause ta:i"'.g place after "children", and the second
after "death" • The segments are ceanin~ful and they allow
the subject to -9 ~nderstood. As far as assi~~~ation is
nant clusters are correctly Droduced in ";r:ass......zraves" (1)~t'J,
..

---

179.
"adults" (Its) ,
"hacked" [ktl : consonant splitting, or
vowel insertion is no longer heard • The production of
rhythmic feet in this performance also shows rhythm
im~rovement : prominence is carried by the following
"
".
/
. /.
/ .
syl.lables : sp~k / g~ves / sur~vers / horrl.fZl.ng / g,dults /
~ldren / ~ked / de{th /, and contrasts '~!ith the unstressed
syllables. Some syllables, however are still pronounced open
(instead of being reduced) for exarnDle ,
'of" [Jf] ,
"and"
[end1,
"to" t'tu] , ••• but they are not assigned pro~i:r:ence
(strong stress).
33'
Due to some hesitations, 33' comes to :>roduce three
di:'ferent segme!"'.ts ; the ?auses occur after" graves", "stories"
aIld "d"Oath". IT'1;rovement of assimilation is considerable
here
the cluster in "adults l' , for example, is prono~nced
[ls1 , the [t1 being only slightly heard, and "hacked to" is
uttered as in one ':Iord (haektul , the two (t] having only
one plosion. Like for the Jreceding performance, some short
57-:' l.ables are still articulated open (" of"',
"a!"'.d",
••• ), but
t~ey are not assigned stron~ stress. Pro~inence is carried
-::r t~e follo·:.rinG'" sy lables : s:)e'8.k / mfSs / gr8:'ves /
survivers / t{ll / horrIfying / stbries / adults /
-
-
-
--
-
c~ldren / hacked / death •

---

180.
One may notice that more syllables are assigned prominence
than in the preceding performance (81 I). Improvement here is
justified b~ effort to produce prominence at regular beats
and by the contrast conveyed by stressed and unstressed
syllables.
85'
Four segments are uttered by 35' for this sentence, and
;auses occur after "graves", "survivers", "children", and
"death". Contrary to the others, significant improvement
is not significant here as some pauses sound un-English,
for example after the 2nd a~d the 3d seg~ents :
1.!They speak of mass graves I
2. land surviversl
3. [telling horrifying stories of adults and children)
4.lbeing hacked to death.1
~e may say, in spite of correct speed, that the subjec~
didn't pay attention to the meaning of the utterance as a
whole while reading. This seems to be the only reason ~hich
can account for this \\~ong segmentation. Second, a conse-
quence of this wrong segmentation,prominence is assigned to
2tressed AND most unstressed syllables such as "and", "of",
"to", so that the rhythm sounds mostly syllable-timed:
/'
/
/'
/
t~hey speak of mass gravesl
/
----;.- -
-
f and
sur~vers I
/ '
/ . /
I
ln~
.. O~_l ... ·l_._
<
",·~o ... .
t e{l ' "'" i-> . ~~. T' -, . ,..., "" -,..
les of ad~lts an~ children!
~
I -/
:- ~-l
d- / .... ·-1·
b
-J
~n~
nav~e(~
~
ea~~

---

'181.
The contrast between prominence and weakening is consequently
not signifiaant, as the majority of s~llables carry a strong
stress.
S6' : Segmentation is correct as pauses occur after the word
"graves", "stories" and "death". Correct assimilation and
liaison are also ~orth ~entioning in this. utterance : the
words "mass graves", "adults
and children", and "hacked to" ••
are oronounced as one word with correct liaison. Prominent
syllables are : sP~k / gr{ves / survfvers / htrrifying /
/.
-
/
/
-
st6ries / ch1ldren / h~ked / d~th. One interesting case of
reduction needs being mentioned in this utterance : that is
about the ~'lords "of adul -:s and" occumng between t·..IO prominent
s,yllaJles "st'b'ries" and "chIldren". In order to keep the
sane ~ace from the first to the second prominent syllable,
effort is made by the sub~ect to speed up all the weak
syllables bet~een "stories" and "children", which are said
wi th correct reduction : (a v Cl c:! A.t1; S.-n d.) . Correct articulation
of the consonant clusters in this form is actually a consid-
erable improvement as no splitting or vowel insertion are
no ~onger Droduced. All these errors, frequently made in
our dia~nostic tests, are corrected here thanks to the ~se of
'time factor' method.
Sentence 5 : "A BBC television nrogramme has said Pakistan '"ould
be ready to carr~ out its first nuclear test by the
end of next year."
31'
~he 'time fac~or' method is successful even with such a IO~6er
S9n~ence : no un-~ng:is~ pa~ses are found c~t he~e; t~e
suj~ect divides it into two meanin~ful segments and pauses
occur after tte ,;'oris "test" a::.d "year l1 • ~~o i:"..sertion of

---

182.
vm·;els is noticed, the clusters such as in "its ll and
" next year~ are produced correctly. ~oreover, we could
not observe any lengthening' of ahort syllables;
prominence'is assigned to syllables as follows : Bic /
tlr6gramme / Fak~tan / c(rry / t~t / n(xt. The no~-prominent
.-.-
-
-
- -
syllables are sped up to get a regular succession of stressed
syllables. Additionally, we have noticed correct articulation
of the =entral [?](lIall ) and diphthong [.Lal("nuclear" , " ye ar")
'iv'hich 'i:ere no longer pronounced ['f:]or [~. Such i:r:provement
on the segmental leve~ is accounted for by the fact that
these sounds occur in weak syllables, and that the front
and open articulation are not produced by the subject thanks
to correct reduction used here.
S5'
Like in the precedin~ case improvement manifests itself by
a meani::.gful segmenta"tion (pauses after "carry out" and
"year"). No extra pauses or vowel insertion are observed.
The fol:owing are the prominent syllables of each rhythmic
foot : ~~gramme / p{kistan / r~dY / c~ry / t~t / n~t /;
--
---
-
~
. - .
-
....---
the otter syllables are reduced.
Sentence 8
"There ',\\'ere other disturbances in CaDe TO't/n and
Durban."
53'
This utterance is uttered once, like the model. Cases of
improvement are for example the pronunciation of the Words
" and Dc..:rban"as one single word with redution of "and" and
prol!linence on D~rban : [a-hl d ~ ~ bh]. The other veakened syllables
are: Ilthere ll , " other ll ,
IlCape" ar:d "in". Prominence is
•
...l
f
II
" / d'
/
/
- /'
/
- /'.
assl.gne·...l. as
0
_O"'iS : :.\\~re
l.at,2rbancesl.£'tln
.....~rDan.
35'
Re~ula~ succession of Drominence is also noticed for 55'
/
/
/th
/...l' t
. ' /
/
T"
/
~ / b
-,
were
0
er
...l.lS uroances
own
~ur
an. ~ocever, some
..

---

183.
errors of spelling pronunciation, e.g. "other" pronounced
(~A~~are still made. Hesitations are frequent, and word
stress is sometimes wrong e.g. in the word "distur~ncesn.
S6' : presents the same improvements as S3'.
Sentence 9
"Officials said that none of the injured was seriously
hurt."
S3'
Segmentation and assimilation have improved .in this sentence
too; three segments are distinguished : Officials said /
that none of the injured / was seriously hurt; the words
"Officials said" are uttered once, and prominence comes in
--
I
/
I
/
at regular beat: Officials / said /
injured / hurt. Althoqgh
-
-
-
- -
segments are more many than elsewhere, they carry the impor-
tant meanin~s of the sentence ~~d thus help the subject to
be understood.
S6'
utters the same sentence once with prominence assigned to :
Officials / sfid / ~jured / hu'rt like the preceding subject.
-
-
.
Another detail that is interesting here is that in "hurt"
central~qis pronounced with correct length and quality as
prominence occurs on this word.
Sentence 10
"The ~~YDtianQ:over:-;ment is to reimpose martial
la'" in the North ,est of the country bordering
Libya."
81'
:~o ")ause is observed i:1 the pronunciation of '=his sentence,
cases of liaison are 1':Torth ',vest ll ' t::ough pror:'Junced ["'ililJe.st)
and If martial la'lJ lI oronounc ed as one 'r:ord. Frc::1inenc e is
'--'"
.
./
assigne~ to the :ollo~in7 svllaJles : ~~~Jtian / g6vernment /
reim,f6se / 18:·, / cO{l1tr,y / ~(rya, a:1d red~cti:m e~e"'ihere.

---

184.
S5' : The same correction is observable : no pause; and liaison
in "North West" pronounced("'~$.1t~]. Contrast between
prominent syllables and Weak ones is quite significant;
prominence is assigned to : Egzptian / goj[ernment / reimE9se /
ltw /
country / L{bya. Like in the other utterances, there is
still influence of spelling pronunciation for S5', for
example, the word "country" is pronounced.lk?,,~ri), moreover
word stress is sometimes wrong, e.g. Ilg~rnmentn.
1.2.2. Intonation
The sentences used for correcting intonation are presented on
page172f~ Improvement has also been observed in the correction
of i:::tonation. As e::q:Jlair.ed in Part T't!o, the learners' ma;ior and
most common errors consist essentially in
(i) producin~ more tone-~~its and hence, more nuclei than does the
native speaker of English;
(ii) failure to reproduce tones of the rising types, commonly
produced as level or fallin~ tones.
While errors of type (i) can be assigned to bad rhythm and
incorrect segmentation, those of type (ii) are ~robably due to
the totally different pitch system existing in Ciluba.
In trying to correct these errors,we emphasized:
(,1")
p.deauate
-
_
und erstand"l~Z
~
or the messa~e as a ~h
0
I
e d
an
~
01
t he
~eanings of each into~ation pattern;
(ii) ~ood perception and imitation of the speed ani 2~ the
individual intonaticn patterns. To contrast the ~nglish
..

---

185.
pitch system and the students' errors, we proceeded from
very short sentences (especially with falling tones) to
sentences with patterns in combination (alternation of
falling and rising tones) (1). After such remedial work,
most students arrived at correct performanee, as shown in
the following results :
1) Nucleus distribution:
Going together with improved rhythm and reduction, testees
gradually broke away from production of unnatural blocks and
of un-English muclei and succeeded in producing meaningful
tone-units, 'liith correct nucle:i~ For 81' ~83 ',85' and 86' ,the
pitchmeter diagrams gave the following performance_in three
sentences~
.'1-2resident Eanisadr ~",.J.10 s.ddressed. re~Tolutionary guards
later,l has said society had to feel it ~as under the rule
,-
~
of law.1"
"There .. ere ot:J.er distur-~3.nces in. Ca:;: e TO'l'in and ~Durban~"
- "q~ficials say' tnat none of the i~jured was seriously
, .
.. hurtJI1
<
"l
In all these sentences, the st':de::ts succeeded in producing:
(10','" falli~~\\ D'_:clei as the ::a::i-:e 5Deaker's : ,rule of law",
-;- .• ~
_'-_
"L'::>
u
......
:::-".-'0-:"-
_ .... ~ ......... _ .. _v,
hO·- Q
L
, _ '!;::> ......
-.JJ..,
(:::';'.'1
Io....J-r
+-he
v
,:.' r!u=-;:;an" G.ild~: hurt:! •
. , -
, , -
-:as~-\\: . ·~3
~3.!"..te:' 3.~~ ~or~
(1) See examples on page 173 ff
..

---

186.
achieve a correct performance.
2) Production of tones :
Here are a few examples of improved performanoe
(1)
NB
1.lho's that? 'IGeorge?
Is that 'you?
-
(inquiring + doubt :
HR)
S2 '
-
_.....
-
83'
-
-
-
8~'
-
-
-
85'
-
level
-
NS
'Yes.
-
(u!'ge::t
RF)
B2'
-
83'
-
8~'
-
85 '
-
N8
I want to report a 'theft.
(emotional
HF)
82'
-
83'
-
8~'
-
85 '
-
~TS
.M,'tteft?
(su!';,rise
LR)
62'
-
6;'
-
64'
/
(;~-ui~i~""\\
..... ~ ...
- -~-/
SS'
-
Cl)
the hyphen (- ) means "ea rrect performance".
81' could~'t take the rest of our(corrective) tests because he
~ent for a 3-~onth stay in Zaire •
...

---

187_
N8
Two hundred/what?/~?
(inquiring; calling for a
repetition : HR)
82'
-
-
33 '
-
-
84'
-
-
35 '
-
-
N3
~Founds ! EnglishJ\\money!
(emphatic
RF)
32'
-
-
83'
-
-
84'
\\ (neutral')
\\(neutral)
S5 '
level
level
~'i3
I'ri1 sorry, dad, but yOLl can't do that!
It 's f 0 ::'V..£2i3 to decicl:=o.
(contrast : PR)
82'
-
33'
-
34-'
-
S5'
-
N8
'Oh
I 'see.) You've already decided,Ahave you?
~
,
.
(challenging
RF)
82'
-
83'
-
84'
-
S5'
/ (inquiring)
..

---

188.
NS
I've got to tell you 'now.
(emotional : HF)
82'
~neutral)
83'
-
84'
(neutral)
85'
'-
-
NS
'1Tell me?VTell me \\r.rhat?
(greatly astonished
FR)
82'
-
-
83'
-
-
84'
-
-
85'
-
-
In spi~e o~ t~e ger.era:ly good resal~s o:tai~ed in these
tests, it is difficult to :e sure that all the ~roblems our
learners have ~ith intonation have completely disappeared. All
we have tried to show here is that the approach we present is
likely to be a useful and Droductive one in EFL generally and
even ':Iith :~iluba learners whos e mother tor.g·le ~akes things
even more jifficult than for native speakers of ?rench and
other languages.
It is also North noting that the correction of intonation
is essentially a matter of intensive listening and production
practice. In order to get familiar with the intonation patterns
of English, the studer.ts need as ~uch listening practice as
possible, in class or outside. Good models are available on
the radio Gr en casset~es.
Also, ~he native sneaker of Ciluba~6 is lear~ing Znglish
..

---

189.
needs active and systematic (1) production practice to
enable him to approximate the various intonation patterns
in the natural contexts of complete model sentences and
utterances.
(1) Difficult patterns can be selected and taught in
isolation
usin2 for example musical to~es.

---

CHAPTER 11. CORRECTION OF INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS
2.1. DESCRIPTION OF ~~THODS
2.1.1. Articulatory method
2.1.2. Optimal position
2.1.3. Shaded pronunciation
2.2. CORRECTION OF SOUNDS
2.2.1. [i:]
2.2.2. [iJ
2.2.3. [u]
2.2.4. Central[A,C}:,d1
2.2.5. Diphthongs
2.2.6. Triphthongs
2.2.7. Consonants
2.2.8. Consonant clusters
..

---

Note :
Since it was not possible to deal with all types of errors,
we have tried to correct only the most difficult ones, or thos~
which, although they ~ere made by relatively few learners, were
very frequent in English. ",,;e have just seen that the 'time factor'
method helped, on the segmental level, to correct pronunciation
of central vowels such as r~:,~] and some consonant clusters
where lack of assimilation and vowel insertion were no longer
observed. Even these corrected errors are dealt with in the
following lines to allow perfect understanding together with
correct pronunciation by the learners.

---

192.
2.1. DESCRIPTION OF fffiTHODS
As already said, three methods are used to correct errors on
individual sounds; they are: purely articulatory method, optimal
position and shaded pronunciation. For each type of error, one meth-
od
or a combination of two -
is used. We have selected each
according to the nature of error made by the learners. Detail about
these methods is given as follows
2.1.1. Purely articulatory method
Furely articulatory method - a systematization of straightforward
imitation - consists in interfering with the production of a sound
either by instigating the learner to place the speech organs in a
certain manner, or by ex~lai~i~g ~o him the moveme~ts ~hat are
necessary for a correct arti~ulation. For example, one of the errors
that was made by the learners was 'monophthongization'; it was
necessary to correct this error, to show the learners the correct
articulation of a diphthong, starting from first vocalic element
and then glidin~ to~ards the second. Tte lear~ers had to understand
by means of vizualizations (11se of speech organs or draNings) that
three differen~ elements constitute a diphthong : a first vowel,
a glide and a second vowel. ~his method aimed at operating on the
learner's consious control over his own articulatory movements, and
at helping him to analyze the mechanism of sound production. The
method is accompanied by an appeal to the student's observation
of the teacher's or his own performance; e.g. correction and
demonstrations by the teacher of a given articulatory covement.
The articulatory ~ethod is ~~~ ~ost Doc~lar and the ~c~~ ~ncient
of all (1).
(1) R~NARD, R., QV. cit., p.~9

---

193.
2.1.2. Optimal oosition
Unlike the preceding method, optimal position is based on the
assumption that sounds always interact in combination. In order
to correct the students' mispronunciation of sound x, for example,
it is ~laced in optimal position, i.e. before or after other sounds,
y and z, ~hose pronunciation is easier and is lik~ly to encourage
and facilitate the correct production of sound x. The first to have
developed such an approach for French speaking learners of English
is VULETIC. (1)
2.1.3. Shaded oronunciation
The ~ost comprehensive treatment of this method is probably
~. RENARD's I~troduction a la methode verbo-tonale de correction
nhonetiaue (2). Essentially, the method consists in producing
systematic and artificial variations (shadings) in the pronunciation
of a sound in order to enable the learner to perceive the relevant
differences existing between his error and correct pronunciation.
?or example, if a student pronounces the last sound of "hut"
as [e]
(front) instead of [~)(central), correction has to start by the
pronunciation of the back t~1(which is in contrast with the learner's
error). The student is asked to pronounceL'); after a number of
repetitions, the contrast betl,veen (:» and (i)) will make the learner
conscious of the error. The'" [:>lis replac ed by the correct [1\\) and the
student is asked again to re~eat this correct pronunciation until
everything is right. Here, the central point of shaded pronunciation
is to help the -earner not to reoroduce [~1by first em~hasizing the
difference behJeen [t] and (1\\).
(1) "Syst':'me des fautes et correcti:m phonetique des :::-ran,;ais nui
t
1 ,
l '
11
•
R ~ ,\\
;:>
~5
apprennen
ang~a1s, 1n ' • r • .'-1..,
_, p.)
(2) REN;'.RD'S work is based on ?etar GLJ32REJ...,.' s rlLa :-:ethode audio-
visuelle structuro-globale", in R.P.A., 1, 1965.

---

2.2. CORRECTION OF SOUNDS
The following is the way each sound was corrected. For each
sound correction, we have tried to provide three elements :
(i) the corrective approach that was used,
(ii) the corrective test, i.e. ~ords and sentences in which the
soun~ was used for correction,
(iii) the learners' performances and results.
~iore particular, all the tests were read out by each testee and
the performances were recorded. The sounds (or words) underlined
in the tests are those for ~hich analyses were carried out.
As to the results, they are presented as follows: first, a
table including the words in ~hich particular sounds were tested
as well as actual performances by each learner (81', 82', 83', ••• ).
The upe of a hyphen in the tables means correct ?erformance; where
a different sound is ~entioned means the learner's error. Second,
after the table, a comment is ~ade about the way the sound has (or
has not) been corrected; wherever good results are not obtained,. a
new method is suggested.
pronounced tense and short
a) Method :
Two elements were to be corrected here, ~a=ely, quality and
19n~th. ~he ~ethod we ~ave used is ootimal ~csition (VULETIC).
In order to correct q~ality, i.e. to get a ~ore lax and more

---

195.
open pronunciation, we have used (i:] after plosives because
plosives are tense and consequently encourage a lax pronunciation
of the following vowel. As regards shortening, correct length
has been attempted in word finals as vowels are fully pronounced
in this word position.
b) Optimal contexts (VULETIC)
1. Prices k~p on increasing in this country.
2. Somebody has stolen my k~.
3. There was a keen wind blowing from the east.
~. I am invited to t~ to-morrow.
5. Here is the ~achine that p~ls potatoes.
6. Why don't you pick up that p~?
7. Cne test~ didn't give all the ans~ers.
B.,le all practise football and ski.
9. Can I see you at teatime?
10. 'tlhat do .you prefer';. coffee or t~?
c) Results
TABLE
keep
key
keen
tea
peels
pea
testee
ski
teatime
tea
~2'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
-
83'
i
-
-
i
i
-
i
-
-
-
S~'
-
ei
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
-
S5'
-
-
-
-
i
i
i
i
i
-
S6'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
As ~ay be observed, most results ~or ~his vo el are satis-
factory. i:ost studer:.ts indeed produced correct length and quality
for [i:) , particul ::.rly in -;ord-final position (e. g. ill. tea, key,

---

196.
ski, pea). However, some problems remain with the quantity of
[i:)
: 40% of the studeBts pronounced.' it short in 22% of the
perf~rmances, in the words keep, tea, pea, testee, ski, teatime,
peels. Optimal position is therefore to be recommended here
considering the great amount of correct performances arrived at
with this method. A large number of exercises in class based on
this method is necessary to improve the correction of quality and
quantity, first in final, and then with initial and medial [i:].
2.2.2. 1: 11 • pronounced tense
a) i-lethod :
Like for [i:l , we have used this vowel after plosives
(especially after ~he u~voiced ones) to get a more relaxed a~d
more open pronunciation (-ruL~TIC).
b) Optimal contexts (vUL3TIC)
1. This pill is bitter.
2. You'll ki~l the kid.
3. It's a difficult subject.
4. The examiner can pick on any student to answer ~uestions.
5. Entrance to the theatre is by ticket only.
r
o. She's busy in the kitchen.
7. ~Jait till Sunday.
8. He kissed his Nife and children good-bye.
9. Don't pick your nose!
.1 r-
IV.
It' 5 a Dre~-:-- 'ii3"":=ict.
c' ~es·.:l ts
..

---

197.
TABLE
pill kill difficult pick
ticket kitchen till kissed pick pretty
S2'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
-
e
•
83'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
84'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
e
85'
-
-
-
i:
-
-
-
-
-
e
86'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
e
..
The optimal position method also proves successful for the
correction of [i) , correctly pronounced by almost all the students
both after unvoiced and voiced plosives (~ill, ~ifficult, £ick,ticket)
The difference between this vowel and those of Ciluba and French as
to quality is quite audible from the students' pronunciations. One
exception is the word "pretty" ~here 80% of the students produced
Ce) instead of (i) , but this i~ clearly a case of spelling pronun-
ciation.
2.2.3. (u1 : pronounced tense
a) :·Iethod :
~e also tried to obtain an open and rel~~ed pronunciation of this
vowel by o?timal position, i.e. by placing it after the unvoiced
plosives (vLlliETIC).
b) Outimal contexts
1. That's the 800k I took.
-
-
2. I could have p£t it here.
3. The door onened at a slight Dush.
-
...
...
. . - '
4. Cur cook has prepared a pudding.
5. I t£Qk the book yesterday •
..

---

198.
6. The butcher took the bulletin.
7. We have a good cook.
8. The prisoner was p~t to death.
9. The butcher st£2d here.
10. ~t the p~dding on the table.
c) Results
TABLE
took could push cook took took cook put stood put pudding -l
S2'
u
u
•
•
S3'
S4'
S5'
S6'
As with (i:) and ( i ) ,
the correction of (u) was achi~ved
b¥ means of optimal position (after unvoiced consonants). All
the students managed to pronounce it lax and open in 96~ of
their performances~ as is shown in the table.
a) ~Iethod
These vowels were pronounced by the learners as [e), t Cll i. e •
•
as tense and front. In addition, front pronunciation was sometimes
accompanied by lip-rounding (?rench roe)).
Ae have tried to correct fro~ting by using '!shaded pronun~
ciation" • =t a first .stage, eaci of ~he central vowels is reDlaced

---

199.
by a back vowel, i.e. r.~lfor tA ~]and [:>:1for(~a. Subjects are
J
asked to repeat the back 1)1 or ('=1 several times. Contrast between
C~) and [~) has to make the learner conscious of" his error, and
emphasize the vowel~s central quality. At a second stage, the
(~":>:) are re-placed by ll\\J 1:, ~) ; the learner is asked to repeat
this correct pronunciation until central· articulation is achieved
and he is recorded. So, the procedure is : Starti~g from shaded
pronunciation [~1and ending by correct pronunciation [~).
In order to correct lip-rounding, we have found it better to
use optimal position, or to place these vowels after non-labial
consonants, because the latter do not favour the labial pronun-
ciation of the following vowel (VULETIC). So :
1 0 )
Correction of t: t\\)
a) Procedure
1. Shaded pronunciation: the learner is asked to -practise
shaded and then correct oronunciation in the following
\\'iords :
shaded
correct
1. pub
[p ~ '0]
)
( ~AbJ
2. but
[t.:)~)
)
[~I\\ to]
,. love
[R :;) ,,)
')
t! ~v)
4-. colour
(K':)\\:»
')
['cA \\1)1
5. come
tk~""'J
., -r '<1\\""'1
,-
o. sun
[1'):)Y't)
) (I')" 'l"\\J
7. bus
(R,n cr.)
')
t ,-" t)
3. country
(\\<':),,\\,,\\]
'> [.\\< 1\\'f\\ ~ l" " ]
9. cu-p
t\\(~'p1
~
[\\(J\\l>1
10. umbrella
L':>"' \\:, t" eo b]
'7 [1\\ Tt\\ bT' IL \\aJ
2. Ootimal position: to correct lip-rounding
1. cut

---

.-
200.
2. come
3. gun
4. hut
5. love
6. none
7. shut
8. dull
9. country
"
"
10. luck
b) Results
TABLES
but love colour come sun bus countr
)rella
umb
83'
au
84'
85'
86'
luck
82'
83'
84'
85'
86'
2°) Correction of (~~1
a) Procedure
1. Shaded Dronunciation
shaded
correct
1 • first
t ~':): ~ \\-1
) t i~~~~)
2. third
[~:>:c:l1
., t e~:ci1
3. girl
t~ ~: \\')
~
[~ ~:\\)

---

201.
4. fur
C~ ~:)
) [ ! ~:]
5.
' .
concern
r l(~ 'n ~')~ \\'\\)
) (k a 1\\\\~~: ,,]
6. servant
CS~:""~ j
~ t~~: V p,"=-)
7. shirt
t~ -=>: t ')
)
[S~; t]
8~ sir
(f.)~;1
~ rh 'Cl; 1
9. :::service
[f.) ':): ", s)
> rr,)~;vh)
10. curb
(1<~:b1
~ 1: x'a: 'oJ
.
2. Optimal position
to correct lip-rounding
1. sir
2. curl
,. curb
4. girl
5. hurt
,-
o. serve
7. shirt
8. cur
9. skirt
10. concern
, . Outimal Dosition : to correct length, the sound is used
in word final position where it is fully articulated,
.
as in
1. fur
2. cur
,. purr
4. sir
5. her
..

---

202.
b ) Results
TABLES
lfirst third girl fur concern servant shirt sir service cur
82' -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
83' -
-
-
- _.
-
-
- -
-.
84' -
-
-
- -
'a
-
-
-
-
85' -
-
-
- -
-
e
- e
- "
86' -
-
-
- -
-
-
- -
-
sir curl' curb girl hurt serve shirt cur skirt concern
82' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
83' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
85 ' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
fur cur uurr sir her
82' -
-
-
-
-
_.
83
-
- -
-
•
84' -
- ua
1:
-
85' -
-
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
- -
orrection of L'd1
a
.
) Procedure
.
1. Shaded uronunciation
shaded
correct
1. !1e"f,te~
[nQv:»
)[neva)
2. c:-der
[.,~c:1. ~]
) t,:>:d-a]
3. s:.:gar
LS\\J~:)1
)
[Su~~l
4. better
['0 q.t:>]
)
L'tH! t'd]
..

---

20,.
5~ master
t:~Cl:'\\-,:))
> l:r.d.: '~~J
6. danger
(cl.Q.\\ \\\\d3:)1
) CciQl n d.'3 ~1
7. writer
(1" a,,~ :)1
)
(,..at~'a1
8. 'I/inter
[W'" \\;':)1
)
(w tY\\ \\. ...1
9. sister
tf)r ~\\-. ~ 1
)
[~,\\~a1
10. over
r. 'a\\J \\I ~'1
')
(-au v 'a)
.
b) Ootimal position . to correct lip-rounding
1. 1/1orker
2. baker
,. sugar
~. theatre
5. order
r
o. master
7. ',lriter
3. doctor
9. better
10. consider
b) Results
TA:aL~3
never ord.er sugar better master danger writer sister winter over
32'
r
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3, ,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3~'
-
-
-
-
_.
-
-
-
-
-
35 '
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
a"
36'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
IWorker baker sugar theatre order master '..:riter doctor better con
side r
32' '
-
-
e
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
S3'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
:3-+'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
S5'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
86'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

---

We may s~ that shaded pronunciation led to ~ improvements :
in fact, the front articulation of central vowels (as [e1) has
dis~ppeared from most pronunciations, which were produced with the
correct central articulation. But results were much better with
vowels t~:)~'] where a fe'.v mistakes ( quality) had been noticed.
As to vowel (~1, ~e still observe some lip-rounding t~)](12%)
...
and some errors assignable to spelling. pronunciation : "love"
pronounced [l';)v) , "come" [k)m] , "colour" (k:>l-:>] ••• (21~). T,ie
do,_not take into account isolated errors such as in the '.·:ords
"none", pronounced [nain] (confusion with the 'oiord "nine"); and
It country"
pronounc ed [kauntri] (pronunciation due to the "ou"
spelling in "country"). While shaded pronunciation is good for
the correction of(d:~aJ , it does not ~ork very well for the
pronunciation af[A); the artic~latory ~ethod may be more appro-
priate.
2.2.5. Diphthongs
The main error here was ~onophthongization,
i.e.
reduction
of the dipht~ang into one si~gle vowel namely, the first one. The
vowel was oronounced either long or stort.
1°. Correction of c~osing diJht~ongs
1) rei) was pronounced Cd.:,~:,e]
•
(ail ',vas Dronounced
t. Cl:)
"-
eau) was pronounced
let:)
•
a) ;':ethoc.
de have tried to get correct ii~hthongization by using
the artic~latory cethod, to provide vizualization of the
..

---

205.
glide from the first to the second vowel
(e\\"Ai]
,
[a'-1ti ]
,
(a~u]
The same di~hthongs have been used after plosives
(optimal position) to obtain correct length of the first
vowel (VULETIC), because plosives enable to shorten the
following vowel.
b) Optimal contexts : after practice with the articulatory
method, learners read out the followingand ~ere recorded
(VULETIC) :
1. Which d~ did you p~ your fees?
2. I paid the d5l before yesterd~.
3. The ~ide died in this forest.
-
' - ' -
4. Feter's looki~g for ~ Dipe.
5. The g~ didn't open his mouth.
6. The b!ker is sick.
7. Cne pint's enough.
8. That's a dirty t~n.
9. I've bought a ~iaycle for you.
10. Take a new car.
c) Results
TABLE8
day nay paid day yesterday guide died my
82' -
-
e:
-
-
ei
ei
-
83' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
34'
-
-
-
-
-
i
-
-
85' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
S6'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

---

206.
pipe guy mouth baker pint to'.m bicycle take
82' -
ei
ou
t=
e:
-
-
e:
83' -
ei
-
-
i
-
-
-
84' -
ei
-
C1:
i
-
-
e
...
85' -
- -
a.
i
-
-
-
+
86' -
- -
-
i
-
-
-
The following results were obtained:
1. Most students (77,5%) managed to produce the two vowel
elements correctly and thus corrected monophthongization.
This correction was achieved thanks to the articulatory
method, that is, we i~sisted in the correction.of t2esa
sounds on the presence of the ~NO vowel elements and on
the glide. The students were explained that both vowels
are to be pronounced and that a glide must link the first
and the second. As a result, most of them no longer
pronounced them Le:) ortca..')
(cf. recordings).
""
.
2. There Nere a few errors due to spelling or to proficiency
in English in the ',.:ords "diedIt, "guide", "guy", "baker"
and "pint" (see the tables a:-ov.e).
To conclude~ the articulatory method together with optimal
position are to be recommended for these diphthongs, to avoid
monophthongization and lengthening of the first vowel.
2) [::>\\) \\Vas pronounced Co:1
a) IvIethod :
Here, the learners tended to monophthongize, to lengthan
the first Yo~el and li~-round. ~engthening of the first
..

---

second vowel : actually, no lengthening was observed when
the second vowel was pronounced.
We have also proceeded in two stages to correct these
mistakes, first by using articulatory method which allows
to correct the glide between J and i, and then by using
non-labial open consonants before~~Uto correct lip-rounding
(optimal position). (1)
b) Outimal contexts (VULETIC)
1. There's too much noise ih this room.
2. The hurricane's destr~d vegetables.
3. My aunt is ennoyed.by such a situation.
4-. ·-Which t2.Y did you destr,2Z?
5. I'll be killed by that noise.
6. Three personstve teen empl,2Zed in this firm this week.
7. Join us boysl
8. It was the boilin~ oil.
9. There's a great choice of toys in this shop.
10. To-morrow is a r£Ial feast.
Cl') Cpen CO:-lS0::a.::::.s
:;OI:.-:Jlosi'19S, i. e. r:s.sal.3, l'rica -:ives,
continuants.

---

208.
c) Results
TABLE8
oise destroyed ennoyed toy destroy noise
82' ,:i
' : i
j : i
~:i
;):i
;):i
83'
84'
85
86'
J:i
employed join oil cho1.ce royal
82'
-
J:i ;:):i
' : i
'1:i
83 '
-
- -
-
-
84'
-
-
-
-
-
85'
-
- -
-
-
S6'
-
- -
-
'del
This diphthong was corrected by 80~ of the testees.
The remaining 20% failed to correct lengthning of the first
vowel though correct monophthongization was achieved. 80,
the following pronunciation was observed :
C1'\\':):i~] "noise"
(fh~tr~:"]"destroy"
(Q.n"):l d] "ennoyed"
(\\: ':)1 , J
11 toy"
(~!.:>~, ~1 " join"
[:>d\\1
"oil"
r~~ :>:i~] I1 choice"
[1"~:\\ \\)
It royal"
This mistake is a new one tecause, as already noted, ~e had
so far only observed le~~~:'ening in cases of ~onOpGthoLg-
d · . th
-
d·4 . t .
..... 0""
.
.....
l '
l"'\\
•
•
f'
C
lpn
ong • .in 3. _l lon, "C_.~_e lS ,"0 _lO rou__Gln2; ... or
:>J

---

209.
in all the words and for all the students. The articulatory
method as well as optimal position work well for most
students but a few additional exercises are needed to
correct the lengthening of the first vowel.
3)
Caul was pronounced (:a ,OV]
a) Method
Errors were : monophthongization and lip-rounding. We
have used the same r::ethods as ~or [:> i).
b) Optimal contexts (after articulatory method)
1. Show me your new coat, John.
2. Charles threw it in the S~~.
3. The roof of this 8uildi~g is very low.
~. No pupil went to school yesterday.
5. Jas your bag s2 big?
6. So, it's over.
7. This fellow's shoulders are Nounded.
8. I'll sh~ you my ~ew home to-morr~.
9. I didn't ph2ne him last night.
- 10. Do you know that girl?
c)
Results
TABLES
show snow low no so over fellow's shoulders
S2'
ou
-
ou au :1
:>
-
-
S3'
-
- - - - -
-
-
s.::..'
-
ou
01.1
01.1
::>
::>
-
-
55'
-
ou
ou ou :;}
-
-
u
S6'
01.1
ou
OU
01.1
:>
::>
ou
u

---

210.
show to-morrow phone know
52 1
-
:)
~
ou
53 1
-
-
-
-
84'
ou
Oll
ou
ou
85'
ou
ou
-
-
86'
ou
ou
ou
ou
Pronunciation of Caul as (O'A') is still encountered in
41,6~ of the productions of most words, especially in words
with final t~ul, for example : "snow", "low", "no", "show",
"to~morrow·, "knew". The use of the non-labial consonants
before this diphthong was intended to remedy this; unfortu-
nately, only 20"; of bhe testees produced the correct (-au1 in
all their productions. In addition,there are some (18,33%)
errors related to spelling in two words : 11 so" [.h.~1 and
novern(,v~]. Like in the other diphthongs, most testees
corrected mohophthongization, but correct [~u1was produced
in only 40% of the cases. 50 diphthong eau) remains a major
problem, probably because lou] was :t.aught at school. Nore
intensive exercises based on the articulatory method might
help learners to unlearn tQ~).
2°. Correction of centrin~ diohthongs
(1,) was pronounced cl :".1.".tl'1
[t~l was pronounced Lt:.I ....1
[......) was pronounced t...\\l: .. .JJ.A ..u..~1
1
a) Method :
Two errors were noticed here :
:.- :J,.
- monoPhthongizat~l
the second vo~el ·pronounced front and open, or [r).

---

211.
Considering the nature of these errors, we have tried
to correct them in three stages :
(i) checking the pronunciation of (~l: stu~ents· ~an be
able to p~onounce this sound correctly because it was
dealt with in the preceding stages. I f not, two things
~
done: use of shaded pronunciation, and of
optimal contexts placing this sound finally in words ;
(ii) using articulatory method to correct monophthongization;
(iii) using optimal contexts (word finally) to correct the
use of (r] ;in addition, learners have been explained
that r is not pronounced in this position.
b) Outimal contexts
a. 1. The first t2£r didn't take long.
2. Take care of those children, they are sick.
3. Your idea is interesting.
4. That's a very d~ price.
5. You won't talk to those poor boys.
--
6. A poor knows what tears are.
7. Won't you have a glass of beer with me?
8. I'll repair the chair with -
my hands.
9. Take c~ of these stairs.
10. Are you sure of the good answer?
b. 1. stair
6. bear
2. beer
7. hair
3. poor
8. tear
4. dear
9. tour
5. fair
10. chair

---

212.
c) Results
TABLES
~our care idea dear ponr poor beer chair care sure
82' -
-
ie
ie
~:
ur
-
-
a:
+
-
83' -
-
ie
-
-
- -
-
f:
-
84' ~
a.:
i
-
-
-
-
-
a:
u:
+
+
85' au
e:
-
-
-
- -
-
-
~:
86' 'a:
er
-
-
-
-
-
er
er
-
!StaJ.r beer poor dear faJ.r bear haJ.r "tear tour cha.J.r
82'
-
-
-
t:
-
-
-
-
-
a.-:
83
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
84
-
-
-
-
-
i~
-
-
-
-
85
-
ir
ur
ir
er
i r
er
ir
~r
er
86
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Results are generally correct (69~). The most important
improvement is the correct pronunciation of final central
'0; [e1 remains in only 3 % of the cases. Ivloreover, omission
of final 'Cl also disappeared, and(l-a, ..u.'a, 'esl were correctly
nroduced instead o~ the monophthongized[i:, u:, ~~. The
early correction of t:~1 and the articulatory method may
account for these corrections.
A few other errors remain : spelling pronunciation of
~'care" as [k!:]and sounding of the final "re" (12%). Again,
intensive exercises are also needed.
Triphthongs include both closing and centring diphthongs.
We have not orovided a particular method to correct them
as we think that their correction can be achieved through
the correction of the above-mentioned diphthongs.

---

213.
2.2.7. Consonants
1) Devoicin~ of voiced consonants
a) Method
It has been corrected by placing the voiced consonant
in intervocalic position to encourage a relaxed pronunciation
(optimal position).
b) Optimal contexts (VULETIC)
1. We talked a£out the matter
2. May's arrived five minutes ago.
3. ~o-day's a day o~~.
4-. I think something can be done.
5. Did you choose a good one?
0) Results
TABLES
about
ago
day
done
good
82 '
-
- -
-
-
8,'
-
- -
-
-
84'
-
- -
-
-
i
85'
-
- -
-
-
86 1
-
- -
-
-
Correotion based on use of each consonant in intervocalic
I
position (optimal position to avoid devoicing) was a total
success (100%).
I
I
I
I

---

214.
2) Lack of aspiration forfp,t,k)
a) Method
As assumed by VULETIC, lack of aspiration means that
the learners pronounce the initial [P,t,k] with lower
frequencies (1). In order to enable them to produce aspi-
ration (i.e. with high frequencies) optimal position has
also been used : the plosives are placed in word initial
position before high fre~uency vQwels as [i,e,i:] (2).
b) Optimal contexts
1. Tim will come to lea.
2. Our leacher tipped him well.
3. Paul plays football in my team.
4. Please, £ick up the £en for me.
5. You must pay for the £ig.
6. Peter will take a ~ill.
7. The King ~eeps a big cat.
8 • Kitty kissed the King.
9. Can you give me the key?
10. This country is £eaceful.
c) Results
(1) VULETIC, Br., Ope cit., p.6,
(2) Frequency in hz : [i,e1:
1600-3200
ri: 1 :
3200-6400 (highest)
fu:,uij:
200-400
(lowest)
(VULETIC, Br., 00. cit., p.aS)

---

215.
TABLES
tea
teacher
tipped
team
pick
pen
pig
82' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
83 ' -
-
-
-
-
-
P
84' -
-
t
t
P
-
-
85' -
t
t
t
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
Peter
pill king
keeps' key-
K~tty
k:),sSed.
peacel'ul
8~' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
83' -
p
k
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
P
-
-
-
-
-
-
85 ' -
-
k
-
-
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
-
-,-
k
-
-
i·la.jor improvements were also observed here (82,85C:::)
using optimal position. In initial position before i,e,i:,
consonants p,t,k were pronounced with correct and audible
aspiration, something which had never been achieved in
diagnostic tests. Only a few students produced non-aspirated
[p,t,k)
before [i] and li:1 in some words.
3)
Ct,dL pronounced dental
a) Bethod
Alveolar pronunciation of (t,d) has been attempted by
using shaded pronunciation starting from [tSl and (d31 •
As 1earners pronounced them dental (.i.e.front), we first
replace them by more back consonants, that is, respectively
by (t~J and (d3] • As with (a], learners can arrive, after a
number of repetitions, at the correct, alveolar, articulation.

---

216.
b) Procedure
shaded ---:" correct
(tS - d31-+ (t
dJ
1. Tim
[ t~im]
~
(timj
2. take
[~eikl ~ (teik]
3. tip
[ tSip]
~ [tip)
4. tell
(t\\ elJ
~ [te11
5. tea
( t~i:J
• tti:l
6. die
[d3ai1
--. (dai1
7. desk
[d3eskl
. - . . (deskl
8. deep
(d3i : PJ
1J'" Ldi:p]
9. dear
rd3ia) -+ (dial
10. destroy
( d3estr, i).... [destr~i]
c) Results
TABLES
Tm take tip tell tea die desk deep dear destroy
82' -
t
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
d
.,
83'
"
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
85' -
-
- -
- -
-
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Shaded pronunciation was used success~ully (96~) to
correct consonants t/d (formerly pronounced dental), having
the testees use the alveolars rather than upper teeth. This
result was also achieved by contrasting the errbr with the
correct pronunciation.

---

217.
4) Voicing of final unvoiced consonants
a) Method
This error has been dealt with by placing the unvoiced
consonant at the beginning of a syllable (optimal position),
i.e. before a vowel. By doing so, we hope to get the CV
(consonant plus vowel) sequence, which is the most common
one in Ciluba syllables. In fact, it may be said that
consonants in this position were voiced beeause the Ciluba
speaker is used to final vowels.
b) Optimal contexts
1. Your hands are too cold.
2. The key is on the table.
-
-
3. This toy is very cheap.
-
-
4. Did he fall into the river~
5. The teaaher ~eems to be tired.
6. That's the baker's house.
7. I'm not quite ~ure.
8. China is situated in South Asia.
9. The pill is too bitter for me.
10. Mr. Smith is a good professor.
c) Results
TABLES
cold
key
table
toy
cheap
fall teacner
82' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
83 • -
-
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
85' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
-
-
-
-

---

218.
seems baker's sure China bitter professor
82J -
-
-
-
-
-
83' -
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
-
-
-
-
-
85' -
-
-
-
-
-
86' -
-
-
-
-
-
All the final consonants were pronounced correctly
(unvoiced) when placed in word initial. The question remaim
how to put the consonants again in their earlier environ-
ment (final) and to get the students to practise them in
such environment.
5) Ca. f]: pronounced respectively [t,f]
and [d,z]
a) Method and optimal contexts
Students substituted for these two consonants, sounds
from their mother tongue system, with lower frequency.
Therefore, to emphasize pronunciation with high frequency,
we have placed re] and [et] before or after a high frequency
vowel (VULETIC) as in :
1. I don't think the !hief is here.
2. He's a weal~ !hief.
3. What do you think about his teeth?
4. I think Paul can do something.
5. Do you like it !hin or !hick?
6. !hei're gping to town togeiaer.
7. They cannot go with us.
8. It's neither good nor bad wea~er.
9. He ~on't go wi!hout them.
10. This is good lea!her.

---

219.
Concerning the pronunciation of ([]as [z] , correction
has been attempted by plaaing the consonant before or after
a low frequency vowel as the frequency of [z) is higher
than that of [4J.
Optimal contexts (VULETIC) :
1. That's another story.
2. Is that your brother?
3. The other woman is my ~other.
4. Thus, here is my situation.
5. ~~ father' is not here.
b) Results
TABLE3
thief wealthy thief think teeth sometning thin thick
8~' -
t
-
-
t
-
-
-
83' -
- -
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
-
-
. -
-
-
d
-
85' t
-
t
t
f
-
t
t
86' -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
they together \\Yl.th weather wl.thout leatner
82' d
-
-
t
-
-
83 ' -
-
-
-
-
-
84' -
d
-
d
d
t
85' -
-
-
t
t
-
86' -
-
d
-
-
d
another brother other mother thus l"a'tner
82'
-
-
-
-
-
-
83 '
-
-
-
-
-
-
84'
-
-
-
-
-
-
85'
-
d
d
d
d
d
86'
-
-
-
-
d
d

---

220.
First, we insisted on the articulation of~h oontrasting
it with t,f,z. We then used these consonants in optimal
posi~ion (before or after high and low freq~cy vowels).
74% of the results were correct; in only 26% of the cases
testees went on using[t,d] instead of(~51 • Still, such
results are encouraging considering that these sounds are
major problems. Nhat is therefore to be recommended here
is a combination of articulatory and the optimal position
methods.
In the last resort, the most appropriate method would
be that developed by the C.R.E.P.E. (1) in Belgium and
summarized in M. RINNE's "Edueation
Rythmique, Maitrise
de la voix et Creativite vocale : Trois prealables a I'
du maitre de langue vivante"(2). The method is called
'Physical attitude' and it should be used in combination
with shaded pronunciation. The reason why we did not use
it in this work is that we became acquainted with it quite
late, at a time when it was too late for us to explore it
systematically. Essentially, it is based on the learners'
general physical attitude : it operates on the whole body
and on the speech organs seen as part of general physical
behaviour.
-
According to this theory, producing the sounds of a
language depends only on the speech organs in so far as
they are part of general bodily behaviour. In order to
(1) "Centre International de Recherche et d'Experimentation en
Psycho-peda~ogie de l'Expression"
(2)in Ecritures 76, pp. 58-68

---

I
I
221.
I
pronounce the sounds correctly and clearly, the whole
I
body as well as the speech organs must be in a state of
complete relaxation, and the learner can achieve this by
means of breathin~ and other repeated physical exercises
I
(feet, legs, arms, neck, jaws, lips, tongue, vo.al cords, ••
Once general relaxation has been achiev~dthe learner will
be able to produce all sorts of sounds, even some which do
not exist in his own language.
Shaded pronunciation comes in after physical training and
its role depends on both the sound to be corrected and the
nature of the error. If the student pronounces English[6J
as(tJ,this error will be corrected by using a sequence
starting from [tJ and ending on {e]. To emphasize the
difference between the two sounds, the incorrect sound et]
will be used before an overlengthened vowel and (e]before
a shortened one. Voice may remain unchanged throughout the
sequence; e.g.
[ti: ail
[tu: eu]
[te:ge1 , etc •••
Through this practice, the learner not only experiments
with the difference between [t) and (e], but he also
acquires new articulatory habits necessary for the pronun-
ciation of[6] • The method is used in some secondary schoo~
of Liege (Belgium) to correct errors made by learners of
French and English (as a foreign language).

---

222.
6) Lt] : pronounced clear
a) Method
We have tried to correct this sound by placing it a1ter
low frequency vowels. The contact with low frequency
vowels encourages a dark pronunciation - with low frequency,
because the frequency of clear I is hi~er than that of
dark =to (VULETIC).
b) Optimal contexts
1. I'll take all your bottles.
2. I think Mike's rather old.
-
3. He told me about bull fighting.
4. He wants to buy all the bulls.
5. Thi~ is a very old house.
c) Results
TABLE
all old
told
bull :.all
bulls
old
82'
I
-
-
-
-
-
-
83 '
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
84'
- -
-
-
-
-
-
85'
-
-
-
I
-
-
-
86'
- -
-
-
-
-
-
We got 94,30/: of correct answers thanks to the articulato:i-~.
method plus optimal position. Clear articulation oft or~I
thus disaDpeared from most students' pronunciation.

---

223.
2.2.8~ Consonant clusters
1. TyPical o~ English
e.g. (kS,Pt,bd,st,mz, •••J
a) Method
Learners added either a pause or a vowel between the
consonants. Correction has been attempted by articulatory
method and rhythm. By means of speech organs, we have first
tried to explain and demonstrate that consonants are
articulated with a glide between them, and that inserting
a pause is a mistake. Second, we have used rhythm to favour
assimilation, which is essential to produce clusters, and to
avoid vowel insertion. The reason why subjects ~ere unable
to produce assimilation in diagnostic tests was that their
speed of delivery was too slow. By acquiring the right
rhYthm, vowel insertion and assimilation ean be corrected
(1). The following sentences have been used for correction
(2), :
b) Sentences for correction
A. tbd)
1. We were robbed!
-
[pt]
2. They jumped into the room.
[ps]
3. They tied us with ro~.
[bZ]
4-. They thumbed me in the ribs.
[bdl
5. He'd been stabbed.
(1) For detail on rhythm see page 168 r~.
(2) from hORTlMER, C., Clusters. A nronunciation practice book,
CUP, Cambridge, 1977.

---

224.
B. [let]
1. Who should we select?
-
[ks)
2. John jo~ too much.
[kS]
3. He talks about books.
[gd]
4. MarY'~'always nagged.
[gzJ
5. ¥dss Tonks has nice le~.
c. lt5 t1 1. 'We mar~ all day.
[tsJ
2. ~e pitched our tents by the river.
[tSt)
3. Some of us watched.
(d3dl
4. In the morning we bridged the river.
[d3d]
5. The battle raged for two nights.
D. fpst]
1. ~~ life has collapsed.
[pts]
2. She adopts her as her daughter.
[p8s]
3. She's rescued from the Depths.
(pts]
4. He opts to do the job.
[lets]
5. A~ One and Two of this play are nice.
E. [lps}
1. She never he~ him.
[Its)
2. The results are well-kno':in.
(lvzJ
3. She was -
eaten by wolves.
[lbz]
4. Those b~ are mine.
fldzl
5. She holds the secret of the house.
-
c) Results
TABLES
rObbed Jumped ropes ribs
stabbed select jokes talks
82'
bs
83'
bs
84'
bs
85'
bed
bs
S6'
bs

---

225.
books nagged legs marched tents watched bridged
82'
-
-
g
-
-
-
d3id
83 '
-
-
gs
-
-
-
brid
84-'
-
d,d
-
-
-
-
-
85'
-
dld
-
-
-
1oJ~~
-
86'
-
-
-
tS
-
-
gd
raged collapsed adopts Depths opts acts helps results
82'
gd
psit
-
pt
-
-
-
It
83 '
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
84'
-
-
-
fst
-
-
-
-
85'
-
psit
-
-
ps
-
-
-
86'
-
-
-
fs
-
-
-
-
wolves bulbs holds
82'
-
lbs
lds
83'
-
lbs
lds
84-'
-
lbs
lds
85'
lvs
lbs
lds
86'
-
lbs
lds
Quite generally (73%), clusters were correctly pronounced
(with no pause, no extra-vowel inserted between the consonants,
or consonant omission) and most important, with acceptable
assimilation. Just a few errors persist, however, especially
with clusters whose spelling includESa voiced consop.ant plus s.
In such cases s was pronounced (s) instead of ulas in "ribs"
[ribs), "bulbs" (b~\\lbS], "holds" [haulds) , ••• These errors
are due to spelling and they are minor ones if one considers
that most words were pronounced correctly.

---

226.
2. TyPical of French
e.g.[~t dr, tr,dr]
a) rVjethod
Each of the last consonants in these clusters was
pronounced by the learners as in French. We have tried to
deal with this as follows :
- [~, d%) : thanks to the correction of dark ~ (see page e22)
students should be able to pronounce these
clusters correctly;
- [tr, drl : we have attempted to get rid of the uvular
pronunciation or [r] by using shaded pronun-
ciation.
b) Procedure
a. for (Pr, br, fr, kr, gr):
shaded ~ correct
pw
'> pr
...
...
b. for (tr, dr) :
shaded--~~ correct
t{w
.. tr
d3w
)
dr
In other ~ords, to correct [pr, br, fr, kr, grJ learners
are told to start from lPw, bW, fW, kw t gw] and then to move
to [pr, br, fr, kr, grJ . For (tr, dr] , they are told to
start from (tSw, d~w] and then to arrive at correct rtr~ dr]

---

227.
~
Shaded
') Correct
1. price
[pwais]
) (prais]
2. bright
(bwait]
) [braitl
3. tree
(.f'wi:]
)
(:rri :]
4-. cry
[kwai)
.. (krai.)
5. grain
[gweinl
) (grein]
6. train
[t5wein]
) (trein]
7. drive
[d3waii)
) (draiv]
8. try
(tSwai]
) ltraiJ
9. dream
(9wi : m)
)
[dri:mJ
10. trip
tt SWip]
l
(trip)
c) Results
TABLE
price bright free cry grain train drive try dream trip
S2'
-
-
-
- -
-
E
-
!:
-
83'
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
84'
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
85'
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
S6'
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
Influence of French can still be observed in the above
table : er) in diphthongs is still uvular (French) in 64%
of the cases.This means that the method used to correct
consonant clusters typical of French (shaded pronunciation)
is unsuccessful and therefore is to be replaced by another
one, possibly the articulatory method.

---

228.
Additionally to the above-mentioned approaches, special
attention has been paid to breaking away from spelling pronunci-
ation : learners were explained beforehand that spelling and
pronunciation are different. Unlike Ciluba where each sound has
only one spelling, English sounds ~an be spelt in several ways.
We explained for example that [:):lcan be spelt in various ways :
S!-
as in Ucall"
00
as in -door"
au
as in "taught"
or
as in "border", •••
In Ciluba, [ul
/
'
is spelt
u
as in "mutii"
(head)
(i] is spelt
i
as in U1~ctim'i."
(tongue)
bl is spelt
0
as in "ldil~~a"
(to fish)
(le) is spelt
k
as in "l~lt~"
(a tomb), •••
(1 )
Such explanations run counter to most learners' experience, namely,
predominence of traditional methods emphasizing the ~ritten forms
of English.
(1) GABRIEL (Fr), Etudes des langues congolaises bantoues avec
application an Tshiluba.

---

229.
2.3. CONCLUSION
Considering the results of our corrective tests, we may say
that two types of approaches are necessary to correct Ciluba
speakers' errors of spoken English:
first, the rhythm or speed-based approach aims at correcting the
errors of suprasegmental features (rhythm, intonation, stress and
reduction). It is called "global" as it deals with the production
of whole sentences or utterances and not of individual sounds;
second, the approaches available for correcting the individual
sounds are called "analytical", their use is dependent on the
nature and t~e of each sound mispronunciation and they aim at
correcting individual sound articulation.
Of these two types, the first approach - the rhythm-based one -
comes in first position. As we saw in the earlier sections, errors
of suprasegmental features are more important, i.e. they affect
the learners~ speeoh
more
than those of segmental units (cf.
Niss Searle's testimony and our diagnostic tests). That __ is, as
speakers of a tone and syllabic language, the learners use a' -
totally different type of intonation and rhythm which makes their
English utterances sound both un-English and, "unintelligible" or
emotionally wrong. The first thing in correction is to try to go
out from what is most typically English and most different from
Ciluba, that is, pronunciation of complete English utterances or
communicative practice on the suprasegmental features, and then
to correct isolated sounds. To answer this purpose, it is
necessary to help the students break away from the habits of
mother-tongue, to produce meaningful utterances with correct
rhythm, intonation and reduction. The articulation of isolated

---

230.
sounds is to be dealt with as a second stage, after correcting
the sentences or utterances.
In the present work, the 'time factor' approach is the one
that helped to correct suprasegmental features. By tryin~ to
make the learners produce utterances a~proximating the native
speaker's time of delivery with emnhasis on speed (or rate), and
imitation of stress and tones, the students were expected to
correct rhythm (i.e. production of rhythmic feet with prominence
being assigned to stressed syllables and weakening to the
unstressed ones) and intonation (i.e. tone-units with meaningful
nuclei and tones). Those improvements were obtained by 50% of
students for rhythm and reduction, and more for intonation.
As to the others, errors are still observed, as most of their
utterances didn't take the same time as the native speaker.
Lack of reduction, and un-English pauses still characterize their
pronunciation. Though lac~ of motivation seems to be the main
factor here, we remain convinced that more intensive practice is
needed to make them arrive at correct speech. As shown with our
tests' results, 'time facto~' also helped to correct some errors
on individual units, for example : lengthening of short vowels,
fronting of the central vowels, insertion of vowels in clusters,
and so on. Many cases showed those improvements.
On the segmental level three main methods have been used and
proved productive :
(i) 'Optimal position' or use of favourable environment helped
correct the vowels (i:,i,u:,ul , consonant devoicina in
final position and lack of aspiration.

---

(ii) 'Shaded oronunciation' or use of artificial pronunciation,
helped to correct the central La: ,.~land the advanced
articulation of [t,d] •
(iii) 'Articulatory Dlus optimal position' helped to correct
diphthongs (closing and centring) and the (~,ll sounds.
&
On
the whole,the majority of cases were corrected using those
approaches. The optimal position and the articulatory methods
were the most successful or productive as they were used to
correct a large number of sounds.
Other sounds, however, turned out to be difficult to correct
with the above-mentioned methods. They are (1\\) pronounced [tJ
,
L-aul pronounced Caul, [9 1] pronounced t~and (d
1
1 %.] ,
and English
[~] articulated as uvular. About these, a method inspired by
M. RINNE was envisag~~. It concentrates on physical attitude (i.e.
use~ of the whole body) plus shaded pronunciation (1). The
method sug~ests that correction of difficult sounds is a matter
of the speech organs regarded as,parts of the ,hole body, and
therefore physical training is necessary. Unfortunately, as we
said, we could not use this·o !11ethod~;in correction as we became
acquainted ~ith it during the last days of our work when it was
not possible to deal ~th it systematically.
We may conclude that the procedure used in this work, namely
the use of 'globa~ approach first, and the more analytical ones
after, is the one to be recommended for correcting Ciluba speakers
whose speech was first intuitively (NS) and then instrumentally
(pitchmeter) characterized as un-English and whose main factors
(1) See above.

---

232.
were ~ound out mainly in the totally different system of Ciluba.
Correction of individual sounds is therefore to be envisaged in
a secondary position after rhYthm, intonation and stress, this
for two reasons : first, the errors of ihdividual sounds are far
less important than those of suprasegmental features as the latter
prevent the speaker from being understood, and second, individual
sounds are not said in isolation, they are part of utterances.
The present ~rocedure has been expe+imented on a limited number
of students. However, we remain o9timistic as to their use and
productivity with larger groups of students as they are based on
the students' errors and error systems.

---

233.
GENERAL
C O N C L U S I O N
--------------
--------
The aim of our thesis was to find out the nature and
origin of pronunciation errors and error patterns made by
Ciluba speakers when learning the English language, and to
develop appropriate methods which could be used to correct
them. Synthetically, the results we have arrived at are the
following :
(i) Error and error systems :
At the very beginning of this work our subjects' En~lish
was characterized by a native speaker of English as "chopping",
"monotonous" and "unintelligible". That is the students failed
to use the intonation, rhythm and stress of English both
meaningfully and contrastively so that they could not be
understood by the English. This intuitive claim was confirmed
instrumentally through&Ldiagnostic tests as a result of the
totally different mother tongue (Ciluba) system, a tone and
a syllable-timed language ~thout intonation and stress
(contrastive stUdY). In other· words, diagnostic tests showed
that the learners' rhythm was completely wrong: prominence
was assigned to almost all syllables and the utterances were
divided into groups of syllables (rhythmic groups); then
intonation was characteristically monotonous and chiefly made
up of falling tones with more tone-units than the native
speaker; as to reduction, which is of most importance in
English, it was never used : weak and strong syllables were
pronounced in the same manner, most of the time with stress
and length. Briefly, all these errors were due to mother
tongue \\,:here these features are either non-existent or

---

234.
extremely poor.
Apart. from these errors - regarded as the most important
as they make the learners' speech unintelligible - various
errors were also discovered on the level or segmental units.
Here too, contrast between Ciluba and English was the main
reason. Some of these errors are :
a tense pronunciation of li:,u:,i,ul
- .!'ront articulation of the central vo·,;els
- monophthongization of diphthongs
- advanced articulation of It,d/
difficulty to pronouace the
e,f sounds
splitting of consonant clusters
- clear pronunciation of Lt)
.
Other segmental errors (minor) are due to different factors
such as :
(i) French nronunciation or pronunciation of sounds after
the model or French, e.g. the central vowels articulated
as the front rounded loe/, the uvular articulation of /r/
in isolation and in clusters (/tr/, Itl/, /pr/, Ipl/).
All these sounds do not occur in the learners' mother
tongue and the latter try to find substitutes in the
French system. The importance of French is to be underlined
here as the official language of administration and of
education in Zaire ':ihich is taught to the students in
primary school before learning English at the secondary
school level. Moreover, it is of most importance to say
that no help was brought to the students by French in
the i.r learning of English. On the coritrary, being

---

235.
characterized by a syllable-timed rhythm, less
diversified tones, tense articulation, absence of
diphthongs, a different stress based of length, lack
of reduction, ••.• French is nearer to Ciluba than to
English and very much contributes to the errors made
by the Luba students on both the suprasegmental and
the segmental levels.
(ii) Spelling pronunciation : or tendency by the students
to pronounce English sounds according to script. we
have to insist on the traditional teaching methods
used in Zairian schools emphasizing written language
a~ the .expense of spoken language. Some cases are for
example "helped" (helped1 , If hat" [helt1 ...
-+
(iii) Poor proficiency in English : can account for a few
errors : made by few students and ~hose origin could
not be found in the other two languages.
Still about segmental units, errors were also made in
perception, but, fortunately, less important than those of
oroduction.
(ii) Correction :
As far as correction is concerned, the suprasegmental
features have to be corrected first, then the individual
sounds. As mentioned in the above lines, priority is to be
given to Nhat is genuinely English and most different from
Ciluba, i.e. getting the suprasegmental features (rhythm¥
intonation, stress and reduction) right is an essential
pre-cmndition ih correction as the learners have to get

---

236.
understood first. Since the learners produce utterances
or sentences with "monotonous" Ciluba-style beat and
segmentation into syllables or slightly larger segments
which make them sound un-English and, to a certain extent,
emotionally wrong, correction of individual sounds will
be productive if it is preoeded and then integrated
afterwards in correct utterances or sentences.
Two types of methods are to be remembered here : one,
more "global" ('time factor') for correcting suprasegmental
errors, and others, 'analytical', aiming at correcting
isolated sounds. Both types of methods are essential in their
own way :
(i) ~me-factor approach makes sure that rhythm, stress,
reduction and intonation anproximate the ideal and
consequently help the Ciluba learners to be (correctly)
understood. This is capital because the students first
break with more general habits from the mother tongue
to acquire the habits of English before concentrating
on individual (isolated) sounds.
(ii) Concerning individual sounds and groups of words three
approaches are recomended in isolation or in combination
depending on each type of error
a) optimal position or context, i.e. the placing of a
sound next to another one to encourage its better
pronunciation. The vowels nronounced more tense for
example are to be placed next to plosives to
encourage lax pronunciation; devoiced consonants are
placed between vo~els, etc ••• Most important here,

---

237.
after using optimal position, a different
environment (non-optimal position) is necessary
to check the learners' pronunciation.
b) shaded'~or artific~al pronunciation is to be used
for other types of errors. It makes the learner
conscious of the error by showing him a different
sound.
c) a combination of two methods can also be used
namely articulatory and optimal position : the
learner is first taught to articulate i.e. to place
and use, the organs of speech necessary for a nartic-
ular articulation; afterwards the sound is used in
optimal position as e~lained above.
(iii) Other sounds whose articulation proves most difficult
can be dealt with by physical attitude plus shaded
pronunciation (M~ RINNE) emphasizing physical relax-
ation as the organs of speech are integrated parts of
the whole human body.
These corrective approaches, more than the others, enable
the teacher :
(i) to know what factors to operate on/with
(ii) to incorporate various dimensions such as communicative
and pedagogical factors, for example, the elements of
naturalness and ~;hat is 'genuinely' English (i.e.
reduction, stress-timed rhythm, prominence, ••• )

---

238.
(iii) and,most important of all,·· to provide techniques
and batteries that really help the Ciluba speaker
to break with the system of Ciluba and to acquire ha
its
incorporating typically English-behaviour.
Additional to these 'technical' methods, students' will
and effort are also necessary as already shown. Students
must have some motivation, and the teacher's task is to try
to stimulate their interest and desire to speak correct
English. For example by encouraging them to talk English out
of school, by creating English speaking clubs, or, if
possible, by offering them the op~ortunity to live in an
English speaking country.Only in these conditions can the
teaching of English be successful not only for the students
themselves, but also for the teachers.

---

A P PEN D ICE S
-----------------
I. THE SOUND SYSTaI OF ENGLISH
11. THE SOUND SYSTEM OF FRENCH
Ill. SPECIMENS OF PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS
IV. MAPS
I

---

I. THE SOUND SYSTEfJI OF ENGLISH
1 .1. SEGMENTAL UNITS
1.1.1. Vowels
1.1.1.1. Pure vowels
1.1.1.2. Diphthongs
1.1.1.3. Vowel clusters
1.1.2. Sedi-vowels
1.1~3' Consonants
1.1.3.1. Simple consonants
1.1.3.2. Consonant clusters
1.1.4. Pronunciation of sentences
1.2. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
1.2.1. Stress
1.2.1.1. Stress position
1.2.1.2. Stress function
1.2.1.3. Nucleus
1.2.1.4. Contrastive focus
1.2.2. Rhythm
1.2.3. Weakening
1.2.4. Intonation
1.2.4.1. Conventions and notations
1.2.4.2. T.tP~s of tones
1.2.4.3. Use and meaning of primary tones
1.2.4.4. Conclusion

---

241.
1 .1. SEGMENTAL UNITS
1.1.1. Vowels
In this description of English vowel sounds, we will deal
successively with pure vowels, diphthongs, and cases of vowel
clusters. There are twelve pure vowels or monophthongs in English,
eight diphthongs and five triphthongs. Most linguists agree that
only monophthongs and diphthongs have a distinctive value and
may consequently be regarded as phonemes in English.
1.1.1.1. Pure vowels
The twelve vocalic phonemes of Eng,-ish are
1) li:1
as in "bead"
2) lil
as in "bid"
3) lel
as in "bed"
4) lael
as in "bad"
5) 10.:1
as in " car"
6) I:JI
as in " shop"
7) I:J:I
as in "tall"
8) lul
as in "foot"
9) lu:1
as in "two"
10) IAI
as in "up"
11) lal
as in "account"
12) la:/
as in "earn"
All of them are represented as follows (1) :
(1) FERGUSON, N., Teaching English as a Foreign Language, p.50

---

24-2.
FRONT
CmTRAL
BACK
CLOOE
HIGH
/i:
HALF-eLOSE
MID
HALF-oPEN
LOW
OPEN
From left to right we have front, central and back vowels. From
High to Low we have high, mid and low vowels. Horizontal lines
represent the position of Cardinal vo~els : close, half-close,
half-open and open.
A phonetic
de scription of English vOi.. els usually accounts for:
1) the highest point of the tongue in the mouth (Front, Central and
Back vowels)
2) the degree of aperture (High, mid and low vowels)
3) muscular tension (Tense and Lax vowels)
4) length or quantity (Long and Short vowels)
5) position of lips (Rounded, Unrounded and Neutral vowels)
In the following description, we shall concentrate on vowel
~ality relationships (1).
1) /i:/
LOng front higher tense unrounded vo~el
The front of the tongue is raised forward towards the
hard palate; the tongue is tense and lips are spread. As
in Ciluba it occurs initially, medially and finally in
(1) The main source for our description is A.C. Gimson, An Intro-
duction to the Pronunciation of English, 2nd ed., which
concentrates on R(eceived) P(ronunciation).
I

---

243.
',yo rds; e • g • "~ er", "be ad", " ~a" •
2) /i/
Short front hi~h lax unrounded vowel
The front of the tongue is raised less forward than for
/i:/. It is felt nearer to centre than 'to front, just
above the half-close position; the tongue muscles are lax
and lips are loosely spread.
It is important to note that the difference between /i:/
and /i/ is not only one of quanti~, but also of quali~
in its articulation, /i/ sounds mid~ay bet~een the short
form for /i;/ and the English vowel /e/; in hearing,many
foreign listeners tend to confuse it with /e/ rather than
wi. th the short form of /i:/.
/i/ occurs in all positions in the word : initially as in
"it", medially as in "bid" and finally as in "beautz".
3) /e/
Short front mid lax unrounded vowel
The front of the tongue is raised between the half-open
and the half-close positions. There is little muscular
tension; lips are unrounded, slightly wider apart than
for /i/. We find this vowel in two position~ in ~ords
initially as in "enemy" and medially as in "bed". It
does not 9ccur in final open syllables.
4) /ae/
Short front low lax unrounded vowel
The front of the tongue here is below the half-open
position; muscles are not tense, the mouth is more open
than for /e/. Lips are unrounded. In weak forms, this
vO\\vel is often replaced by cal as in "and" (1).
(1) This is treated belo~ (see 'deak Forms)

---

244.
This vowel occurs in initial and medial positions, e.g.
"at"
"bad"· but never in final open syllables.
-
,
- '
r
5) 14:1
Long back low tense neutral vowel
The phoneme I~:I is usually classified among back or
velar vowels, because in its articulation, the tongue
position is back. Strict~, this is not true becaUb~
"the tongue ( ••• ) lies almost flat in a position of rest"
(1). The lips' shape is neutral, and the mouth is wide
open. Muscles are tense. The vowel la:1 occurs in word
- initial, medial and final position. For example in "~rmll,
-half"
11 car" •
- , -
6) 1:>1
Short back low lax rounded vowel
In order to articulate this vowel, the back of the tongue
is lowered bac~Nards in a position between half-open and
open. No muscular tension; lips are slightly rounded. he
find it in initial and medial positions (lI£fll, " s h.Qt")
only. As lae/ it is replaced by [~)in weak forms.
7) I~:I
Long back low tense rounded vowel
The position of the tongue is almost half-open; lips
are more rounded than for I~:/; tongue muscles are tense.
It occurs in all positions in a word: initial as in lI~ll",
medial as in "tallll and final as in tfdQ.W:.II. It does not
occur before I~/. Some speakers, especially in the London
area, realize this vo:,;el with sliglit diphthongization as C:>a).
"The simplest distinction between["J:)and [':)) may be made in
terms of the very much more marked pouting rounding for [::»:J
and its much greater length". (2).
(1) FER GUSON, N.,oo., cit., p.49
(2) BROWN~ G., Listening to Spoken English, p.36
I

---

245.
8) Iu/
Short high back lax rounded vowel
Like lil, lul is not to be considered as the reduced
form of the long vowel lu:l. There is a difference
between these two vowels in quantity, but the qualitative
difference is striking too. The back of the tongue is
raised nearer to centre than to back, above the half-close
position. Lips are rounded and the tongue is relaxed.
This vowel occurs only m~dially in a word as "would"
but never in word-initial position or before I~/, and
finally only in the unaccented form of "to" (tu).
9) lu:1
Long back higher tense rounded vowei
The back of the tongue moves up and backwards tOJards
the soft palate; however, it seems to be a bit lower than
the close position. Lips are closely rounded. lu:1 occurs
in all positions except before l!l/; e.g. ",£2ze" , 11 f.££d",
"two" •
10) 11\\1
Short central low lax neutral vowel
There are phoneticians who place this vo~el on a half-open
position in the diagram, ~hereas others place it a bit
lower. Anyway, the central part of the tongue is raised
just above the open position. Lips are neutrally open;
no tension of tongue muscles. IAI occurs in initial and
medial positions, but never in final open syllables; e.g.
"utter"
"mother".
- '-
11) lal
Short central mid lax neutral vowel
This phoneme is very frequently used in reduced syllables
(1). The centre of the tongue is between half-open and
(1) SeeJ'eak and st:!'orur forms.

---

246.
half-close as shown in the diagram. Great muscular
activit.1 is not needed for the production of this VOwel,
lips are in a neutral position. This vowel is extremely
short; it occurs in all positions, e.g. n~ccountn,
"understand", nshort:er".
-
-
12) 1-a:1
Long central mid· tense neutral vowel
The phoneme la: I is articulated almost in the same way
as its short variety except that the former is long,
tense and nearer to the half-close rather than the
half-open position. We find it in all positions, for
example, "earn"
"shirt"
"amateur" •
-
,
-
,
1.1.1.2. Diphthongs
Of the three languages treated in this study, diphthongs are
most typical of English. They are equivalent in length to long
vo,:els. They consist ot three elements: a first vowel element at
the starting-point, a glide, and a second vowel element or point
in the direction of Nhich the glide is made. All the three elements
are included within one single syllable. In English, the first
vowel element is usually more prominent than the second which is
only slightly sounded; such kinds of diphthongs are called "falling"
diphthongs. In other languages, however, the second vowel element
may be more
stressed and more lengthened than the first; this is
called "rising" diphthongs.
There are nine RP falling diphthongs. Five of these have a
second element which is more or less half-close, i.e. lei, ai, au,
~i,au/; the first part has more weight than the second, and the
tongue keeps gliding from this first part to the second. They are
called closing diphthongs. Four others have a second element
consisting of the central vo....el [~); i. e. li a , Ea, l:>oa), ua/; they
I

---

247.
are called centring diphthongS.
The following diagram gives RP diphthongs; the arrows show for
each diphthong the passage from the first to the second vowel. (1)
Examples :
CLOSING DIPHTHONGS
CENTRING DIPHTHONGS
leil
"day"
li~1
"beer"
lail
"high"
If-al
"there"
laul
"both"
I -;)"al
"moor"
laui.
"doubt"
lua/
"sure"
,~il
"t.oy"
The diphthongs lei/, lail, 13il are called front closing; laul and
lau' are called ,;;:;b.,;;a;,;;c..;;;k;"",,;;;,c,;;;;,l.,;;o,;;;,s..;;;ing~.
(1) University English 6, Vol. 11, p.91

---

248.
It must be noted as regards the chart that the starting and the
final points do not always correspond to the articulation of ~he
single vowel. For example in the diphthong lail, the second vowel
is situated between the first and the second degrees of aperture,
so that several possibilities of realization are presented. In other
words the articulation of the final lil here is not exactly that of
the isolated English li/. Similarly, in lau/ the first vowel may
be either a or 4 (i.e. front or back) or again ae. Therefore most
phoneticians prefer to use the term zone of articulation instead of
-
starting and final points of articulation (1) •
.As far as the diphthong /9ul is concerned, it is ver-r often
transcribed as loul (2). As A.C. Gimson says, such transcription
is "misleading"; this glide should start wi.th the short central
lal, but not with a truly back vowel or any kind of front rounded
vowel (such as the French ~, oe) (3).
1.1.1.3. Vowel clusters
By vowel cluster we mean all combinations of vowels which are
possible in English. We shall not regard diphthongs as vowel
clusters (sets of two vowels) because, though it is a complex
articulation phonetically (~), a diphthong forms only one unit
which is included in one syllable. Vowel clusters of English occur
either wilhin words, or in words-junctures. nithin words, closing
diphthongs may be followed by the central vo,;el la/ to form the
so-called "triphthongs". Here are the exam-ples :
(1) THOMAS, J.M.C ... BOUQUIAUX, L. & CLOAREC-HEISS, F., Initiation
a la Phonetique, p.82
(2) laul has recently developed from loul
(3) GIMSON, A.C., Ope cit., p.135
(~) i.e. 'une articulation per~ue comme un changement de timbre en
cours dtemission de la voyelle", Thomas, J.M.C., BOUQUIAUX, L.
& CLOAREC-HEISS, F., Ope cit., p.79
I

---

249.
lail + I~I
lai~1
as in "buyer"
laul + lal
laual
as in "power"
leil + lal
leial
as in "layer"
laul + lal
l~u~1
as in "mower"
l:Jil + I~I
I~ial
as in "employer"
Triphthongs are consequently considered as sequences of two
distinct elements, a diphthong and la/. Like diphthongs, they
are complex phonetic articulations. Three vowel elements are
perceived in these articulations, there is a glide from the first
to the second, and from the second to the third element. The
central vo~el does not carry a stres~unlike the other two. It
follows that in the pronunciation of many RE speakers, this
vowel is completely omitted, following a natural process of
reduction plus compensation (length). Thus,
[aia)
becomes
[a:~1
[au~)
11
[a: 3)
rei '3]
11
(e:~]
[au -a)
11
r~:1
[:)i ~)
"
[:): a)
The following chart shows each English triphthong :
a.....a
In word junctures, all sorts of combinations are possible :

---

2.50.
pure vowels may combine with other pure vowels, with diphthongs
or also with triphthongs; diphthongs may in turn combine with
other diphthongs, etc. The number of combining elements in word
junctures may go from two to seven. Some examples are :
the aunt
(5~:nt)
(2)
lam
[ai_m)
--
(3 )
yellow oil
rjela~il)
(4)
may I iron it? [meiaiaianit
(7)
"'-
'-'"
Of all the RP vowels,/a/ and /i/ are the most !requent~ used
(respectively 10,74~ and 8,33~ of frequency of occurence),
presumably because of reduction. In fact, /a/ is the most common
vO\\r;el in reduced syllables and Znglish has a high proportion of
reduced syllables. As to /i/; it has a high frequency of occurence
in both stressed and reduced syllables. The vowels rarely used
are mainly diphthongs such as /E3/ (O,34~), /ia/ (O,21~), /~i/
(0,14 06', /ua/ (O,C6~9 (1).
1.1.2. Semi-vowels
The two semi-vowels of RP are /j/ and /w/. The former is front
unrounded whereas the latter is back and rounded. Phonetically,
semi-vowels of English are to ce taken as vocalic elements;
however, as A.C. Girnson says -their function is consonantal rather
than vowel-like; i.e. they have a marginal rather than a central
situation in the syllable". (2)For this reason, they are often
treated within the conson~nt class. RP /j/ and /w/ occur in two
positions in ':lords: initially as in "yes", "weed", and medially
as in "on.!.on", "a!::ay". They do not occur finally.
(1) GUISON, A.C., OPe cit. , p.14-8
(5) GI~SON, A.C., OD. cit. , p.212

---

251.
1.1.3. Consonants
1.1.3.1. Simple consonants
English has twenty-tour consonant phonemes which are illustrated
in the tollowing words: (1)
Ipl
pig
Isl
sit
/bl
bed
Izl
zoo
ItI
tin
IfI
shone
Idl
dog
131
leisure
at
keep
/hI
haIr
Igl
get
Iml
man
It11
ehair
1nl
no
IdJ/
jug
1)1
long
ItI
tine
III
let
lv'
vine
Irl
breed
191
think
Iwl
one
161
tather
Ijl
you
The RP phonemes are classified in the chart below according to
three criteria :
1) The place of articulation groups English consonants into
bilabials, labio-dentals, dentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars,
palatals, velars and glottals.
2) The manner of articulation distinguishes the following main
types of articulations : plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals,
lat~rals, frictionless continuants and semi-vo~els.
3) The vibration of 'vocal cords' distinguishes between voiced and
unvoiced consonants.
(1) This number, which includes the semi-vowels Ij,w/, is accepted
by most linguists.

---

252.
We shall come back to t hese terms when describing the individual
sounds. Here is a table of the English consonant phonemes (2) ··
-...-
- s: c-
(11
~
•
...
•
- J
... ~
•
,"
(fI
-cu
. ;
..
• ,.j
, . j
0 -
I-
.D
•
~
~
0
0
.-
..
,
;:
~o
~
~
~
~
Cl:
~cs
.
<It~
.."
•
- ~ s::
..J
•
. J
.J
- '....
0.<1:
-
. . j
cO
•
-
.-
•
Q.
•
;>
A. Plosive • • • • • • • • p,b
t,d
k,g
" ,
Affricate
- .
• • • •
tJ ,a.;
· • •
Fricative • • • • • • •
f,v &,Is ,z
S'?>
h
B. Nasal • • • • • • • • • m
n
t;)
Lateral • · · · · · • •
I
Frictionless continuant
w
r
J
or glides(semi-vowe~s)
We have to mention, in connection with these consonants, that the
sounds tr and dr are regarded by some linguists (2) as distinctive
sounds (affricates) rather than combinations of two phonemes. This
,
question, however, seems irrelevant to our study; each of these
:
sounds will be treated in this study as a combination of the
;
phonemes /t+r/, /d+r/ rather than a phoneme.
Phonetic realization of the English consonants
1) Plosives
i
The RP plosives comprise three pairs, namely~ bilabials /p,b/,
alveolars /t,d/, and velars /k,g/. All these phonemes occur
"
- initially, e.g. "pin", "big", "take", "dog", "came", "go";
- medially, e.g. ·spin", "husband", "steak", "leader", "scar", "eager"
- finally, e.g. "lip", "rib", "beat", "bid", "leak" and ·dog".
Furthermore :
(1) Gimson, A.C., Ope cit., p.'i45
(2) A.C. Gimson is one of them.

---

a) /p,t,k,/ are unvoiced, whereas /b,d,gt/ are voiced. However,
/b,d,g/ are fully voiced in intervocalic position, e.g. in
"harbour", "leader", "cargo", due to the ini'luence of adjacent
vowels.
b) The unvoiced plosives /p,t,k/ are tenser than the voiced ones
/b,d,g/.
c) In initial position, especially when they are followed by a -
stressed vowel, /p,t,k/ are aspirated, i.e. pronounced with a
slight puff of breath. For example in "peel", "taken", "keya,
pronounced respectively [phi : l } , (theikn] , [khi:] • There is
practically no aspiration when /s/ precedes /p,t,k/ initially
in a syllable as in "spin", "stone" and "sky", pronounced
respectively [spin} ,(s~un] and[skai] • The voiced plosives
/b,d,g/ are never aspirated.
d) In final positions as in "mat", "map", "mack", "I'1ag", ete., English
plosives do not have an audible explosion; /p,t,k/ are distin-
guished from /b,d,g/ in this position by reduction of length
for the vowels preceding /p,t,k/ or by the presence of some
voicing in /b,d,g/.
The glottal plosive t 7)
The glottal stop (in French "coup de glo"'::te" or "attaque voca-
lique") is not p~emically distinctive in English, though it is
frequently used by RP speakers. In order to produce this sound ,
the vocal cords are first closed, thus preventing the air-stream
from passing into supra-glottal organs; the air pressure is then
released by a sudden separation of the vocal cords and produces a
slight explosion noise. [,lis unvoiced. Many people use it before
any initial accented vo~el Nhen particular emphasis is placed on

---

254.
the word or on the syllable. For example :
"it's empty"
[its 1 empti]
"it's uneatable"
[its Anli: tbl]
Some RP speakers sometimes use [?l for Ip,t,k/ when occuring
before another consonant; e.g. "cap-badge" [k8Blbaed31, "cotton"
(102n), "back-garden" [b_lgG.:d.n) •. These cases, especially the
last ones, are not frequent.
2) Affricates
"Generally, of the six main affricates (It!, d3, ts, dZ, ta, dll),
two only are considered as distinct phonemes, i.e. Itjl and Id)/"
(1). The word affricate, as A.C. Gimson points out, "denotes a
concept which is primarily of phonetic importance. Any plosive
whose release stage is performed in such a way that considerable
friction occurs' approximately at the point ~here the plosive stop is
made may be called 'affricative' " (2). "/tJI and Id31 are conse-
quently treated as complex phonetic but single phonemic entities"
(3). Itf'd31 are 'palato-alveolar affricates; Itfl is unvoiced and
tenser than the voiced Id3/. Both of them occur in three positions:
initially as in II cheese" and "gin"; !!Jediallyas in "feature" and
"~arginn; and finally as in "wretch" and "ridgell •
The voiced a~fricate IdJI is fully voiced in initial position;
it is only partially voiced or even unvoiced when occuring
medially.
3) Fricatives
The RP fricatives comprise four pairs If,v;9,f;s,z;S,31 and Ih/.
(1) FERGUSON, N., Ope cit. , p.57
(2) GI~~ON, A.C., ou. cit. , p.171
(3) GIMSON, A.C., Ope ci t., p.173

---

255~
If,vl are labio-dental; 19,JI are dental; Is,zl are alveolar;
15,31 are palato-alveolar and Ihl is glottal. All the fricatives,
except Ihl occur initially, medially and finally. EXamples :
IfI
1ee1;, agair, leaf
Ivl
yeal, eyer, lea~
191
thief', e~ics, heath
I~I
'there, ga'tPer, clo~
Isl
~ease, e2§ay, nie~
Izl
!eal, e~, fee§
ISI
sheet, bishop, dish
-
-
-
131
~igolo, plea~, presti~
Ihl
occurs in initial and medial positions, but never
finally; e.g. heat, ahead
.
- -
If;e,S,S,hl are unvoiced whereas Iv,1,z'31 are voiced. Like
the voiced plosives and a~fricates, the voiced fricatives Iv,i,z'3 1
are most strongly voiced -"Jhen they occur between t"IO voiced sounds.
In other positions they are only partially voiced or almost unvoiced.
The unvoiced If,9,s,5,hl are more tense than the voiced Iv,S,z~3/'
and, very important, they reduce the length of a preceding vO'.. el.
The following can be noted about the fricatives IJ,3,hl :
1) If I and 13 1 sometimes alternate in medial positions of ~ords
such as n A_siaa , "Persia", "transition", "version", •••
-
-
-
2) In initial and final positions, 131 appears in words of French
origin only. ether examples are : u~igue", "rou~", "Dei~u, •••
In final position, a variant with Id}1 is even possible. 131
is therefore said to have "a particularly weak 'functional load'
in mglish" ('1).
(1) GIESON, A.C., Ope cit., p.', ~,O

---

256.
3) Although /hI is an unvoiced sound, a few speakers use a
voiced or a slightly voiced allophone medially between voiced
sounds as in "anygown, nper~aps", •••
4) In connected speech, unstressed words such as uhave", "has",
"had" and pronouns regularly lose Ih/. This case of reduction
is also typical of English; e.g. "he pushed. him on his back"
(hi: 'pult im 'n iz 'bask]
4) Nasals
English has three nasal phonemes articulated in three areas :
Iml is bilabial; 1nl is alveolar and ~I is velar. The velar nasal
only does not occur initially. It occurs medially as in "singer";
and finally as in "sing". The other nasals are found in initial,
medial as well as final positions y e.g. Iml in "meal", "demon" and
"seem"; 1nl in "neat", "many" and "mean". Nasals may be syllabic,
i.e. used as n~clei of certain syllables; e.g.
ftp]
"rhythm"
[rilJP]
[nJ
,
"mutton"
l mAtv-1
[~1
"bacon"
r-~eik~l
(rare)
Nasals are always voiced; when preceded by voiceless consonants,
'/ml and 1nl may be unvoiced; e.g. in "smoke" (s~~uk] ; "snake"
[sneikl •
o
5) Lateral
(1)
One alveolar lateral occurs in English: Ill. It is found
initially, medially and finally. Jithin the III phoneme, two main
(1) GIf4S0N, A.C., Ope cit., p.2CC

---

257.
allophones are to be distinguished :
a) clear (1) which occurs before vowels and /j/ has a relatively
front vO\\-lel resonance, e.g. "leave", "silly", "!.ook".
b) dark [!1 which occurs finally after a vowel, before a consonant
and as a syllabic sound following a consonant has a relatively
back vowel (or velarized) resonance, e.g. "fee.!", "he.!p", "table".
6) The English /r/
The English /r/ is defined as a post-alveolar frictionless
continuant. It OCC"lrS before a vowel, initially as in 11 real 11
-
,
medially as in "miEEorll , and finally before a word beginning by a
vowel as in 11 far a,:lay". The follo'~ling are observed among RP speakers
-......J
a) An alveolar
tap et) in intervocalic positions ; e.g. livery"; or
after /9,<$/, e.g. "th,Eeen.
b) Linking [r) is the final post-vocalic variant, followed by a
~,,'ord beginning by a vowel, e.g. "faUff".
c) Intrusive [r) is a li~~ing [r) which is pronounced in the
endings though it is not represented in spelling; e.g. "Russia
,and China" (rhSClun 'tSaina). Even though it is fairly common
even on the BBC, some people feel that the intrusive(r1 is
incorrect, and many RP speakers are often advised against its
use.

---

258.
1.1.3.2. Consonant clusters
English consonant clusters ~ollow patterns which are
di~~erent from those of other languages. In formal pronunciation,
consonant clusters are ~ound initially, medially and ~inally in
~ords, but also at word juncture. In the following lines, we
shall give a description of the types of clustering patterns o~
English, the number o~ the combining consonants and the way the
.
.
latter are pronounced in speech. The main sources are' ,~.C. Gimson,
An Introduction to the Pronunciation o~ English and P. Sanderson's
En~lish Consonant Clusters.
A. Within words
1) Initial clusters
In initial position, we may find sequences o~ two or three
consonants :
a) T1."o consonants : (.cCV) : ,we have ~ive sorts :
Ip,k, b,g,~,1 may cluster ',:ith III as in "playtl, "climb ll ,
"blow", "glass" and "~ly".
Ip,t,k,b,d,g,~,e,rlmay cluster with Irl as in t1 pray",
"try", "cryU, "bread", "dress", "green", "~rom", "throw",
"shriek".
It,k,d,g,91 may cluster ~iith I';!I as in "twice", "quite",
nd~lell", lIG,;endolyn", "th1;iart".
Ip,t,k,b,d,!',v,m,n,1 may cluster with Ijl as in "pure",
"tune", "cure", "'Deauty", "duty", "~ew", "view", "music",
"new" •
the consonant Isl may cluster with Ip,t,k,~,l,m,n,w,jl
as in "spy", n stay", "sky", "sphere", "sleep", 11 smalln ,
"snow", "swear", 11 suit" •
As we have observed, ICjl occurs only before lu:1 or lual o~
occasionally. Iv/; initial /t",d~,gwl occur before a res-
tricted set of vO'deIs. Only Isp/ occurs ;)efore all vOi."els.

---

259.
.
b) Three consonants
(~eccv)
.
Initial / CCCV-/ clusters pattern as f'ollows
,,*spl/
as in "splash"
/~kl/
as in "sclerosis"
/:t;spr/
as in "sPraT'
/ptr/
as in • strike"
ftskr/
as in "scrupulous"
t..spj/
as in "spuriousft
/.,stj/
as in tlstudious"
$skj/
as in "scutum"
/.pled/
as in "square"
In this type of cluster, /s/ is the essential first
element; the second element is a voiceless stop and the
third is one of the consonants /l,r,j,w/.
2) Medial clusters
we do not have a particular "type" of medial clusters in
English. Initial and final clusters may also occur medially.
This is why medial clusters are so diversified, and not often
treated by linguists. It is possible, however, to observe the
following clusters in medial position :
a) T".¥'o consonants
(-ee-)
(1 )
!Ne/
as in "condition"
/ce/
as in "broadcast"
/C8/
as in "require"
(1) N = nasal; C = consonant; S = semi-vowel
,",I.
- .

---

260.
b) Three consonants
( -eCC- )
!Nee/
as in -employ"
INCS/
as in -inquire-
/CCC/
as in tI expeil.1tI
3) Final clusters
Final consonant clusters are ~or~ complex and more varied
than the initial ones. This fact is due to the many suffixations
of Is, z, t,d,9/ to :"iOrdS in order to form the plural of nouns,
the past participles of verbs, etc ••• The main sequences are :
a) Two consonants
(-VCC....)
/-eC#/
as in "robbed", "stripped", "toast", "built", "yield"
I-NCW'
as in "names·, "sent", "banged"
I-eNI/
as in "film"
b) Three consonants
(-VCCCf)
1~~f
as in "contacts", "assistants"
+ Is~
{=:ct + Ittt' as in "collapsed", "jumped"
-CC}
-NC
+ Izi/
as in "holds", "hands", "films"
{ -eN
\\-eCl + 191/
as in "twelfth"
c) Four consonants
(-VCCCG#)
These clusters occur rarely as a result of the suffixation

---

of a /t/ or a /s/ to /-ccctt clusters. We have :
+
/s#l
as in "exempts", "texts"
\\-NCC\\ +
/t#!
as in "glimpsed"
B. Clusters at word-juncture
Consonant clusters at junctures offer more possibilities than
within words. Observation of these clusters reveals that they may
go from a combination of two to seven consonants, e.g.
(1)
/sf/
"nice fellow"
/kgl/
"dark glasses"
/tstr/
"that's true"
/ntskr/
"bent scrue"
/ks(t)spr/
"next Sp~ingn
/mp(t)sstr/
"she tempts strangersll
Furthermore, consonants of various types combine at word juncture,
especially in very fast speech. For example, an RP speaker can use
/sr/ in I'~~t '2Eait I
or l2-rait/ for "that's right". Thus, only
very few clusters cannot be found at word-juncture in English.
C. Pronunciation of clusters
Consonant clusters of English - within words or in word junction -
are often simplified and altered in speech due to a number of pro_
cesses the most important of which are : assimilation, elision,
plosion and liaison.
(1) though some can be deleted by assimilation (e.g. llpos(t)man")

---

262.
1) Assimilation
Assimilation means "a modification of pronunciation which
a '·IOrd. may undergo when in contact with another word.. One
sound is replaced by another under the influence· of an
adjoining sound in the neighbouring word.~ (1).
(i) z changes to s
"is"
(i!]
but "it's easy"
( i t ! ' i: zi]
"has"
[ha.e!]
but a what , s happened"
f' 1;J "ts
'h_p~nd)
"used"
[ju:.!d] but "l used to"
@i' jU:!!yu]
t
(ii) n t d change to m n b
"ten"
[te!!l
but "ten minutes"
[ite~ 'minitsl
"don't"
[daunt
but "don't be late"
fidaumJ.p) bi 'leit]
"good"
rgu~1
but "goodbye"
re gub .' bai]
~
(iii) n t d change t o , k g
"in"
[in)
but "in case"
[ill 'keis)
"don't" [d;unl) but "l don't care"
fai 'dauIJliJ£~1
"good" [gu~)
but 'good girl"
rgu.s;j~:l)
(iv) s z Change to S 3
"this"
[<fi~] but "this shape"
Vfil '5 eip]
"has"
[hae!l but "has she come?"
('haej" Si 'kAm]
Assimilations of types (ii), (iii) aRd (iv) may be regarded
as optional, and are limited to a quick, free-and-easy style
of speaking. It must be noted that the following kind of
(1) FRING, J.T., ColloQuial Znglish ?ronunciation, p.52

---

·263.
assimilation must not be applied in English: a voiceless
plosive of fricative is not assimilated to a voiced plosive
or fricative which follows it, e.g.
"not veryll
('n~ 'veri]
not
~n~ 'veriJ
"back door"
('beak 'd~:l
not
(ib88g 'd~:]
"this boy"
['dis 'b~i]
not
(ifiz 'b:>i)
"that girl-
('<f.t ' ga:l]
not
~l~d ' g~:l)
2) Elision
Elision means "the dropping of a sound or sounds, either
within the body of a word or at a junction of words ll (1).
(i) Jithin a word, an unstressed vowel between two consonants
is often elided : e.g.
"every"
[ievri)
"history"
[thistri)
"national" [in_~nal)
There are no rules about such elisions, they should
be studied ,dth the aid of a pronouncing dictionary.
(ii) Consonant clusters are reduced by elision. In particular,
~e find elision of t or d between two other consonants.
e.g. "friends"
[trenda)
or (!renz]
"handbag"
ph.ndbaag)
or
~baenbaegl
"sandwich"
Esaend\\\\'itn
or
Cs.nwit11
n just now"
fd3Ast 'naul
or £'d3I\\s 'nau]
(1) PRING, J.T., on. cit., n.50

---

264.
3) Plosion
Three kinds of plosion may occur in the pronunciation of
plosive clusters :
(i) Incomplete plosion
there is no audible release of the
first sound, e.g.
"soup plate"
Psup pleit] : lips are not parted at all
between the first and the second p.
"sit do~~"
['sit tdaun)
: the tongue tip is not
removed from the teeth ridge between t
and d.
(ii) Nasal plosion : when b or p is followed by m, the two
lips must not come apart bet~een the plosive and m. They
are held together throughout both sounds, just as they
are When two labial plosives come together. It is the
same for d or t followed by n. The pressure of air in
the mouth is release~ through the nose by lowering the
soft palate, e.g. "chutney", "garden".
(iii) Lateral plosion : when d or t is followed by 1, the
air escapes round the side of the tongue, e.g. "little",
"at last", "bottle".
4) Intrusion of consonants
For ease of speech, RP speakers
intrude acceptab17 some
consonants, e.g.
" dreamed"
fdrem(p)t]
"triumphant"
[trai 'A m(p )fant)
"intense"
[in' ten ( t ) s ]
!(o.. ,::.~. :-:
..J;.\\5.I..c~'.~_.

---

265.
These easier but acceptable forms contain intrusive p and t.
Intrusion creates the smooth run-on in words, the acceptable
stress and the clearness oof articulation.
It should be remembered that all these processes are
features of colloquial English used by educated people in
normal conversation. They may occur in the speech of a given
speaker.
1.1.4. Pronunciation of sentences
We have seen how the individual sounds of English are
pronounced~and how they influence each other in separate words.
In order to pronounce 3nglish sentences correctly t~o things are
important, first linking and second grquping of words.
English words which are not separated from each otner by a
pause are joined together smoothly in pronunciation. Failure to
do this is a mistake.
One should make a point of saying phrases with a smooth
transition from one word to the next whenever the second word
begins 'Nith a vowel. As already mentioned, if the second ..;ord
begins pith a vowel, the final r of the preceding word is sounded.
For example these phrases are normally said as if each Was a single
word :
"it is"
(i'tiZ)
"at Easter" ta'ti:st~l
"some oil"
[s~'m~il]
ftlet him ih" ~leti'min)

---

266.
Ir the first word also ends with a vowel, one must still link
the two words without break :
"too easy·
(i tu: •i : ~i]
"my uncle"
rmai'A,k1]
'.
£~~·r:., ~

---

267.
1 .2. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATUR:ES
A good pronunciation of English is not simply a matter of
.
.
learning to pronounce individual sounds or words. Stress, rhythm
and intonation are also essential to a good pronunciation. These
features are grouped together for convenience as suorasegmental
features. The present outline dQes not cover the full range of
usage; instead, we have selected the points which are essential
for an acceptable pronunciation and which seem most important
for the non-native to understand spoken English.
Although they may be grouped under several headings, supraseg-
mental features are not always easy to separate : they are often
closely inter-connected.
1.2.1. Stress
As A.C. Gimson assumes~ stress determines prominence in English.
A syllable is said to be It stressedll \\olhen it is pronounced with
relatively great breath effort and muscular energy. In other words,
stressed syllables are heard as stronger and louder than non-stressec
ones which are ~eakened.
English is called a stress language for t.iO reasons ; first,
each word in English has its own stress pattern, and, second, stress
is linguistically significant in 3nglish (1). This explains why
English differs markedly from Ciluba and French. "We shall discuss
such differences in our contrastive study; here, we Wish to
concen~ra~e on the following points :
(1) Stress distinguishes for instance the words 'import (noun)
and im'port (verb)

---

268.
stress position, stress function and the relative notions of
"nucleus" and "contrastive .focus". Among the three degrees of
stress usually distinguished in English (strong, secondary and weak),
two only ~ll be symbolized in our notations : strong stress
(symbolized by a high vertical stroke IiI be.fore the syllable)
and secondary stress (symbolized by a low vertical stroke /,/
before the syllable) (1) : e.g. ,~ti'~tion. As in this word,
for instance, the unstressed syllables will not be marked.
1.2.1.1. Stress position
Stress is first of all import~t at word level, as Adamczewski
and Keen put it :
"en anglais il est impossible de commencer le mot sans
l'avoir pressenti en entier car les syllabes inaccentuees se
groupent autour de la syllabe accentuee en.un contraste
frappant de fortes et de faibles ••• " (2)
The normal rules for placing word stress are summarized by Leech
and Svartvik as follows (3) :
A. The syllables generally stressed are :
a) monosyllabic words of major word-classes; e.g. time, go,
black, well;
b) accented syllables of polysyllabic words of major word-
classes; e.g. de'cided, ex'act,
'opens;
(1) 'strong'y
'secondary' and 'weak' stress mean respectively
stronger, secondary and Weaker degree of force put on a word
syllable.
(2) ADAMCZEWSKI, H. and KEEN, D., Phonetigue at Phonologie de
l'anglais contemporain, p.137
(3) LEECH, G. and SVARTVIK, J.; n Communicative Grammar of Znglish,
p. 169-173

---

269.
B. The syllable generally unstressed are :
a) words of minor word-classes; e.g. to, it, the;
b) unaccented syllables of polysyllabic words; e.g. de'cided,
-
~'act, 'opens. (1)
English word stress is a property or individual words. There
is no easily-learned rule as to which syllable or a polysyllabic
word is stressed :
'answer
(1st)
a'bove
(2nd)
mana'gerial
(3rd)
incompre'hensible
(4th)
palatali'zation
(5th)
Additionally, the placing or stress may also vary according to
sentence context, emphasis, speed of utterance, and so on.
1.2.1.2. Stress function
As already illustrated with 'import and im'port, the word stress
pattern may have a distinctive role in English. In the follo~ing
examples, wurd stress position determines the meaning and/or the
grammatical function :
In isolated words :
'import (noun)
im'port (verb)
'desert (wilderness)
de'sert (secondary meal)
'contrast (n9un)
con'trast (verb)
'object (noun)
ob'ject (verb)
'permit (noun)
per'mit (verb)
'billow (\\.,rave)
bellow (down)
(1) "major word-class" = main verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs;
"minor ,vord-class" = auxiliary verbs, articles, pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions, interjections.

---

270.
At word junction
Stress.distribution also provides a firm basis for distinguishing
relations between juxtaposed items. The meaning of the following
items is also determined by stress :
a
'name (e.g. ~~. Smith)
an 'aim (a purpose)
'dark 'room (any dark room)
'darkroom (for photography)
'free 'hand (able to act as one thinks best)
'freehand (drawing)
'English 'book (made in England)
'English book (for leaning English)
'black 'bird (any bird coloured black)
(1)
'olackbird (type of bird)
'toy factory (a factory that produces toys)
(1)
toy 'factory (a factory that is a toy)
a 'French teacher (one who teaches French)
a French 'teacher (a teacher who is French)
(1)
(1) From QUIRK, R. and GREENBAUM, S., A University Grammar of
En~lish, p.453

---

271.
Syllables with greaterpro~inence in an utterance form the
nucleus or the focal point of aD intonation pattern (1). The
nucleus is described as a strongly stressed syllable which marks
a major change of pitch direction (i.e. where the pitch goes up
or down). For example :
in "He's relying on our help"
"This bed has not been Slept in" (2), "help" and Il s l ept" are
nuclei.
The nucleus thus refers to both stress and intonation. In the
nucleus intonation and stress concur, as change of pitch contour
or movement always affects a stressed syllable • .~·e shall return to
the nucleus when discussing intonation.
1.2.1.~. Contrastive focus
Beign the focus of an intonation pattern (or tone-unit) the
normal position of the nucleus is at the end of the tone unit, i.e.
on the last major-class word of this tone unit (3). This position
is called. end~.focus :
And !!!!! in short is why I refused.
He opened the ~ and walked straight in.
(1) "prominence" = which is regarded as most important for the
message by the speaker.
(2) cf. LEECH, G. & SVARTVIK, J., Ope cit., p.171
(3) See definition 01' tone unit on page 278.

---

272.
In other cases, however, the nucleus may be shifted to an earlier
part of the tone unit, .specially when the speaker wants to draw
attention to this part in order to ~ontrast it with something
already said or understood in the context. This earlier placing
of the nucleus is called contrastive focus. For example :
\\~ of the parcels has ~ived.1 (but the other has not)
(Have you ever driven a sports car?)\\'Yes, I've\\often
driven one.l
(1)
1.2.2. Rhythm
The importance of English stress is not restricted to the
pronunciation of the individual words. It is also most important
for the rhythm of complete sentences.
In connected speech, some words lose their stress while others
retain theirs. These stressed syllables form what is called
"sentence stress", and the pronunciation of words in connected
~peech is based on "stress groups" (2).
A stress group is composed of a strongly stressed prominent
syllable together with any unstressed syllables that cluster about
it. Such a group may consist of a single "tlord, - e.g. "'~veryone",
"exceptionally"; it m~ also consist of more than one word, as in
"He's a 'doctor", "I can 'do it". Sometimes two strong stresses can
follow each other, in such a case we have a double stress group;
e.g. "'~ 'night"; "'~, 'please".
(1) The terms "end focus" and "contrastive focus" are borrowed
from LEECH & SVARTVIK, OPe cit., p.171 (§414)
(2) FERGUSON, N., Ope cit., p.63

---

English is characterized by a regular stress-timed rhythm (1).
This means that it takes about the same time to get from one
stressed syllable to another, whether there are no other syllables
in between or many; For exampl e (2) :'
HOW many I MORE can you I SEE there?
WHAT a lot of I BOOKS I ~~y has.
The unit ot rhYthm in EJ;1glish is called the "rhythmic toot" (3),
as marked by the separation lines in the above examples. It consists
of a number of syllables in two main classes : stressed and weak.
Each complete foot consists ot a stressed syllable either alone or
followed by one or more weak syllables, which are "weakened". For
example : the utterance JOHN I ASKED me if I could / STOP, has
three rhythmic feet :
1. JOHN
2. ASKED me i t I could
3. STOP.
Since stressed syllables have to occur at regular intervals of time,
the pace in the above example, 'tJill be sped up for 'me i t I could"
(because of the four unstressed syllables), but it will be slowed
down in "JOHN ASKED" (because two stressed syllables are close
together).
(1) KINGDOK, R., The ~oundwork of English Intonation, p.161
(2) A separation line I is used before each stressed syllable in
those
examples; each stressed syllable is written in capital
letters.
(3) KINGDC}{, R., op. cit
, p.1 o-j

---

As Halliday mentions (1), an utterance may also have several
divisions,for example in the following utterance :
(i) PETER spends his /WEEKends at the / SPORTS club or
(ii) PETER / SPENDS his / WEEKends / AT the / SPORTS / CLUB.
The first division, however, is more common than the second. Thus,
the time taken by each foot (stressed syllable) is more or less the
same; if more syllables (weak) are found between two stressed
syllables, they will be spoken more quickly.
To end, we need precise the relationship between "rhythmic foot'
and "tone-unit"(2). The rhythmic foot is the unit of rhythm while
the tone-unit is the unit of intonation. ~ile the former is
determined by prominence defined as strong stress, the latter is
determined by prominence ·defined as the nucleus· (2). ,{hat is common
to these t~o is stress : the rhythmic foot includes a stressed
syl.lable as its most prominent feature, while the most prominent
feature of a tone-unit is the nucleus or a strongly stressed syllable
which marks a major change of pitch direction, e.g. the preceding
sentence can be uttered as follows with one tone-unit with the
nucleus on the word "sports· :
~OR
(Peter spends his weekends at the
~TS club. I
Also im~ortant to retain is the difference between foot (SPEED)
and WEAKENING within the rhythmic foot. Speed is the time spent
pronouncing' the foot (or the stressed syllable) while weakening is
the weak pronunciation of the unstressed syllable(s) (3).
(1) op. cit, p.3
(2) See Intonation for more clear detail
(3) See below (Jeakening)

---

275.
In other languages (Ciluba & French), rhythm is based not
on stress, but primarily on the syllables. These languages are
called "syllable-timed" (1).
1.2.3. Weakening of unstressed syllables
The alternation of strong and weak forms in the sentence is
a peculiarity of English. If Ode compare the pronunciation of "are"
in the utterances :
"Are you going?"
~Yes, we are."
( ~
j U
1 g.-uitJ
1jes
wi 14:1
,
we find a noticeable difference of quality : in the first utterance,
"are" is unstressed and is reduced to [a) (it is called a weak form);
in the reply,"are"is stressed; its pronunciation is [Cl:1 (it is a
strong form).
As D. JONES puts it, "a weak: form of a word is generally
distinguished from a strong form either by a difference of vO'°Jel-
sound, or by the absence of a sound (vowel or consonant), oor by
the difference in the length of a vowel" (2).
Thus, in weak forms, vowels are most of the time replaced by
the central vowel [~1(as in the above sentences). They may also
disappear as in -is", "has", pronounced [s)
or
[z) (contracted
forms). Consonants in these forms are ~eakly articulated. As a
consequence, many common English words have two or more pronun-
ciations : the strong form is used when the .~·ord is said in
isolation or ~nth emphasis, and the weak or contracted form is
used in utterances when the ~ord is ih an
unstressed position.
(1) See Oontrastive analysis.
(2) JONES, D., An Cutline of =n~lis~ :honetics, p./126

---

276.
For example -am" of "I am going" may be pronounced [aem] , [am] or
[ml ; in the same way "can" of "You can speakll may be pronounced
[taenl , [kb1 or[lm] •
Weakening ot the unstressed syllables is very important in
English. The use of strong forms instead of the weak ones is the
mistake commonly made by the non-native learners of English because
they never use those forms in their OiVD languages.
1.2.4. Intonation
The human voice is characterized by some features of auditory
quality referred to as "features of voice dynamics" (1). They are :
loudness (soft vs loud), pitch (high vs low), rate (slow vs fast),
rhythm (regular vs irregular), movement (steady vs irregular, or
up vs do.~'n)t enunciation (slurred vs clipped speech) and timbre
(resonant vs non resonant). Each of these features plays an import
important part in speech because it conveys some emotional value
to which human beings and. animals are sensitive (2). For example,
if the speaker wants to express affection as in IIYou're fantastic",
his voice will sound ~, ~ and regular; if he wants to express
anger as in 111'11 break your neck", his voice will be ~, high,
~ and irregular.
Intonation is defined by various authors as being a matter of
voice pitch and basically a matter of voice-pitch fluctuation. As
K.L. PIKE describes it, in all languages, every sentence is given
some pitch when it is spoken; pitch is in continual fluctuation
(i.e. moves from high to low and vice-versa), its use follows, in
each language, special patterns called inton~tion patterns or
(1) The term is from ABERCROMBIE, D., Elements of General Phonetics,
p. 95
(2) Davitz, quoted by ROBINSON, ;~.P., Language and Social Behaviour,
p.84

---

277.
simply intonation (j).
Intonation can consequently be understood as something
superimposed by the speaker on the sentence words in order to
produce a special effect or to convey certain things over and
above the meanings of the words themselves.
English and Ciluba markedly differ as to pitch. Details on the
differences can be found in the contrastive study. Our purpose in
this simplified description is to point out and explain the most
significant aspects of the English intonation system which will
eventually serve as a basis for our comparisons with Ciluba. tie
Wish to present, first, some definitions and notations used in
this work, then the main types of tones, and finally their use
and meaning in English.
1.2.4.1. Definitions and notations
Three basic notions are necessary to understand the mechanism
of intonation : nucleus, tone-unit and~. (2)
(i) The nucleus was defined in 1~2.1.3. as the focal point of an
intonatio~ pattern, or the strongly stressed syllable which
marks a major change of pitch direction. The nucleus (also
called focus) is included in a tone-unit where it rr.ay occur
at the end (end focus) or in an earlier part (contrastive
focus). Nuclei are symbolized in this work by underlined
syllables (see 1.2.1.3.).
(1) PIKE, K.L., "General Characteristics of Intonationlt , Intonation,
p.53
(2).:e are referrino;- to LE.2:CH, -G. 2.; .:>VARTVIK, J., OD. cit., p.35 ff.

---

278.
(ii) The tone-unit is a stretch of speech which contains one nuc-
leus and which may contain other stressed syllables, normally
preceding the nucleus. The tone-unit may have the length of
a sentence as in
"He's rely.ing on your help" • But their
number finally depends on the length of the sentences, and
the degree of emphasis given to various parts of it. For
example, the sentence J"This bed I has not been slept inn J can
be pronounced with one tone-unit or with two, as shown in
the example. The nucleus on ~ expressesremphasis·on "this
bed" in contrast to other beds. The tone-unit boundaries are
symbolized in this ,;,ork by I I.
(iii) The tone is the type of pitch change ~hich takes place on
the nucleus. For example in \\"Here's a cup of 'tea for you"1 ,
there is a falling tone on "tea"; in other words, the
voice-pitch moves from high to low on the ·~..ord "tea". The
tone of a nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the
tone-unit following it. Thus, after a falling tone as in the
preceding sentence, the rest of the tone-unit is at a low
pitch. After a rising tone as inl"can you tell me the exact
time it ~pens?"~ the rest of the tone-unit moves in an
upward pitch direction. The two sentences can also be
represented as follows :
I Here's a cup of ~a for you. I
lean you tell me the exact time it
There are two main categories of tones ih English : simple
tones or tones made of a simple movement (just a falling or
a rising movement), and comoound tones or tones made of a
complex movement (e.g. a falling plus a rising movement).
The present study co~centrates on both simple and compound
tones of ~nglish, and tries to describe their tyJes, use and
meaning as already mentioned.

---

279.
1.2.4.2. TYpes ot tones
Following Halliday's classification, it is possible to
distinguish eight types of tones for wbich~ have used the following
symbols (1).
1) low fall
( " )
2) high fall
(' )
3) low rise
(,. )
4) high rise
( / )
5) rise-tall
(1'\\)
.
6) tall-rise
poin~ed
(v)
, rounded
(v)
7) high tall plus low rise
('/)
8) rise-fall plus low rise
(A/)
NB : the tone symbols are placed before the nucleus, e.g.
matter.
Here is a short description of each type (2) :
~
1) low fall (the Low Drop) : the pitch of the nucleus falls from
low and ends at the lowest pitch :
I John decided to become a\\<!2ctor.f
2) high fall (the High Drop) : the pitch of the nucleus falls from
high and ends at the lowest pitch :
I It's the only place I've ever'lived in.)
3) low rise (the Take-Oft) : the pitch of the nucleus rises from
low to about mid-low :
11 don't suppose it really matters.1
/ -
(1) HALLI DAY, M.A.K., A Course in Spoken English : Intonation, P-10 fr.
(2) The terms between brackets are those used in O'CONNOR, J.D. &
ARNOLD, G.F., Intonation of Colloauial English, pp.116 sqq.

---

280.
4) hi~h rise (the High Bounce) : the pitch rises to the highest
level rather steeply :
IDon 't you think you ~ought to tell them?'
5) rise-t~l (rounded) (The Jackknite) : this tone has a slight
gradual tall in the approach as the speaker moves into the
rising tone : .
ILook at that marvellousAsteam engine1
It needs to be noted for this tone (as well as for the falling-
rising tone) that if the nucleus is the last syllable of the
tone-unit, the rise and tall (or the fall and rise) both take
place on one syllable, otherwise, the fall (or the rise) occurs
in the remainder ot the tone-unit, as is the case in the last
example.
6) fall-rise may be
a) pointed : the fall and rise are steep and the change of
direction is sharp :
(Have you seen their new~ouse?1
b) rounded (The Switchback) : there is a slight gradual rise
in the approach as the speaker moves into the falling
tone :
'But it certainly couldn't be"aniinal.j
7) high fall nlus low rise (the High Dive) : this tone is a
combination of Tone 2 and Tone 3. The tone of the first nucleus

---

281.
is high-falling, and the tone of the second is low-rising :
8) rise-fall plus low rise (corresponds to the Jackknife plus the
Take-Off) : it is a combination of Tone 5 and Tone 3. The pitch
movement is a rounded rising-falling followed by a low-rising.:
CCan I say I have your support?) ~Y all means ~ so.1
This brief inventory of tones shows that English intonation
is complex and diversified. Things are quite different in Ciluba:
Ciluba pitch is based on two tonemes (High and Low) and on their
realizations. English intonation is a major problem forLuba
students. Its production runs counter to the basic system of his
mother tongue. So does its meaning. As shown in the next section,
English intonation expresses various meaningful contrasts. Some of
these ma~ be seen as conversation language 'shortcuts' equivalent
to parallel grammatical and lexical means used in more formal
language: e.g. 'No! as equivalent of 'I strongly disagree'. These
contrasts, associated with grammar and vocabulary, also have various
'derived' meanings and convey, for instance, various attitudes.
If he is left to his own devices, the native speaker of Ciluba ~ho
learns English will be doubly handicapped :
(i) in understanding native speakers of English, because the
Ciluba system makes him 'deaf',that is, unable to perceive the
physical and the expressive values of English intonation.
(ii) in producing the appropriate intonation of English meaning-
fully.
This double handican requires a special methodology, to help the
Ciluba speaker 'break away' from his native language and incorporate
the English system.

---

282. -
1.2.4.3. Use and meaniDg or tones
Following common practice, the meanings or simple and compound
tones ~ll be examined in the following types of sentences :
statements, wh-questions, commands, yes-no questions, and inter-
j ections. Except ror the illustrations or Tones 7 and. 8, the
(elementar,y) sentences and 'utterances' (1) used below as
examples include only one nucleus.
This is, or course, a drastic simplification, justitied by the
liJai.ted objectives ot the present synopsis ~ by our poor
understanding of English intonation. While it is clear that some
grammatical structures (disjuncts like 'SUrely', tags, etc.)
have a nucleus (much as elementary sentences have), it is difficult
to predict the number of additional (2,3,e1;c) nuclei. which a
given sentence may have, as already sugges"ted above in connection
with Contrastive rocus( p.271)and in the definition of the
tone-unit in Section 1·.2.4."" (ii) (1 or 2 tone units in :aThJ.s
,
bed has not been slept in". The following example trom G. BROWN
illus~rates the possibility of having several nuclei
particularly
in long and complex sentences of spoken dialogue:
.. Because I think they have ~heir Qm er ver;y STRONG er .9!!.tural
and reLIgious er ~tity they keep themSELVES very much to
themSELVES there may be .£!£tain dangers in ~ we're .!!2!
unduly comPLAcent~ (radio interview)
(2)
-
-
(1) 'Thanks', tor ins~ance, is not a sentence but rather a
'semi-sentence', or, more generally speaking, an utterance.
This term avoids commitment to any torm of grammatical analysis.
(2) p.90

---

28j.
SVARTVIK and QUIRK' s recent Corpus of English Conversation can
lead. to similar observations, which remains to be systematized
in a 'grammar-cum-intonati-on' of spoken English. So far SVARTVIK
has come to the conclusion that conversation English is "syntac-
tically quite incoherent :tram the point of view of written lan-
guage" and that "the basic unit of analysis will be the tone-unit"
(1).
Following O'Connor and Arnold, we have characterized the
different meanings of tones in general terms (for example,
"reservation", ·contrast", "involvement"~••• ), with typical
contexts usually given in parentheses wi~h the examples.
Anyone who is familiar with 0' COIU;lor and Arnold has found
that such general terms are far from satisfactory. Sometimes
even, the labels assigned to a given set of examples may sound
contradictory (e.g.-HIGH FALL Statement: 'involvement', 'light',
'airy', as quoted below). CRYSTAL has argued that there might be
some 'basic' and some 'derived' values attached to the various
contrasts in the intonation system of English. But so far, no
attempt has been made to test the validity of CRYSTAL's general-
izations extensively. There is therefore an unbridged gap between
these and the empirical richness of a study such as O'Connor and
Arnold's, and Halliday's, and we have opted for O'Connor and
Amold's for this brief outline.
(1) SVARTVIK, Jan, "Computer-aided grammatical tagging of spoken
Englis~ in Proceedings .of the 8th International Conference
on Computational Linguistics, Tokyo, 1980, pp.29-31 (and
additional handout given out at the conference).

---

284.
One such generalization is worth mentioning here because it
is essential to an important argument in our contrastive analysis
(the absence of intonation in Ciluba, particularly in questions )
As Halliday puts it :
WIn English ( ••• ) a falling contour means certaint,y with regard
to yes or no : ( ••• ) This means that we use a .falling tone in
statements and in one type o.f question " the:. 'WH-( a' special' )
question ( ••• ) The uncertainty in a WH-question is not an
uncertainty about yes or no. We use a rising tone, however, in
the other type o.f question, the 'yes/no' ( ••• ), when the
uncertainty is precisely between positive and negative ( ••• ).
Tone 2 (High rising discussed by Halliday on page 10) is the
neutral tone .for interrogative clauses of the •yes/no , type C••• )"
This tone is said to be the most common one.
- Statements : cool, detached
e.g.
IShe's rather\\~ever.1
- wh-questions : .flat, detached
e.g.
(~ben can you do it? Just tell him.)
h.What?
\\
- Commands : calm, controlled
e.g. (I'll send it to him.) \\\\~t.1
(what shall I do with it?)h Burn it.'
- Yes-no auestions : uninterested, ,hostile'
e.g.
IAre YOu\\satisfied?1 (You ought to be.)

---

285.
- Interjections : calm, unsurprised, reserved
e.g. (Here's your sweater.)
I\\Thanks!(
(He I s .just arrived.) IOhtRight.l
2) HIGH FALL
( ' )
- Statements : involvement, light, airy
e.g.INe'll~ver get there.!
lI~ not as far as you ifuagine.l
- Wh-guestions : business-like, considerate, interested,
not unf'riendly
e.g. (I've just seen that new musical.)
( What's it 'called? I
- Yes-no questions : willing to discuss but not urgently,
sometimes sceptical
e.g. (It doesn't '::ork.) I'Doesn't it?1
(You do surprise me.)
-Commands: suggesting a course of action, and not worrying
about being obeyed
e.g. (I'm aWfully sorry.) I Fo~get it./
(I-1ike's pulling my hair, Nummy.) l'Stop it,l·~ike
- Interjections : mildly surprised, not so reserved or
self-possessed as ·..'ith low fall
e.g. IGoodness! This gin'is strong.\\
(Put some tonic in it.)

---

286.
3) LOW RISE
(.,,)
- Statements~: encouraging further cQnver~ation, guarded,
reserving judgment, appealing to the listener
to change his mind. Hence, it may also sound
polite, respectful, friendly, casual.
e.g. (Have you heard about Max?) '/No.'
(Can Tommy come to tea tomorrow?)
I,Maybe he can.1
(You said you'd give me one.)
I/That's not what I said.'
(wbat are you going to do about it?)
I/ I'm not respomdble.l
- Wh-guestions : mild puzzlement
e.g. (She's thirty-s~.)JIHOW old is she?1
(I sold the carpet tOday.)'/~lhat, dear? I
- Yes-no guestions : disappointed, sceptical
e.g. (Youve done it the wrong way.)
1Does it ,matter?l
(It's going to snow.)JD'yo~/think so?1
(We turn down here, I think.)
IAre you/sure?'
- Commands : warning, exhortative; Nith commands beginning
with-don't·, it means: appealing to the listener
to change his mind.
e.g. (I've a confession to make.) lGo/Q!!~lcoI}tinue.1
(Thank you.)
'Don't,mention it.1
f winl ; lonce/~·1 (Teacher to student
practising pronunciation)

---

287.
- Interjections : reserving judgment, calm, casual aCknoWI~ent.
e.g. (Is that really yours?) IO~~coursell
(So you think I'm wrong·)I~-!2~lYl I
4) HIGH RISE
l /)
- Statements: questioning, trying to elicit a repetition, but
lacking any suggestion o~ disapproval, or
puzzlement; casual, tentative.
e.g.
(I want you a minute.) l'Yes?1
(I should phone him about it.)/~oW?1
(I must be o~~..) I'So soon?'
(Five pounds I paid. )/~ine pounds?J
(I call every Monday.) l/!Very Monday? 1
(I've got to go to Leeds.)I/You've got to?J
Wh-guestions : calling for a repetition of the information
already given; also echoing the listener's
question before going on to answer it, or
casual, tentative.
e.g. (I think this is Joan' s umbrella. )/'whose?1
(It's ten ~eet long.) I'How long? I
(These ~lowers are for you.)
1'!!:!9 are they ~or?J
- Yes-no questions : echoing the listener's question, light,
casual.
e.g. (Think about it. )l/Think about it?(
(Hold it ~or me. )('Hold it ~or you?1
(Buy me a couple. )1'Buy you a couple?'
- Commands + Interjections : querying all or part of the

---

288.
listener's command or interjection, but
with no critical intention.
e.g. (Take it home.) 'Take it 'home?J
(Is that what you said?)
(He said he was tired.) J'Really?1
5+ RISE-FALL (ROUNDED)
( r'\\ )
- Statements : impressed, complacent, sel£-satis~ied,
challe~ng, disclaiming responsibility.
e.g. (1 got ten pounds £or it.)ln~ pounds 11
(You're lucky.)
(And .;rack paid for the ice-eream.)
'''Jack paid £or it 11
(You've won again.) -¥'Naturally.1
(What was the ma1;~ paper like?)' "EasY.1
- Wb-guestions : challenging, antagonistic, disclaiming
responsibility.
e.g. (He's rather a nuisance.)
IWhy not"~ him so?1
(Il m worried about the situation.)
lWhat's it got to do withnIQg?\\
- Yes-no questions : challenging, impressed,antagonistic
e.g. (He shot an elephant.)lftDid he?'
(It's terrible,)~snlt it?)
(Can w~ af£ord to buy it?)
ICan we rlford"not to?I
- Commands : disclaiming reponsibility, sometimes hostile
e.g. (~~ doctor is useless.)lTry a~~££erent one.\\
(Thank you very much.) \\Donlt~mention it.1
(And the le~er £rom Stevens?)'Justnig~ it.1

---

289.
- Interjections : impressed, sometimes a hint of accuaation
e.g. (Did you pass your exam?) ]OfftcourseII
(You can borrww my Jaguar. )l"1hank you.l
(SaIl,.' s just had triplets. ~ .Myftgoodness 1\\
(Hullo Ted.) IGOod"evening George.1
6) FALL-RISE
( V \\
a) Pointed falling-rising
- Statements : grudgingly admitting, reluctantly or
defensively dissenting, concerned, reproachful,
hurt, reserved, tentatively suggesting; in
echoes, greatly astonished.
e.g. (Hullo everyone.) IYou'reVlate.\\
(Nobody can come •.) IVI. can.l
(Are things getting dearer? ~vSome things.l
(Was the play good?)tv~rly.\\
(She arrived today.)l~~terday.l
(Isn't it wonderful!) IV~derfuI?\\
(It's blue, I think:.)lV~?\\
-)lli-guestions : (echoes) : greatly astonished; otherwise
interested, concerned, surprised.
e.g. (Where's he arriving?)IVWhere?\\
(Who'll play the piano?) \\v~l
(The concert's on Friday.)\\ViVhen?\\
- Commands : urgently warning with a note of reproach or
concern.
e.g. (What's up Tom?)IVMind.\\
(Can I give you a hand?) lVPlease.]

---

290.
b) Rounded fall-rise (u)
This tone is the most frequent after Tones 1 and 2.In its
most general sense, it simply means "that's not all there
is to say on the matter-: or -there's more to it than that".
It may indicate that the speaker wants a second opinion, or
it may also convey a specific contrast or reservation about
a particular point.
e.g.!"'YesterdS3' they didn't seem to mind.)
(I don't think
they approve of your coming in those clothes ••• )
IVThat little bit won't do you any harm.'
(I'm not sure
I ought to eat cake; I'm getting too fat ••• )
I Roger's been inulndia several times! I (None of the
family travels anywhere; Well but ••• )
7) HIGH- FALL PLUS LOW RISE
- ( " ~ ,
- Statements : commitment, involvement, invitation to a further
contribution to the conversation;.e.g. gladness,
regret, surprise.
e.g. (Who can we ask?) 1\\~on'slyour,~.J
(How do we get there?) I'Frank'Slgot a/~.I
(I'm a bank manager.)
IMy\\~berl ~orks f'or/ ~laysJ
(Oh there you are, Peter?)
II'm'sorrYII couldn't get here any/earlier,
JohnJ
(You can borrow it any time.)
lThat's e~remelyJkind of you.1
-
/ -
- Yes-no questions : very emotiv~, expressing plaintiveness,
despair, gushing warmth.

---

291.
e.g.
(Perhaps I could help.)
J'no you think JyouI' could? I
(I tell you I won't listen.)
1'!:'!!!2,t you beJ sO/22stinate?1
(Lost something, John?)
IYes,\\~ you seen/my/cheque book
anywhere?I
- Commands : pleading, persuading
e.g.
(What's the matter?~\\Be careful 1I
lIou nearly'hit mel \\iit~ that.l
- Interjections : intensely encouraging, protesting.
e.g. (I've invited him for tea.) 1\\~lly~gOOdd
(We go that way.)
J'Half Ia/minute 1 1
(How do you know?)
8
RISE-FALL PLUS LOW RISE
((\\ / ,
This tone generally means intensifying (+ contradiction),
inviting the listener to continue the conversation.
e.g.
(Jane might 1)1 "Just Ia/gent! (
II'd rather"like one if you feel you c~ spare it.\\
(I don't suppose you v/ant any of these pictures? Well,
actually••• )

---

292.
1.2.4.4. Conclusion
What we have tried to give here is a short review o£ the main
£eatures o£ the English intonation system. The points which are
worth retaining are the £ollowing :
(i) there are·£our most important tones in English: tall (\\),
rise C,), £all-rise (Vor U) andrise-£all (1'\\).
(ii) roughly speaking, the taIling: tone expresses "certainty",
"completeness", "independence". Thus, a straightforward
statement normally ends with a falling tone, since it asserts
a £act of which the speaker is certain. It has an air of
£inality".
The rising tone, on the other hand, expresses auncertainty",
"incompleten~ss" or "dependence". ~ yes-no question usually
has a rising tone, as the speaker is uncertain of the truth
of what he is asking about. Subsidiary information (i.e. that
which is given by subordinate clauses) in a statement is also
o£ten spoken with a rising tone because such in£ormation is
incomplete, being dependent for its £ull understanding on the
main assertion, or on the rest of the utterance or sentence.
The £all-rise tone combines the £alling tone's meaning o£
"assertion", "certainty" with the rising tone's meaning o£
"dependence", "incompleteness". At the end o£ a sentence it
often conveys a £eeling o£ reservation, i.e. it asserts
something, and at the same time suggests that there is
something else to be said. At the beginning or in the middle
o£ a sentence, it expresses the assertion o£ one point, together
Nith the implication that another point is to £ollow.
As to rise-£all, it combines the meaning ot "uncertainty"
(rising tone) '::ith that of "certainty" (falling tone). This

---

293.
tone very often implies the idea of challenge, or antagonism;
in other words, it first suggests something as being uncertain,
but at the same time expresses an intensified meaning, implying
some additional commitment on the part of the speaker.
(iii) the tones of the falling type are said to be the most
frequently used in connected speech (between 50 an 60 per
cent (1)); followed by the fall-rise, and by the tones of
the rising type (2).
(iv) as may be seen, English presents a pitch system which is
radically different fro~ those of Ciluba and French. Briefly,
some basic differences are :
English and French : first, the ups and downs of pitch in
English are more "dramatic" as compared to those of French;
French sometimes sounds "monotonous· or "bored" to English
listeners; second, English intonation patterns are predominently
falling, whereas French patterns are mostly rising; third,
English, far more than French, makes essential use of lower
and higher pitch ranges, and of contrasts between those and
medium range*
English and Ciluba : English is an intonation language, and
Ciluba, a tone language. In English, then, pitch movements
are distributed over whole sentences (or utterances) while in
Ciluba, they are distributed on the word syl~les. In addition,
intonation patterns of English are more diversified (cf. types
of tones) than the tones of Ciluba based on the lexico-
semantic and syntactic opposition between
high and low tone
at syllable and word level.
(1) CRYSTAL, D., "Prosodic features and linguistic theory", in
The English Tone of Voice, p. 1 -.,. 47.
(2) Gimson (1970), Halliday (1970) and Crystal (1975)

---

Unlike the other two languages, English displays fundamental
interrelationships between ~rd stress, reduction, rhythm and
intonation. Lastly, English intonation is more diversi.fied. and
meaningf'u1. So that .failure to perceive it in understanding or
to produce it in speaking leads to serious communication problems,
as will be observed in connection with the tests discussed in
Part 11, which we have devised and administered to Ciluba speakers.

---

11. THE SOUND SYSTEM OF FRENCH
1.2. SEGMENTAL UNITS
2.1.1. Vowels
2.1.2. Semi-vowels
2.1.3. Consonants
2.1.3.1. Simple consonants
2.1.3.2. Consonant clusters
2.1.4. The Syllable
2.2. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
2.2.1. Stress and rhythm
2.2.2. Intonation

---

296.
NOTE:
This description of French is much shorter than that of English
and Ciluba, our main objective being a comparison of these two
languages.
The description of French is mainly intended to identify features
of the French system that might
(i) either reinforce interferences from Ciluba on Ciluba speakers'
production of English,
(ii) or -though less commonly--account for direct interferences
from French on English.
French, after all, is not our subjects' native tongue.
I

---

297.
2.1. SEGMENTAL UNITS
2.1.1. Vowels
There are many dif~erent ways of describing French vowels. In
the present study, we have chosen the analysis provided by Pierre
and Monique LEON in.Introduction a la Phonetigue Corrective, simply
because their presentation deals with Standard French, and does so
with a corrective purpose in mind (1). According to F. & M. LEON,
Standard French includes sixteen vowels of which ten only are
considered as phonemes, namely: lil, Iyl, Iu/, 10/, 14/, IEI, IEUI,
101, I AI, iEI
(2). The phonemes lil, IyI, lul, 10/, 10.1 do not
undergo any change in the speech of French speakers. The other five
have different phonetic variants (3). They are :
/El
may be either
[e]
or
(1:)
fEUI
may be either
e-),t~lor
(Gel
101
may be either
[01
or
(~]
IAI
mau be either
[a]
or
[Cl]
-
...
IEI
may be either
tE)
or
~l
Furthermore, French words such as deldes, veule/veulent, cottelcote,
brin/brun, patte/p~te respectively illustrate phonological oppositior-
for elf, ;/aa, ~/o , a/~ ,i/ae. However, these oppositions are
relevant to a very limited number of ~ords; that is, they tend to
be neutralized by a number of French spea'--ers. IEI, IEUI, 101, I AI
...
and IEI are therefore called archiphonemes.
(1) see pp. 17-18
(2) see also GENOUVRIER, E. & PEYTARD, J., Linguistique et
Enseignement du fran~ais, p.~O
(3) p. & M. LEaN define "variants" as "toutes les voyelles qui
peuvent varier d'un individu a un autre ou d'une region a une
autren (p.17).

---

298.·
As appears from the above description, and the chart below,
French vowels fall into two groups : oral and nasal vowels. Here
are the examples :
[i) -
scie
[:>1
bol
[e]
de
[u]
douze
et)
sept
[y]
lune
[a]
table
(~J
deux
are ORAL
[Cll
§ne
(~]
fenetre
[0]
veau
(oe]
fleur
(l]
vingt
[oe)
un
are NASAL
[Cll
cent
~l
onze
.
CHART OF FRENCH ORAL AND NASAL VmiELS
ORAL
NASAL
Front
Back
Front
Back
IUnr.
r.
unn
r. unr.
r.
unr.
r.
very close
i
y
u
...,
close
~ ~ ~
0
mid
open-
le ~
very open
la
a l
a:

---

299.
Four distinctive features help us, as shown on the ehart, to
define and classify all the French vowels; they are :
1) air passage: oral and nasal vowels
2) lip position: rounded and unrounded vowels
3) degree of aperture: ver,y close, close, mid, open and ver,y open
vowels
4) zone of articulation: front and back vowels
~e shall not consider tension as a distinctive feature for the
French vowels because all of them are tense. Moreover, the
distinction between long and short vowels, which is relevant
in
English, does not exist in French.
So far, we have been concerned with the vowel phonemes of French;
the following points, however, may be retained about the phonetic
realization of these vo~els :
1) As already noted, all the vowels of French are tense. They are,
in addition, fully and neatly articulated so that they cannot
combine to form gliding sounds. This is the reason why Standard
French, unlike English for instance, does not have any dipnthong.
2) The front and back vowels of French are not equal in their front
or back quality, as Georges Straka rightly points out in Album
Phonetigue (1). In fact, the vowel (i) is more front than re] ;
(e) than [t), and [£1 than Ca] • As regards back vowels, [01 is more
back than [')1, while both of them are more back than ( u). Front
rounded. vowel$ [y,~,a,oe] are similarly less front than the front
unrounded [i, e,E, a] •
(1) STRAKA, G., Album ?hon8tiaue, p.SO
I

---

300..
3) The distinction between close and open vowels is based on the
position o£ the tongue towards the palate. Close vowels are
those in the production o£ which the tongue is very close to
the palate; with open vowels, we have the opposite. It is
important to note that in the chart there are intermediate
positions which give us hal£-close and hal£-open vowels (1).
4) Nasal vowels seem to be articulated in the same way as their
oral equivalents, as indicated in the diagram.
5) All FrenCh vowels occur in all word. positions (initial, medial
and £inal) except[a1. About the articulation and the distribution
o£ the latter, we m~ re£er to what Henriette WaIter writes in
La Phonologie du :franyais :
"Certains sujets realisent cette voyelle comme une voyelle neutre
sans arrondissement des levres, mus la majorite d' entre eux
l'articule exactement de la mame maniereque l'un des phonemes
de la serie- anterieure arrondie _ ou oe C••• ). Le e "muet"
peut se trouver partout, sauf a l'initiale absolue et a la
£inale absolue, en quoi il se differencie de toutes les autres
voyelles, dont la presence n'est exclue d'aucune position". (2)
6) French vowels are generally presented in the following diagram
which shows the different places of articulation: (3)
(1)see the £ollowing diagram
(2) Let us add that in final position,[al appearp in some
expressions only, e.g. "sur ce", "parce que", ••• follo:,.;ed by
a pause; and in "le".
(3) c£. University ~~~lish 5 , vol 11, p.91
. J.(;.

---

301.
Front
Central
Back
Close
i __----~---__,...._---__y
·u
Half-close
Half-open
.~
Open
doli
2.1.2. Semi-vowels
There are three semi-vowels in French: j as in 1f scierlt ,tf
as in "suer" and w as in Qsouhait tr • Of all these, only Ijl is
regarded as a phoneme in some cases, i.e; in final positions of
words where it may be found in contrast with the lil vowel :
paye
abeille
[abEj]
pays
abbaye
[ab£i]
(1 )
The other semi-vowels are phonetic realizations of respectively
jyj and lu/. As P. & M. LEON write, linguistically, the semi-vo~els
of French may be replaced by their corresponding vowels li,y,ul
without causing any difficUlty in message comprehension •. In this
case, words will be pronounced as two s~llables instead of one;
e.g. "sci-erlt , "su-er", "sou-hait".
(2)
In order to articulate the semi-vowel [j] , the tongue is in
the position of (i) and near to the middle of the palate; as to
[\\f 1, it is in the position of [y) and near the palate; it is in
the position of(u) and near the palate too in the articulation of[w].
(1) LEON, P. & h., Ope cit., p.3S
(2) LEON, P. & M., Ope cit., p.36

---

302.
(j) is front unrounded,[~lis front rounded, and [w] is back
(consequently rounded).
CHART :
Front
Back
~.
r.
j
~
w
The following positions may be noted for the distribution of
French semi-vowels :
[j] occurs before any vowel;
tll] occurs before front vowels except [y) and [&.1'
(wJ occurs before all vowels except (y, ai, 0, ul.
(1)
2.1.3. Consonants
2.1.3.1. Simple consonants
There are seventeen consonant phonemes in Standard French (2).
They are usually classified and described according to four
criteria as indicated in the following chart :
1) mode of articulation: plosives, fricatives
2) air passage: oral, nasal
3) vibration of vocal cords : voiced, unvoiced
4) point of articulation: labial, dental, alveolar, etc •••
(1) see LEON, P. ~ M., Ope cit., p.~6
(2) LEaN, P. & M., 00. cit., p. 28
(See also GENOUVRIER, E. ~ F~YT.~D, J., Ope cit., p.~1)

---

303 •
-'
..J
c
...
c
-'
..-
cc
c
...
-J
2
, j
c
..,
.~ ~
;. "C 4:- C
~
J
..J
...
cC
C
•
a::
t&
0
t-
0
0-
0
.J
.- C
..J
.~
Z
&la
~
>
A
.J
!AI
'':;;
C
LU
-J
..
C-
•
IIoV
..J
. t"
'" W >
~
:>
:J
PLOSIVE
v.
P
t
le
unv.
"b
d
g
NASAL
m
n
J'o
FRICATIVE
v.
f
s
5
unv.
v
z
~
LATERAL
1
CONTINUANT
~
.
~
Examples . /p/
pipe
/m/
maison
/v/
vache
/t/
table
/n/
neuf
/z/
zero
/k/
quatre
/J1/
agneau
/3/
journal
/b/
bateau
/f/
fleur
/1/
lune
/d/
deux
/s/
sept
/r/
rose
/g/
gateau
/J/
chat
As regards pronunciation, ?rench consonants present more limited
variations than vo\\:els. These variations seem not to be perceived
by the hearers because in most cases, they are not significant.
One case mentioned by P. ~ 1':. LEON is that of the word "casquette".
The first consonant of this \\;ord is pronounced [k]
in Parisian
French; in popular dialect, however, (kjl
is often heard (1). A
second example is provided by M.J. dUSTENBERGHS in Approche pour
un enseignement du frangais en Coree about the nasal
/p!:
(1) LEON, P. & M., Ope cit., p.3 1

---

304.
"Ce phoneme se realise comme un 1nl palatal plus un leger
yod et risque d'etre souvent interprete comme une realisation
particuliere du phoneme 1nl + /yod/ • C' est ainsi que "la niellen
et "l'agnelleU se realisent souvent de fa~on identique". (1)
The distinction between voiced and unvoiced consonants is not to
be considered as a matter of vocal cord vibration exclusively.
Malmberg explains it in the following ~ay :
"En fran~ais, les 'sonores' perdent leur sonorite au contact des
consonnes regulierement sourdes. Les sonores sont aussi des
douces, les 'sourdes' des fortes et cette difference d'intensite
articulatoire se conserve meme si la sonorite disparait ou
s 'ajoute respectivement. Un [pl sonorise reste different d 'un Cb] ,
et un (b)_assourdi reste ai.f'f'eren..t d'un (p) n (2).
Theref'ore -the term 'lenis' is used for voiced consonants, while
'fortis' is used for unvoiced ones. Let us mention that all the
French conso~ants occur in all wo~ positions.
2.1.3.2. Consonant clusters
French clusters are mostly made of' a consonant plus Ir/
or 11/.
These clusters are either 'primary' i.e. oacurring within ~ords; or
'secondary' i.e. created by the suppression of the front rounded
~ , or in word juncture. Here are some examples :
(1) :iUSTENBERGHS, M.J., Approche pour un enseignement du fran9ais
en Coree, P.103
(2) MALI1BERG, B., Manuel de Phonetigue Generale, p.150

---

305.
Initial position
Intervocalic position
Final position
pr
pres
a~res
apre
tr
tres
attrait
etre
kr
craie
ecrit
acre
sr
s(e)rait-il
pass(e)ra
Sr
mouch(e)ra
br
bras
abri
sabre
dr
drap
adresse
cadre
gr
gras
aigri
aigre
zr
os(e)rai
3r
.j ( e) reponds
ling(e)rie
pI
pleut-il
eplore
souple
tl
tee) l'a-t~il dit
att(e)le
kl
klaxonne
eclair
boucle
sI
see) laver
oss(e)let
SI
bouchCe)-les
bl
bleu
ebloui
table
dl
d(e) la
au-d(e)la
gl
gland
aiglon
aigle
zl
os(e)-le
31
j(e) l'ai
mange e)-le
At this point we may observe that some consonant clusters are
only seco~dary, while others do not exist in any of the three
"9ositions. Apart fror~ these clusters, French has other types of
consonant clusters which, however, are very rare. There are also
numerous cases of geminate or double consonants, e.g. la-d(e)dans,
tu m(e) mens, courrait, etc •• ~

---

306.
Finally, le~ us note with Adamczewski and.Kaen that vowels play
a very signi£icant part in French pronunciation, and there£ore, the
inse~ion o£ a vowel (very o£ten[~ is usually encountered whenever
there are more than two consonants; £or example "un film japonais"
will be pronounced
[~film~sap.Jne]
( 1 ) •
2.1.4. The syllable
Most syllables are open, i.e. end with a vowel (2) :
V
"a"
cv
"va"
SV
"oui"
CSV
• puis"
COSV
"bruit"
There are close syllables too
VC
·li~"
eve
"bee"
SVC
"yod"
CSVC
"pierre"
VS
"ail"
Succession of vowels is also accep~ed in French :
"tu as eu un homard"
cv V V V
VCVR
(1) ADAMCZEWSKI, H. & KEEN, D., Ope cit., p.120
(2) 75%
(according to BASTIN, R., Ope cit., p.69

---

307.
2.2. SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
2.2.1. Stress and Rhythm
The system of French stress and rhYthm is characteristically
different from that of English. French stress falls on the last
syllable of the so-called " r hyth:nic group" (1). It is determined
not by isolated words as is the case in English, but by the rhythmic
group. As a consequence, the prominence of a vowel is determined by
the rhythmic group, unless the word needs special focus. Moreover,
French stress consists not of greater force as in English, but of
greater length. The last syllable of the rhythmic group is
lengthened and given prominence as in the following examples :
une robe
-
une robe de ~
une robe de soie rouge
(2)
The rhythmic group parallels the syntactic blocks of which the
last syllable is given prominence. It is also North noting that
in French, apart from this kind of prominence, there is an emphatic
stress used by the speaker to emphasize a given syllable. The
e~phatic stress may be carried by any word syllable, not necessar-
ily by the final syllable of the rhythmic group; e.g.
"11 ne .taut pas confondre inverser et deverser."
[ i "
t. pe k~ t;ell rVIfIle.. ol~"c~ se]
(3)
(1) "rhythmic group" ="unite prosodique constituee d'un groupe de
mots formant un tout au niveau semantique"
(FORGES, G., 1976)
(2)DELATTRE, P., An Introduction to French Speech Habits, p.24.
Examples are from Adamcze wski
l~ Keen.
(3) GENOUVRIER, ~. ~ P3YTARD, J., OD. cit., p.53

---

308.
As far as French rhythm is concerned, the follo\\-ling is ~·.-orth
retaining: (1)
1) the elementary rhythmic unit is a single syllable, not a
group of syllables as in English;
2) all the syllables have equal force in French; there is no
contrast of strong and weak syllables as in English;
3) all the syllables have equal length, except the final syllable
of the rhythmic group;
4) the larger unit is the rhythmic group, which corresponds to
~hole "syntagmatic" chunks of sylLables.
It is ~·;ith respect tQ these four features that the rhythm of
French is called "syllable-timed".
2.2.2. Intonation
French has the opposition between the falling and the rls1ng
tones, to distinguish between different sorts of sentences
(statements, questions, commands) according to the type of
intonation used by the speaker.
1) statements: the voice progressively rises and falls on the
last syllable (falling tone), e.g.
-
ril- -
£
-
"11 est parti."
paftti)
('1)
DELATTRE, P.,op. c.it., p.24

---

309.:
2) questions (Yes/No)
the voice continually rises and is
finally suspended (rising tone); e.g.
-
[ii -
!
-
"11 est parti?"
paRti)
3) commands: the voice starts from high pitch and continually
falls down (falling tone); e.g.
-
(paRte
-
"Fartez d'ici!~
-dis'!)
In statements with several rhythmic groups, the first part is
~ronounced with a rising tone, the second with a falling tone.
The t·.. o parts are separated by a high pitch. In the assertive
sentence "L'homme est venu I bien que la femme ne soit pas la",
~ -----.--------~
the voice regularlt rises until "venu", then falls back progres-
sively yO its initial height.
('1 )
(1) The example is from FORGES, OP. cit., p.6S

---

Ill. SPECIMENS OF PHONETIC TRANSCRIPI'IONS
3.1. Ciluba
3.2. Eng~ish
3.3. French
I

---

311.
3.1. CILUBA
Ldbeha ni di ba
Luheha ni diba bavua belangana mpata bua kumanya eu udi muhita
mukuenda ku makanda hamuenabu muina luendu uhita mudibuikila
nkotshi. Kumvuanganabu nenku : eu wikala muvudija muina luendu
nkotshi kumpala ki wikala muhita mukuabu ku makanda. Nanku lu-
heha kubangalu dituta ne dialu dionso. Kadi luheha luvus. anu ni
lututa bikola, muina luendu henda kukoka nkotshi anu bikola. Nde-
kelu luheha kutshiokalu e kulekela dituta. Diba hadi dimona na-
nku e kubanga dikenka, mutantshi mukesa, muina luendu kukohakana
e kuvula nkotshi. Ha nanku ki luheha kushisha kuitabijalu ne bu-
lelela diba ndiluhita ku makanda.
Narrow transcription
(4.)
(Tones
' .
I .
~
v
. .
a=h1gh ; a=m1d ; a=low
a=r1s1ng
~=falling)

---

312.
3.2. ENGLISH
The North Wind and the Sun
The North wind and the sun were disputing which was the stronger,
when a traveller came along wrapped in:-a warm cloak. They agreed
that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take his
cloak off should be considered s~ronger than the other. The North
wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely
did the traveller fold his cloak around him; and at last the North
wind gave up the attempt. Then the sun shon out warmly, and
immediately the traveller took off his cloak. And so the North
wind was obliged to confess that the sun was the stronger of the
two.
Narrow transcription
(tf. ,,~:e \\u\\nd :al\\d <f9 Sl\\Y'\\ wa d\\s.'pio:ti') w,t~ \\,.,a'a2.. Sa" 1\\rJ'1~~,
\\.It-on ~ 't"'av\\~ ktlT'n -a\\~l') l'a~~ i." -a \\"J~~m "rev\\( Hcfll\\ ~~.... \\~d ~a~
ill WOh
hU: ~-a:~~ s.~k!.':d.'Glln fl\\e'l\\<l\\') i, t::ravla tei:\\c n\\'L
\\( l ~\\J\\c ~ Sue-! \\:), \\c an!), ~ a~ \\.\\ ... :3') ~ a 8~n' d\\ f\\ia Uf~ n i Cl n ~:e
"""ncl. '0\\",: ~2. 'na:d ~z. l: \\<\\.au,bat ita "':): hi: DIu: f~ trt:):
\\(l~~li ci\\cl tf~ tt'a\\tt'a" tauld \\\\,1. \\<l~u\\( araund n\\m /I ~",d ~.
l'c};!)\\ J-a
l\\~.. e \\,-A,,,,<i ~o.~\\I I\\P <fi d~~1'f\\"'\\: /I te", da Mn J::>"
aut \\,J~:h\\L" ana i'rn;:JjaHi J~ ~ravl-a ~ulf =I hiz ktaCJk /I ~"J
~ au (f~ n:>: e Lli " d L.J az. Cl btat cJ.3>ci t d k d n le 1 if~ t If S1\\ n
\\..J'a'Z.
J~ ~~,,:)t>~ a ... a\\' j~ ~V~]
(~
(-1) u, au, ei ••• are diphthongs. e is open.
)

---

3.3. FRENCH
La bise et le soleil
La bise et le soleil se disputaient, eh~cun assurant qu'il
etait le plus tart, quand ils ont vu un voyageur qui s'avanGait,
enveloppe dans son manteau. lIs sont tombes d'accord que celui
qui arriverait le premier ~ faire oter son manteau au voyageur,
serait regarde comme le plus fort. Alors la bise s'etait mise a
souffler de toute sa force; mais plus elle soufflait, plus le
voyageur serrait son manteau autour de lui; et a la fin la bise
a renon~e a le lui faire oter. Alors le soleil a commence a briller
et au bout d'un moment, le voyageur rechaU£fe, a ote son manteau.
Ainsi la bise a du reconnaitre que le soleil etait le plus fort
des deux.
Narrow transcrintion
[la 'o\\~~ ilL s')\\t;i e;,. ei.·l~rY\\ ~" ~ al<~ a!.yra \\(iL ~~E. L ~y ~':): .../
k&:'c \\."l 3 "1 m vwa)a~~~~ \\<.~ ~ Clva-:.~, a"'~rC!. d..o. ~5"
ma.'col t s~ ~~b~ c:la\\(~r, k~ salyi k\\ Ot-'l vre l r~""'iq. Q.
~E'" a\\:" ~~ m~\\:Q a "w a~a?>OQ.~ f'-/~'i).t-'e ~~~,,"cl.. \\c:),"" la
'ply e'3:~/lal~:," la D'~~ ~ miz.. a
s.ufL~ d to-ut- sa f=>",~/IYr\\E
ply 21 lulLe" r--l'l I v'-Iaj'3 QQ~t' ~i: ... e s3 IJ\\G~O al;YI\\ do e
lyi 11f. a la lE I~ bi:z 2 I'n3': SQ
9
I~ l~; le,.. ofQ /I al:J:'"
\\,
~:>\\cc:i a ko",Q.~~ a b ... i~41 le. 0 b" cl &'I m:>\\"I\\o.. l
\\I\\J~~a~~~t""" """S"~"'I ~ ch ~3 0\\31:0/1 isi I~ bi:'2:. a cly
r\\(':):1\\ E:h~'a k~ l
~~\\e: ~ Q.~~ l 'rly ~':): ~ d..~ d..c;6·1

---

IV. MAPS
N° 1
Zaire · provinces and territories
·
.
N° 2
Zaire · Kasai - Oriental
Ciluba speaking area
·
.
.
N° 3
Zaire · Ngandanjika
The Southern Group dialect
·
.
speaking area

---

Map N° 1
Republic of Zaire : provinces and territories
REP,",BUQUE DU ZAIRE· carte des zones
L
do N ..... (prcrflnce)
L
do -
(terr"af"ory)
ICtIR.I.e " . ._ _
~
. - - - - --
From Republigue du Zaire : Conjoncture Econom1gue, Departement
de l'Economie Nationale Industrie et Commerce, Kinshasa,
Annee 1979-1980

---

316.
Provinc e of Ka..=s;.::8.3.=-:.---.;O::.;:r::.;1=.·e:;n:.:.t.::..=::a=l..J.,.....=C;.:i:.:l:.::u:.;b:.::a;;;.....;s_pl;,e~:I;;;k=i::n ..
Pil..",;ar;::.;:e::.:::a
From Republiaue du Zaire : Carte Routiere et administrative de la
Region du Kasar - Oriental
(1/1.COO.000)
I

---

Map N° 3
Te~ritor;y of Ngandan.iika CBe.na
Tshiyamba) :
•
The Southern Group speaking area
From Republigue du Zaire
: Carte Routiere et Administrative de
la Region du Kasai - Oriental (1/1.000.000)

---

318.
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.
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