.rP25.....""i""M'tai5JtPnt''5lPKp·ww·,
......,."ms
TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE
-GRAMMAR OF WOLOF
THESIS
SUBMiTtED
fOR
THE
DEGREE
Of
DOCTOR
OF
PHIlOSOPHY
.-'"
. - .......... ~..---_...- -
~ -
-
--- j.
');-'JSEIL A;:R;CAIN ET MALGj~~~~E'
t ?o\\m L''Et'JS~iGNEMENT ~: ,-:-::-' Ijl
: '.:. A. r./\\. E. 5, -
OU/\\GA[L.',jvj;
\\ ,\\rrivee 1· 8· ·M·A\\· .\\995
_. i
j
:'nreg;si,'e SGUS n° ',#'0' O,1-·5-~
_.-.....----.--.....----- .~ ..
JEAN LEOPOLD DIOUF
CENTRE
OF
ADVANCED
STUDY
IN
liNGUISTICS
ANNAMALAI
UNIVERSITY
ANNAMALo.lNAGAR
1982

---

, Dedicate this
Thesis to my Schoolmaster
Abdoulaye Etienne Diop

---

'\\
DR. A. KAMATCHINATHAN,M.A.,Ph.D.,
ANNAMALA INA.CAR ,.
Reader,
)
.
Centre of Advanced Study in Linguisticsj
Date:
{t F:lh- .
Annamalai University,
Annamalainagar.
CERTIFICATE
.
This is to certIfy that this thesi~ entitled
'Tra~sformational Generative Grammar of Wolof ' is a bona-
fide record of research work done b~ Mr. Jean L~opol~ DiouF,
Junior Research Fellow of the Centre of Advanced study in
Linguistics,' Annamalai LJniv8r~i',ty.
It· is also certified
that the above work has not previously 'formed 'the basis
far thQ awar~ of any D8~ree, Diploma, Associ8teshi~,.
.
\\'Fellow?hip or 'other similar titles to the candidate.
Th1s indePendent research work of the candidate is an
Dr~~in31 contribution tOwards the study of the structure
of' Wolof.'.
i,.

---

ACK l~iJu1 Ll DG EME j~T
I would like to ~xpress my sincere thanks to all those
who have helped me in some uay or oth~r in the course of the
preparation of this .dissertation,
"Transformational Generative
Grammar of Wolof".
I am deeply ;;'ndebted to Professor Dr.5 .Agesthialingom,
rl •A. , Ph • 0 • ( Kera 1a ) , Ph . D• (I ndi a na, U. ::i •f\\ • ), He ado f the 0e pa r t-
ment of Linguistics and Directur of the Centre of Advanced
StudY in Linguistics, Onnamalai University.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr.A.Kamatchinathan,
M.A.,Ph.D., Reader in Linguistics, Centre of Advanced StUdy
in Linguistics, Anmamalai university, shall I call. him Super--
viS) r or brother, whose constant effort, immense encouragement,
personal care, patient guidance and supervision enabled me to
complete this work.
Grateful acknowledgements are due to the Government of
India a'nd the Government of 5enegambia,
under whose fellowship
aid,
this work has been accomplished.
I owe much to the authorities of the Annamalai 'University
.
for having prOVided me with the necessary facili ties during
my stay in India.
I am also grateful to
constant encouragement;
Finally,
I thank Mr. C.5. Balasubramanian, B.A., Department
of Linguistics, Annamalai University for accomplishing the
laborious task of typing this thesis.
,
*****

---

CO~·.-;-£r:TS
P.a 9 8
ACKI: OWL ED GEi'l Eli:
PE! BR EV 1,;1 IONS
IIHIl DDU eT IOIJ
7
PAR T
I
A s,<~tch Df TransformatianRl Theory
19
Syntax
25
I I, 1.
26
'2.7
IL1.A.1
D \\.~ f i ni t j. On
.'H\\ C\\C\\\\'\\G\\.G\\
·..
27
5 entencC'
·..
2.9
I1.1. n .3
nod"li b. "5
II.l.P..1.
Inter j'2ction
31
"~2
IL1.A.6
• VEr 'J - phr aSp.
34
TL~:~·. 7
\\'crbal-~
36
I1.l ..~.a
~8
Ad.iEctivE-phraS8
y.....
! IL1./\\.9 f'"joun-phros8
37'
II.l"n.. l']
~'repo~iti8nal phras 8
·..
41
IL1.A.11
~,LJxil i,:lry-gTOiJP
42
·..
II.l.A.12
~dv8rbiaI-clause
43
11."
ChAPTER
8
45
11.1.[1.1
\\/or b"
4b
11.1.8.2
V. it*,+ NPa~
· ..
46
11.1.:"3
\\/.inl-r+ NP<-~~J + cia'c iVG
47
11.1.0.4
\\'. intr + Er
T
dat iVG
47

---

\\ '
(
i i
I
.-~-
11.1 • EL 5
V.tr.dir + NPag (obj)
47
·V • tr
'
(
b')
d
t·
(I)
J1.1.0.6
T
DJ
+-a.lve
45 -
11.1.8.7
V.tr +
48
~r + (obj)
·..
11.1
\\Lin.
· El. 8
+ Er
·..
49
(2 \\
11.1.[].9
V.tr + Er + dativ~
4-'7
11.') .B.11J
V.tr
Er + da t i ve
4'1
.
(2 i
ILl
V.tr
"I-
c!Cltive-
• t~ " 1 1
+ tJ Pag
50
1I.l.rL12
V.tr + Er + Ag .;- ( ob j)
50
·..
11.-1.8.13
V.tr
+ Er
+ Ao, + obj
5'1
11.1 · B .14
V.tr + ~8tive + ~Pag + obj.
51
"
JI.1.C.1~l
TensG··marker and AspGct·-markccrs
5b
ij7
11.1 .0 • 1 [)
T G n s e - '" ark E r s
·..
11.1.8.17
Acs p e et - i,! cl r k [l r s
;60
11.1.8.18
,a. s Pr: c t LJ El 1- v E' r b S i
COfJula- aerbs
a nd
Main' verb s
·..
1f.1 • G.1 9
,r.. 5 p ::.-ctua:L
verbs
. . .
1I.'i.f-3.20
Copula-verbs
·..
. ..
11.1.8.21
!C\\djectivcs
74
II' .1 .~}.22
Descriptive'adjectivES
.,74
I L l .B.23
DE mOll s t ;' '3 t .1. v 2 3 rJ j G' ~:' t i \\1 E' S. • •
,75
'7B
11. i 'i3.f t•
POSSFssivE
adj9ctivES
-79'
11.1 .8,25
Numeral
adjectioes
·..
BD
11.'1 • E'r • 25
Indefinite adjectivGs
•
•
0
I I . .
.
~( ~ 27'
~.:~ " .
Inl;'"0ri'ogotI
80
VB
adjo ctives'.- .•
11.1 ,[3.28
A'd vr:: rbs
.• -••
-
,5~
,
11. 1 • 8.29
Conjoining
partid ~s
. • .
,~ . e,f4-
1 I .1 • B . 30
Prepopi2ition
•••
88,
II.l.G.~31
~Iouns
· .....
91
11.1. S. 3Q
Pronouns
· ..
110
'11,1.0.33
Personal
Pronouns
110

---

( i i i
)
;-.-1"11
Demonstrative pronouns
I'l. 1 • 0 . 3 L,
·..
~11
Interrogative pronouns
II • 1 . B.• 35
II.1.B.JiJ
PossessiVE [1ronouns
--\\13
·..
r
Reflexive pronouns
11.1.8.37
.. .. '.
114-
RelativD pronouns
'\\15
II.1.iL38
·..
'\\ '\\ 8
11.1.8.39
Indefinite pronouns
·..
'Hi
I I • 1 • !3 • /.f 0
SuprasEgmental phonemes ·..
'\\20
I 1.1 •
CHAPTER c:
Lexicon
·..
·173
CHAPTER 0:
TransFormational rules
1 1. 2.
Notion of transfOrmation •..
:174
11.2.0.1
Negation transform
II.2.0.2
9ti on •••
175
Question transformation •..
" Y
-~
159
I1.2.D.3
NP
Predicate-pub j ect.a g reem8nt
217
II.2.D.{~
Person-Affix-Segment trans-
11.2.D.5
...
222
Per s on - Af fix - Shi f t t r Cl nS -
11.2.D.6
forma ticJn
:229
n ip-Flop-rule transformation
254
II • 2 .0 • 7
11.2.0.8
rliP-rlop-rul~/Env adv-plac6
or in Env of pronominalized
...
r\\J P • 0 b j e c t
N~-Subj~ct deletion
tr
....
a
,276
ilS f Q rm a ti(on
~P-Suuject de18tion transfor-
mation: ambiguity in
surf<"Jce structure
285
-
11.2.0.11
NP.Object placem.ent trans-
formation
'1.59
11.2.1.),12
Nnminalization t~an~Formation
327
i, .
,
,
I,
i '
1 I

---

(
i v ) ,
- I:Eo 2.D. "1.3
Pronominalization transformation
353
II.2.D.~1-4
,Relati\\le Clause
. , .
362
11.2.0.15
ReflExivization
•.•
"574
. ·"377
11.2.0. 1 6
Imperative transformation ••
I I • :' • 0 • ·1 7
Noun-phrase complement·
•••
~e7
11.2.0.18
Coordination
•••
- 39'8
11.2.D.19
ComparativE clauses
•.•
408
11.2.D.20
SuLordination and adverbial
c la uS es
• •.
41.7
11.2.0.21
Passivization
•.••
432
I L 2.0. 22
NP- t I../i n n ing- tr a nsformat i on
4"35
11.2.0.23
Elliptical sentences
•••
444-
·
PAR T I II
Ph
..
0 n 0 log y
448
111.1.
CHAPTER
E:
Phonolor~ical system
·..
449
III.1.E.a
Vow [ls
.'..
450
1II.1.E.b
Consonants
·..
"458
·..
4'fO
111.2.
CHAPTER
F:
Phonological Rules
r1orphcr:1e structurE i1ules ••.
1II.2.F.a
III.2.F.b
Readjustment Rules
•••
1II.2.F.c
Morphophon~mic RulEs
• • •
.
PART IV
5 ampl e SEnt enc es
.
El 1BL 10CRAPHY
. .
*******
*****
**-;c
*

---

1
AGBR ELf lAT I oriS
........
.....
_..__.. ...-
~._--.-
~-<
-.~-~
~_
A
animate
Kbs.
·..
·..
8ccus,:JtiVG
;J.CC(JS,
·..
additive
I~; d j.
·..
adjecti \\le
,~clj.P
·..
edjsctive phraSE
ftd v.
·..
j:\\d\\j.C~.
·..
a cl VE'I't i 0:
cl at IS ~
·..
adverb
of pLace
·..
affix.
~
·..
at] [f1 t
· ..
:-nentive subject
1\\ n.
·..
.
~SP./~ Sf
· ..
aspect
Rs p-. m
· ..
aspactlla1
vGrb
A.SD.V.
·..
QssertiVG
RiS t .
·,~.T.au>~.
· . ,
. .
auxil iary
'
auxi1 iriry af Fix
.-
r
...
MU X. L.l.
... benefacli ve
...
InnEL
bEnefsctive.
[; [' 11- 1

---

f4U]
is'fr=tiJ''d''mm='! z:y-s
2
·..
Outer benefactiVG.
Ca~d.
Cardinal
r.F.p.J.G.
· ..
Context FreG Phrase structu~E
Crammar
·..
col18ct~V8
Corn.
Cori'lmO n
Comd.'
Command
Comp.
Co~par ison
Comp2rison ParticlG
Conc.
Concr E.' t
Co ncl •
Co nd i t i onc) 1
[on
.
j.
..
Conj.Co.
Con j u n c ti v e coo r din 8 t i []In
Conj.P.
...
Conjoining particle
Con
[onjunc:ive Subor.dination
j . S Cl b .
Cop.
Copula
Cor 8 f.
Count.
...
Countable
DC:? f
Defi::i le
<
DeQ.
Dp.lJree
f) e1 •
Oemo n 5trativc
o
DEs
escr i pti 'Jt:
C.
oet.
..
Determiner
"
Oil' •
Direct
...
Ergativ8

---

3
:::mph.
Empha s is
,-
0
l...~
Et h.
·.. Et hn i cs
Excl.
·..
Exclam8tion
·.. femininE:
r.; cni t.
·..
genitiVE:
C. G •
f-i/hum
·.,
Human
Hab,
·..
,
· ..
Inanimate
.1
Imp.
Imperative
Incl.
·..
Indirect
·..
Indefinite
Indi v.
·..
Ind ivi~UJal
Injunct
· ..
Injunct ion
In~ t.
·.
Ins tr urr~
,
E: nt al
·..
Interrogative=:
I nt j .
·.
In~er
,
jr=ction
In tr. •
·..
Intralls itivE'
1<
Kinship
•
•
J
L
Li vi n 9
· ..
fias c.
·..
I'lasculine
·..
fio d •
·..
1·1. V•
·..

---

f'l. V •
·.
nod,")l
Vs r!]
,
·..
f'Joun
·..
Non-agentive subjEct
n.Ast.
·..
~Jon-asSGrtivE:'
·.
~Jumb er
,
Common noun
• .. i
·..
NegatiJn Particle
(
·..
n., H.
·.
Non-human
,
n. f<
·.
r~ 0 n - 1< i n EJ hip
,
·.. Nomin(]tivo
iiom. Pr ec).
·..
Nominal predicatr
·.
J~
,
0 un
ph r a S (3
AQentibp noun phrasE
PrOpc:T' noun
Num.
NumeI'al
Obj.
.'..
Obje~t
Oro. '
,
..
Ordinal
Or i() •
..'
Origine
~ .
Prf?dicat[ phrase
P~rs.Pn. '
PI .. ; p
PlaCE
PIur.
...
PIur::::1

---

5
P.- marker
Phras e nlcJrker
·.
'Pronoun
,
Ponct.
·..
Ponctual
PO s •·
Pas s ':,ssi \\lE
.pr~J.
~t'" t..d \\ c C\\.t Q..
•
•
0
Qu a tIt
·..
[:uant Hy
Qu est
·.
Re fercnt:Lol.
,
R el.
R cm. cq.
tiernote [qually
...
.SentEnce
S e1 f. P
S 81
ElrTl is.
f
perrnissi ve
Sing./Sg.
S ingu1sI'
... SDciativG
"Spatial location
S q u a r co I< i 1 Om 0 t Er
Subj.
Subject
Supe>:'Tt.
SuperlativE
""'"
T
· ..
Ar t"icl E
T Emp-l
·
Ol.
..
T. c.
Trans forrnntional
Cen~rativa Grammar
Tr. "
·.
itaYl
Ts-m
u•~,) . E • ~.• C• 0
·..
United Nations
Educati~nal
SciEntific and Cultural
Orga i1 ii:2Jtion.

---

.
V
Verb
\\/G
Verbal
VP
...
Uerb
phrasE' .
Vst.
...
Verb stem
***

---

7

---

8
3ur:1m:::)ry:
'Grammar o~ 'jDlof;:
5~s thE first EVEI' thes"is which dr:3cribcs
"
ChomskYa n Transformatioral Thlory bein s popular for thp l~st
arE as
follows:
Part-I
i:"
sketch
of Transformational ThEory
Theory 8S
propoundEd by Chumsky,
and d~vcloped by him and his
followers
likE J.,.;.Foclor;
J.J.<ctz;
J.O.
r"le
CaLJlcy;
etc.
This sketch as i t st8nds
is only 0. broarl outline of T:L8nsfor~-
mRtional Theory so much so th8t only salient
featurEs
of thE
1 .2.
P:-Jrt-II
Syntac:ic CompbnEnt
T,C,is P8rt presents
various
t,/pes
ef rul GB
intEnoc;d
dividEd intO two subparts, viz.
Part-I].l and Ra~t-Il.2.
I
Part-IL1.
is thE b3SG su-hrornponent.
It comprises
thrc~
ChaptEr,
which arc OS
follows:- Chapter A: Phr8sc StructuTG
Rul~3; Chapbn R: SubcatE'gorisationaJ;. RulEsi
Ch8pteT C: :Lexicor-;.

---

9
tion of thE lexical items.
P~(t-II.2 is the t~an5fo=~ational
componE'.·nt.
It corr~sponds to Chopt£r D.
Part-Ill
: Phonological Component
._
~
..-..... ~_.... _... _... _----~ ......_,.-. -------.-
This p~rt de~crib~s thp phunulogical systEm of Wolof
and presents rulEs to generate the so~nd pattern of Wolof.
This Part inclUdes tlJO Chapters: 1) Chapt2r E: Phonological
System; 2) Chap,;:cr F: Phonoloqica1 Rules.
This' ChaptEr
comprises tI-Je folloLling threo subdivisions:
(3) Morphemo
s t r u c t ur E r u 1 CS 1 b) R e Cl d jus t men t
r u 1 E S Cl n d c)
r~ 0 r p h c Ph 0 n cm i c
r u18s •
1 .4
Sa,nplE SentEncES
In this Part sOm~ dampls SEntences of Uolof a~e
~EnEratcd by applying the rulc~ of thE present grammar.
This is intended to show thE Q[nerativ~ caPacity of thE T.G.
grammar and, therGby tD indiCate the th2or~tical validity of
Transfarmatinnal Theory.
(
2.
Or, \\{?},~x. ~.L_a_~Jl~_~9-~~_
.
. .
.
2.0.
Wolof is. incl~dGd in thG West-Atlantic l~nguage group.
1 2-
anel 1B' western 1 ongi tilde.
Thrz area of SeneQal is 21 Ct. /;OJ
sq. kr,' •
The country 1.5 d i \\J if-; QC: i~tlJ eiQht
•
r

---

-
10
regions,
naln(O"ly;
Cap.VG'rt; lhi;:;s; SinE~5aloum; Diourb81;
As rGgard
1
the arE;:) wherE: WoloP is SpOkGil, 'SauvaQ80t'says thus
DjoloF ou ii est 2n contact mar~inal Bvec le
to~co~Jeu~~ - Peul,da~s la Candyol, le Ndyambour,
lE Cayor, ID PrcsqJl1e du Car. Vprt •
11 se: mele
a u ~; [' :rE r
0 U
1 e cot 0 i EO d a ns
1 c flJ d Ya n cJ er,
1 c 8 a 0]. )
1 G
.5Qt Gum.
sa prEsonce est
attEst&~ lE long
d Q. 1 a' \\J 0 j E fEr l' ~ r:: 1< a 01 El c k - Ta mb a co u n dJ., Cil [J 2 Ys
dyola,
[JArticuli~rEmEnt dans la circonscription
lJolof;'
~p2rt From thGSE) we can also mention the
. ~.~---'-~"-".-'-----" - .......... -
-
..----~-_ ....~.. ,~.~---.'.~~ --- _...----_ . .... _---
.-~-_ ............---...... "'-~"- ........----"---_.. ~~ .......~_... ~----~-
1, •
Cur l' G n t
T r co n j s i n L i I "2 u i so t i c ~, iJ 0 1 . 7, 1 9 7 1, f-1 0 U Jc: 0 1-' 9 ? . 5 7 •
2.
In SenEgal,
it· is trac',cJ ill l.:.I.alo 8nd Djolof whGrs: it
is
in
maI'!;;inol contc~ct with toucou1clJr-PeuJ., in Candj/ol,
~dYa~bour, [ayor, PrEqu'ile du Ca~.VGrt.
It mingl[s
LJi th S Err:r
or gOes. by its side in r'ldY8nder, Gaol ~
Salo~m..
Its prESEncE is attestEd all alono kaol~ck­
Ta~b8c~unda railw3Yl in dy~la arC8 particul~.ly in
UussDUyc district.
In Ganbia, i t is tra~cJ in thE
.n~rthQ..tV\\ bank of thE ri\\1E'T and also In 8athurst and in
th~ immediatp vicinify of thi5 city.

---

er:
P=~'"nrzrsn:t!'
"
11
follbving ~indrity lanQuag~~~
1 Ebu;
no: n;
d tt
f
,...,. k
12~ U _' Sa:
E: n;
n a.m 11) 3;
Accordin~ to the recent C2nSUS, out of 5 millions persons,
numEricAlly, thE most important among thE languag~s spoken
in S5ne~:aL
It is spoken not only by its own spEak,ers but
2. 1 •
As it i~ a well known fact, Senegal was a French
Colony and got its indsPEndcnc2 only in 1960.
entered that new Era, thE nativE langua98s WEre cont~mptuously
C ,311 e d
\\f er na c U 1 a r
1 a n Q U Cl 9 E S Cl nd lJ 6 r E- n to' Q1 ec t G d t herE by. .
So'
,
eVEn
aftc:r the Inc1cpr;nc:/?ncE
it tOCJk's81/\\:11'Fll yl';ars to rEvivE
j
the nati'Jro langu3Qcs,
fDr,
the SencQ31C'sE thEmsc:lves WGre
not quite optimistic of th2 fate of their own langUagES.
2.2.
~ftEr several ~ountries obtained IndQpcndGnc~ in
1
;""frir:::a, thE c<Jmp2ill of i~dL!lt £ducatiCJfl uas startc:d in Inos::
As
far as SEneQQl is concerned, it SEems that thE objtctiv~ -
was to teach th~ people, gr:nGrally villagers, th~ latin
alphab~t, sO that thEY could tor Exomplr: write thGir nam~8,

---

12
have s t i l l in mind ;;L'· Ecol[: a la Radio.;1
But soon,
the
.
! l
aut h ~Jr i t i ~ S I' u_ll i z G' cl t hat i t
lcl Cl S
not
the rig h t
wCl y •
jhuJ~
0ith thE h~lp of intErnational organization such as U.N~E.S.C.Oj
.
thl? prObJ.(::rr: was tacklEd
uith rrorE
vision.
Yet,
LJtin scripts LJ~r~
r et Cl i n ~ cl f ':1 r
the i: r '] n s cri pt i ''1 n ~ f S en e g Cl 1 e s ce 1 3 n g u a gQ S
l1tIi t h 8 om E mod i fic:Cl t ion she r (~ all d t :-. ErE dUE tot hE. d i f f 2r en c c:s
..
langu~~es.
To rcvivG and rtvitalizB our langu~gps thE apPEl-
latiQn
ll.LC!rlgU·f.:.'S
n::ltilJnalcs,,1
uas substitut<::d
for
thE prrvio!..;<;
on~
Actually,
thEr[ is
no diffEr(rlKc,
but
for
thE
Psycho-~30cio-linC;:lJi2tic aspc'ct l.lhich French Coloniz ers
at t a ch [; cl t o t h r~' WO r d "V 6 r n El C u la ire; li •
2.3.
Oiagr',~ SElyS j.n thr:: introDuction of his \\/C,ramma,1.rc de 'Jwlo f
'".\\
l"!odr:;rnF- n • ~
.......--_..- T·---_
------ ..
- . .
. . . . . . . _ _ .'~
,
• • ~_ ••
•
_ •
. . . . _ _
._~. _ _ .
r . . . . ' __ . . . . . . _
. . . _~ • • _ _ ~"-_.""•• , , ••
~. _ _ ....- •• _~~~._'>--
- - - - - - ~ -
~~ ~
1.
National lanoU3rEs
-,~
- •
t
3 •
Gr ,") ITn,~ ;:] i r:- d c
[Jo 1 0 f
r'l 0 d cOil(',
Pat h G D i ;3 9 n G Pr c s (-' nee
IH r i c ::d n to 1 9 7 1,
P •
1 5.

---

13.
\\lOc
feit ~ 1 i
Gffort accompli
Cl
da\\.J3 nt Bgc Et!':·
oricntE
vcrs la traduction -des r~alit§s du Wolof
unc descriptioll du systcmr:: .1ui-rnEmc.
C·· ".\\
En
pratiq'.'E aucunc '.::itud2 pUbliG" cJe:pIJis
lOB
c:t
.
I
qucllc: qu~. fut sa qLalit6
... n a-
3 notrc: avio
-
/ . "
tt
d
I th rl
11
cch;:~pe."
Cl
cc;
~c
crrcur
c · i1\\...t:
Due.
This bc:ing thE situati~n, onE can realis~ thE tYP5
o f
bur c c. Il tHe i n rJ Co" r .:: Le> cJ 0 n lJ y
t h G ~1 i n i s try 0 f EcJ u cat ion 0 n
the onG hand,
and Senegalese linQuists
on the other hand,
who have tc pr Q viJ2 the: ~ation with thG systematically
written and sciEn~ifically org~niz8d books on Molaf, Sc::r~:rl
Pula:1'
etc!.
Of courSE, WE could note many bookG such as:
_ Crammair'
Uc.loF~ ou mcthcdo pour
e.tudiEr la
_
_
.,.
_ _ ~__
~'.-.._ _ .. ' - ._ _ ~.-.. .. _
,
__"
~_~
_T_." • ••_ •• _
_ .. _ . _ . _ ·•• _··T _
,..__ -
_
languEd~3.Noir~•
.._-,_....-'..--_._.. ... .......
'-
_~
~
" , . ' "
Dare.
J.
Paris 1926.
- la D6tErmination @n Wolof
Ramband J.B., Paris 1838:
CrcmmairG d£;' ra lanq.-,E' UolovE
_ _ _
~.""'~'_' __ ~'_' _ ~ ~ _ _ c __ ..•. . . . . . . . ~.
_
. . . . _ - . . . , .
__
~
_"'
~
-
Boilat (abbO);
Paris 1855
1< 0 b G S 1'1 g r;
Par is 1 8 58

---

14
-
Crarnmairc dE 12 langu2 volofe
•
_ _ ~",,_._ _
• . . .1
••
•• _ , • • _
. . . . . . . . . . . _ .....
_
• • " _
" . _ _ - - -
_
-
- _ . -
- -
. _ - _. . . . _
. .
---.~
st JOEGph dG NCa~oGil
1869
~ Gramrnairc elemcntaipe dE la languc ~81off2
.oa-.
~ __ ~.
~~._ • . • _,._" .... _.. _.
_.~. _~_. _ •••• , - _ . _ .•_
...... ~ ••• _.~_•• _ .
_~... _._. . . . . , __ ....
•• _ " £
_,.~.'.
' .
• • • •
Spciss::,r F. L, S l ]osr:ph de: NGasobil 1888
-
Le lanlJlIt= Uolaf
Rambaud;
J.8.
19~::I3
and still more.
Uu': thE valUE of such bibliograP:lY woulcJ bG
mostly
intErEsting only
from the historical point of ViE~.
Tho works were done by Civil OfficGrs and Missionaries most
of whom tuok a
PCGcustGan sttitude,
eVEn unwillinQly,
to
WI' i t E
the i'c Qr ,') m1i1,') J{3 0 f Wo 1iJ f •
2 • t.~
UE have come to realize that thE destiny of our
lanQua~cs dcpznds much on th~ linQuists of thE country than
on fCircisil sch:JlaTs.
REganiinq
the mudern bibliography of
Uolof,
it m2Y bE thin,
but Iled:: insiQniFicaflt.
L.k
have: the;
~).onship bE"~.\\"Jt="n lJoiof alle::.: cJravidiali 1.3nguiJgcs of
..
__
..
__•
..
_
_u"'-'~_·c~·_.
~.
,~~._,,,,,,-_~_~_
~.,.~
~
c. T •
. __ ..._."-- "'_.' ... _._ .. _-,-..__
.
_
~
i~Di <J YE 19 7 7; ~J 0
_
b: S L.! r
__ ~.
.'~ ~_~'"_''' 1
_ _ _t
I
v 0
....-.. 1 uti 0 n
_..'
~~ ._" '
d US" s
, .. ' ~_J~~ t_ Em C
IJ Cl C
-.....__
__~ __ 31 i G
~. L~
l..-..:_ . _
_ _
_
~~ cl '. ~
<
!d.~.~9E of r1adamf? C.fJOia}'c (cClrrc,ard)~· and thG works
Prof.Ca1vct.
Wc chuld also quots othor 'works such as:
nr::::mnairc dr:scripti\\.:'.:
~.-
-
"--'-
.-- --". ---~~ .--.-- ----....---'...-. -~.- .
~a~cssy, G and SauvagGotj 5 (1963) Dakar
Un ivcr-

---

Q§J-2.-C r} p~_~_o~ _~~xr_~~.~rl?.n_~.q~_~._?~Y.n...d~_~.~.e_.c.t.~ ...W. ?~.o_ f.~_~~...
parler dU Dyelof.
5auvageo"_;S
(1965)
Dakar
:
I.F.A;,J.
_~tr:'_9_~~~_L(]FY.._~.C!.u..:r;.s.f:! . i.~ .1).~.k.2.r..uJ ~~.o. f._•.
:iteward, Wj
Babou,
C;
PedLke
00
8t~1. (1966)
j
washington,
D.e.
c .K .l.
LJ? 10 f_!lCJ.~_fl.._c.b..a...§..sjJ.i..C.d.t i 9-0. _~__t.b.e_..?_g_S?~~l_.§. e1 ti ng.E.f_
.~J..\\J.§.I'..9..~Q. t...s.~.~. n..9..El.
Judith I.
Irvine Branders Universit y.
50, when we came t~ work:
in the
field
of Linguistics,
it was
genuine, as it were,
that we tried to give our
contribution~
We thought of writing fOr
Dur
Ph.D. ·dissertation a
Transforma-
tional Generative Grammar
of LJolof to describe wolaf within a
new theoretical frame
namely Chomsky's Transformational Theory.
3.0.
Outcome
Ever since the advent of the Ctlomskyan Transforma-
tional Theory ill the
Field of Lingl!-i5tics,
many la.nguages,
predominant~~ European, havG been analysed within the Frame
,.
work of T.G. with
F8ir l y laudable results.
ThoL:rh
.
.
J
tJCJrrl
\\n
LJ.5 • .i.\\.,
the·T.G.
has transc,.':nded the Atlantic ssaboard and
spread overseas.
The impact of T.G •. has been SO deep that
ed
i t has invaded institutions of highly
learn~n~ and .rese~rch,
not only in U.5 • .i.\\. but also in Europe.
The imprint of its
influer,(;G
can be seen. in Francl? throu'gh the following observa-
tion made b~! no lass a
per~on than ProF.ClaudG Ha98ge :

---

16
;; L CS
<:i Ut res
t hG::; [' 1. e s; cur (:; n tau s ~ i 1 c cOr t den I:
PaS
fO~lrnir dE '~[p'-::nse a la dCrI!8ndr: cic:s maftrls,
d[=" sortc que: 1ES acJaptations
du
',c€.·n-e.tl .....ati"·isfIli.
aux classes de gJ.'El\\~m8.irc: fr2,nr;;8j.Sc; Eurcnt le:
ch2mp 8.
pcu prts libr~j ... 11
Although all thE dEveloped languages have: been
a n a 1 y S f- c; in t h ["
T. C.
P8. t t ern j ha r Cl 1Y 8
ha nd Fu 1 0 f /~ f r i c 8 n
SJ,
whe:n
we thought of writin£ our Ph.D. dissertation,
WE,
in our
turn,
wantEd to
tEst
how far
Chomsky's TransformationAl
Throory
could LJe 2
univcrsa l )inQuistlc tlleory,
by applying i t
t Q lJ 0 1 CJ f wh i c h i s
a cl::; v El 0 pin 9 1 a n 9 u a 0 c h a v i,l ~ ([: S S c n t i a 11 Y.)
a merE s'Latus of
Dral tra~ition.
This is
thE morE tempting
f 0 T us, bee a use t h b
is
t h r::
fir s t
t i rn <: t hat hID 1 0 f,
an ,'J, FT i can
lanQLl3ge is analysed her<? t'nrolJgh an ultra modern linQuistic
theory,
uitho~t usinO tr2diti~nal Grammars baS2d o~ CrG~k
3nd L.stin.
The results obtained at the end of our ana~vsi5.
s h 0 lJ t hat
a
9 r e.a t ern U In b er:::: f
{\\ f r i can 1 a n g u 3g e S
C' cHl
pro fit a b1 Y
m;lke use
of th;: Le. at a tilh whe.n most of the~ ;JTC likely
to b~ hoist~d to the status of official language in substitu-
tion of the foreign language.s intr'Jduced
by the then
Coloni~l Authorities.

---

17
The aPr'lic"ti'"n ofche T. G.
to Wolof happ::fJs to be
qUite blissful; and so,
can fairly confirm the universal claim
that the T.G. L' a mcist scienti fie linQuistic approach.
;~s a
mat fer of fact,
the linguist Manfred Gi.rwisch says thus
11 Wh ate h 0 msky
has in C1 i n d
r; ••1 is a t hcor y 0 f
lanQua~e\\Jllieh attempts not merely to dgscribc Or
arrange observable linQuistic data according to
certain systematic criteria, but rather explains
undGrlying the c~gIlitive capacity Df man as it
mar,i fests itself in natural languagc. 1I1
3 .. ~ .'
Nou, onc con ~ell imagine the benefit, the developing
hlolof la
concerned l,Je.. hope th3t this thesis ~
an the on[: hand)
[nay gO D long way in fIle improvclncnt of languaQE teaching on
all levels on Education, and on the otllct hand, accelerate
the grouth of literacY in Senegal.
w~ WDLlld be the mors
dc:lightc:d i f this
L,!ork could insp,irc oth,:r linguists
1.1'1
S['neQe.l tco undertake further ""alyses
~ithin the: frSrT'.l'Work
of T. G.
The status u f OLjr C1otional languages ~ill surely lJe
liftEd, Wllcn,aach and every SGnegalese linouist brings hiS
contributi~n t~ W~l~f.
N~Edlcs s to say that tJhat if'": sp,ic.i for
._~--~- '-,7-"-· '--'--' - - ' ----.- .,-~-,-.---_.__._- -,-- ----~- '-'-"'~ - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - -..-" - - . - - - - -
.
1. Gcncr8tivc CrammRr in Europe cd.
lJy r.Kiefcr and r~.Ruwct,
:1973,
.0.71.

---

18
,
Senegal hCJlds fCJr Dth~r Africnll countries too.
Wo arc confident that
the results Wc haVE arrived at through
this new linguistic approacl, will do the n~edful.
DC? facto,
it is interesting,
for' instance, to neticc the structure of
I
Passive 'sc·:ntcncc~ in lJolof~ uhich has 19d us to sUQQcst th~-,
introduction ~f a nQval notion likE strong versus tJcak p~ssi~
vizatiDn.
Similarly interesting is thc fact rEQarding thE
thin clcar-cut distincfion between Relative Clause or Rela-
tivE PaiticipYc and amBjor category constitufed by N + Adj •.
The Trah~fOtmational approach' has also led us to uncover thc
phenomcncln of NP.Subjcct-dcloti::m; a greater list of phonemic
unitsl the natured distribuUc1n of Ind .Oi.Jj.
preceding Dir.OIJj. ~
dc.
The last [JUt not
the le2st fact among thOse wc arc
listing here now is the occurrence of an Advcrb-subcategory,
namely, the sUPerlative adverb,
which wc believe to be
peculiar to Wolaf.
4.0
,18 a final WOrd ef ap()l.:J~'l' L12 c,ould like tD" say
something about our limitations with regard to our English
performance.
In this thosis I translation of our corpus h'[,I,'
lJolof to Englis h may hue and thC'rE present some imperfectiDiu:.
This is !JCCCluse Lie hClvc be.,n all' alon,~ educated in French
taught English only as a Second language, if not a third
lanC]U:Jgc,
in
an
cn\\jironmcnt
\\dJ"iCrC
on~ has onc chance out elf
hundred to communicate in Enclish.
So our clOse familiarity
clith French and \\Jolaf way som"ti"'c8 be inadvErtcntly c1etri-
mental
io
llur
Erlulisll usage.

---

19
** *** * ***** -*-)t-***-***-;i- -X-********-,f;7-;--~*****
*
*
*
*
*
PART I
*
**
A SKETCH OF
**
*
*
.*
TR f\\ NS F LiR MA TI 0 ,~A L
*
*
THEORY
*
*
*
***:*-x-*-,,***********~__:~*************~~***

---

20
1.0.
OnG mny wonder why at ~ time when Transformational
Thc~ry is subjGct t~ controversies, WE proposG oursGlvGs to
Grammar
write Cl Tr.')nsforrn<::ti2~a~
C'cncrativ,-?f .LJolClf.
The quc=stion~
no doubt, is pertinent, 3nd could commj.t us to a vindicatol'Y
commEnt.
out
instead,
WG
will confine ourselves in quoting
j
~J Gi 1 5 mit h Cl n d Dci r d r cUi 1 SOil WhCl a r.G s il Yi n 9 t h us:
,
I i It
w0 u 1 d b I~ a mi 8 t Cl k: 6' tot hi nk t hot 'L h [' C LJ r r t: n t
statE of contrDv~rsy within scncratiuc grammAr means th~t th~
work elf the ,last twc;nty years 15 bein~ abandonne::cJ wholcsalc~
The classical r::::Jdcl CJf ttansf9rmuti:Jnal grammcir ((li,d- its
various ~xtGnsians) uncovc~e~ a great wealth of facts and
relati8nship~ and for thG first tim~ provided an Gxpli~it
('
f!
to scntGnc~s.
Sueh 3
grammar will enable us to c~pturc
r G g u 1Cl to i reas 0 f the r: i \\1 Gn 18 n C; U a g tan cl the s ere Co u la r i t i (? s for
many persons arc hidJen 'b~ th~ surface phGnOmcn2 of actual
of their languaQ0.
....,.._...
.......
_ _ _ _ __
.'_
"
..• ......_
_, __.
__.
__.
"~
.~,~
.~.
~~
~._
.~"*_~
~_~~
~
~.,
~T_
_--....~_~
~_.~.T
~
~
1.
t1.~A.crn_.Li.~Q.~)f~ti..t?_0_ (The Results of Chomsk'y's Rcvoluti:"::n)
i'-J e 11
S In i t h El n cJ 0 ei r d r' co IJ i 1<3 Cl n j
1 9 7 9 ~
P. 1 2 3 •

---

21
0ri ting " gramm2r.
then is nCithing but p'Jinting out
kn8u 1 pdgc ar tl'J2 ratiann1 knowledge tllct a pcr~on possesses
Unless
wc.- cJrc placEd uncleI'- some=: c:Jnstr-aints ..
Wc rar~ly 3ubmit Durselves tD the rigriurs of our l2nguagc.
The::
common
ottituclc of sp~2kcrs towF1rds their
languages
CQul;::!
The 'spcal<cr,
SO to sey ~
brings
th~ lengLI3ge to his Olln cDnvenience and rii-l\\1 del SO as
fer
ilS
hi:-J
linguj.::d:ic
community
pcrmi ts
it.
Thus ~
3n 2ctuCll
linQui~tic communicotion is heteroQ0noous sillce it is ~ bo~!
Particular usage 8? cVlry sp~al<cr in 2 linguistic cQmmunity
is
tcrmciJ
pcrT'Jrm:Jrlcc.
,
Can be ~xp[ctEd, is n~t then thG CDunterpart of the standard
languo~c t!l~t tlc !<r~ows intlJitivEly an~ which wc' call competence-
CClnsidl:-ring th is,
cJ judicious dc:scription
of 3
l;:Jn,r;juClQL
shollld bring in symbiosi2, both the
asrects,
competence And
pcrformRnc~,
the 13tter on~ being daPlndant to
the former
fOr
the natural reason that i t is the by-product of the other.
Ne~dless tc, S'AY thot i?, de..s~-Jite the icii'Jsyncratic CJsPe.ct c?

---

\\
22
uhd,:rstay)cl quite hlcll each el\\cher,
it lS cori linly bec'Jusc
~hile talking and listening to each other they synchronically
have the support elf a common lin~uistic structure, even though
t h ~y arc un" Cia r e Cl f the fa c to
This! linguistic structure!, they
possess
in
cQmmon is 8
set of rulls which gives
the basic
structure of all the:' correct sentences of the givc:n languaccc.
This apparatlJS, nevertheless,
does n~t 'provide rEady-made
sentences ..
It should be conceived as an abstract or a for~al
bOdy"
Tht speaker then, in 'ord::r to ~ake. usQ.. of this internal
,
device, U"col\\scieu~l,y le.nds himself to a "manufactuJring activ;ity"'.
PorfClrming SO~e operations or transformations on the basic
structures, he genqrat\\l:s more elabDrate forms.
It sl2ems to us,
,
then, that a Crammor of a riv~n language which purports to Dc
account of this phenomenon.
grammar is a mGd~l of morpho-syntactic knoulcdgG acquirEd by
nCltivE sPEakers. 11
This leads us to distinguish two levels in lan~uage~
n~m21y, DRIP structure lev~l and Surface structure lev~l.
At
the Deep structure level all informati~ns req\\lirGci for the
intGrprctation
of thE SEntenCe ~rc given, yot in mOrE or less
abstract form.
This constitutes the raw material of th~
sPEech or the input.
This input undergoes dif f.8"C'ent trensfDr--

---

23
,
This output constitutG~ th~actual speech, physically rGaliz04
as an interpretable chain oP sounds.
Thus Cl Cramm8r requires not onl~ tG be gcnGrativ~
but, also Transfsrmational.
A Transfar8Qtinnal gcncrativ~ .
structure level and Surfac[ ~t~ucturc l2v~1 is ~cccptGd,
gives a set of rules that r\\?late,s the.se two lellels.
The sentences Gf the Deer: structure lcvd ar~ gcno'a-
ted by a set of Phrase structure rules.
ThcGrcticslly the set
of Phrase structurr: rules comprises tW'J subsets,
viz. a s~t
of catGQarial rul[s alld a set of sUbcatog"oriiational rules.
On th~ other hanr;l the scnt!.3nCGS of th \\: 5urfacc structure level
arc QcncTatcd by 2. set of Transformati~n81 rulGs applied on
thr::: input rc:sulting frOm thQ. PhrasC' strxJctL:JtG rules.
1.4.
The combinati8n of these three sots of rules is the
syntactic co~~onent ofth~ Gra~mar.
It is a ~cll known fact
s y n~a x.
To our mind, we dO think with Chomsky whose method
~o f~llow in our work, 1 t~at Synf~x is only OnE of thE thrGG
compon8'lts Gf 8 GrEJmmar, the? other twCJ being the: SGmantic
component and the Phonological component.
The Syntactic com-
ponc: nLi.3 the crEative lcvtl Of the: Gramma:r;
Phonol:>gy and
1. £xtcn::Jcd· Stand8rd ThCGI'y 1 1972.

---

Semnnties nre the interpretive levels.
On .the creative
level arc ~iven all the necessary informations required
for the interpretive level.' The phonGtic rsprGsentation of
a senfence is given by the phonological eom~oncnt.
The
sc~antic c~mponent is then responsible for the sGmantic
interpretation of a sentence.
-~-

---

25

---

26
*
~
'*
*
*
I J. 1
Cf-!.~PTER A
"
,?,
"
....
*
*
.;(-
PHR AS E STRUCTURE RULES
~~
-;f
'*
*

---

,"".
"
27
Phrase-Structure ;,ules
IL1.:'.1D8finition
__
.
._-----
The Phrase-Structure grammar of ~ givEn language,
for eXll'nplG WoIOf, is a set of Phras e-StructurE rules whi ch
g~nErates all the possible sentehces bf Wolof.
I
A Phr;sE-Structure rule (PS rule)
has the form
x ---;:.
Y + Z.
This means X is to bE reuritte~ as Y + Z.
II,1.A.2
Sentence
A sentence: is here assumed to be any utte,rdllce which
grammatically constitutes a WEll-formed meaningful unit.
Exx.
=1 ;
xac
bi
)-~...r: h-ew,J.:nna
dog + the + bark
Past + 3 P.Sg.
(the dog barked~
2.
xa lce
bi
dl'lwul):n.
child + the + run-not,.3 P.Sg.Past
( thE child diel not run. )
3.
XqC
b i
b'E,.J :): nna,
xal('jJ
bi
dawuIJ:n.
(t he, dog b(lrl<ed, the child did not rt..;n.)
The above examples show, that El sentence may be Either
simplE or non-simplG.
A simple sEntmnce is a sentence which has only one
main verb and has no embeddEd claUSE.
For examplE 1 is a sim-
pIe sentEnCE; so is 2.
On the other hand,
3, though ~ivEn as
onc sentenCE, is nGverthelEss formed by 1 + 2.
Cons equentl y
it is not a simple: sentence:_
Even thouQh it has nO,embedded
SEntence, it has two main verbs.
~ctually 3 is co~sidEr[d
to be onc: SEntence: bCCClUSE it constitutes one s imp,iw unit of

---

28
utterance.'
1 and
2,
if considered sep2rately~ are simple
s8ntence~, independent of each other, and moreover h0ve no
relotionship.
But in 3, tbe two clauses,
though independent
of e~ch other, entertain a rel:tion of opposition.
This is
better eXEm~lified in 3z.
3a
xac
bi
b·e'w,): n na wa: ntiB
xaL:.€
bi
d.1LJul:J:n.
_ .•.J
dog + the + bark;~2st~~P.Sg~.+ but + child +
the + r LI n. not~'3 P • S g,.,.pa s t "
(the dOg b;'1r ked but the child did not run. )
Here thE insertion of the conjunctign·wa.:nt~determines the
r e12tionship existing between the two clauses~
Thus 3a is a
non-simple sentence.
It is obtained by the coordination of
t~o simple sentences.
Mutatis mutandis~' ~ also is a no~-
'simple sentence obtained by juxtaposing 1 ~nd 2.
This implies
,
thot in 3 there is no fnlling intonation after bew):n~~ but
a mere slight Pause.
The abOVe analysis Can now be' presented in the
. form of the following rule schemata
5
----...
."
,
A b~sic sentence consists of a Modality (Md), a
Illustrated
through a trse-di2gram this ~orresponds to
------..
Md
r~p
Pd.P
Consider the seni::ences 4 ('1nd 5 givan below~
_-0_.,- _.
. . _ ,,,....
.
* ~ hC' in ton ~ t ion p~ t t ern I "r /' :is" not a n21 yzed i n c 0 mpie t E dEt Cl i is
In this work.
Uhat wr:: cons·iderherE is merely LJh21t.corresponds
to the traditional following punctubtions/.l, I
? I, I
~ I.
I
•

---

29
'4.
xi:fna.
()mar is hungry.)
5.
xi: fule
)mar + hu n g r y.not··.·'Pres.enb.·3 1P .S9i,
()mar is not hungry)
A representation of these sentences in tree-diagr2ms
will givu rospectively
4a ~nd 5a.
4a
5 _~
5~
.S
_
_______ - I
-------- j
.~--- _____. I
--------
(1'~
NP
Pd.P
:f"id'-
.
NP
fJd. P ..
,
,
I
I '
1
,
,
I
I
f
I
,
I
r
I
1
i
,
r
,
,
r
1
r
,
I
r
1
1
,
r
,
,
(
1
r,
,
1
I,
,
I
I
r
1
(·.Pos it>.>
)ma r
xi:f
«~ll eg >;-
Jma r
xi:f
The above two di q gr2ms
can be present~d ~s under:
5
--~
r'i d + NP + Pd. P
II.1.A.3
MOdalities
Wo will
now discuss
one by onE the other components
. of S such ~s MOdelities, Noun-Phrase,
Predicate-Phr~se, etc •
.~ may be an assE!:,tivE? 'sentencE? or a non-BssertiVE
sentence.
/in ::ssertive sentence is any sentence in
u1hich
the speaker gives an information.
It dOeS not ·much matter
whether. the information is
pOsitive as
fOr instance in 6,
or

---

30
6.
te :1'8
bi •
(I read the bOOkJ
7 •
j::;: I")gumaw ):n
tea e
bi •
"--'
(I did not read the book.)
Non-assertive sentences are those in which the speaker wants
to get ?n information,
or makes a command.
[xx.
8.
ndax
.....-
ja:fJg):nl")ga
t e:r e
b • ?
1 .
""-""
..
'",,-
~
(did you read the book?)
9.
(read the book.)-
It must be mentioned here thet mOTe than one of these
modalities may be present in ~ sentence.
Consider again the above sentences 6-9 on the one
hand, 2nd the following sentenCEs 10 ~nd 11 on the other hand.
10.
ndax
ja:r)gumaw):n
"-"
......
te: re
b ·
?
l
.
(did,not I read the book?)
1 1 •
bul
JO : IJg
te:re
bi
'--J
(.imp ... not~'2P.5g-\\
+ read + book + the
(dO not read the book.)

---

31
In 6, the sentence is
,.. Posih>,
in 7 it is <,r~8g), , . I in El
i t i s ~ d n t 9 .~)
Ih 9 it is~lmp~ , whereos we have cooccurrence
0
of mod~lities in 10 and 1\\.
In 10, the sentenCE is (dntg~)
These jnalyses lead us to conclude th~t
r~ d
~ Ast
~
~
0
1
n.As t ?
l
Ast
_ . _ - ~
i. Posit
Neg
(~xcl )
,
Imp ~
({Excl, Neg] )"
n.Ast
.::;~
) Intg o
l
~
J
II.1.A.4
5 m2Y Glso be preceded by utterances which
gramm2tically have no function but should be 2cc ounted for,
because ~heY convey meaning.
We bring these utterances under
the label Interjection.
Interjections 2re of different
v~lues, GS seen in sentences 12 and 13 given below:
,
12.
nd,.Jx
mnn
dnmay
wa:ru?
~-'
<. Intj;"+~<.Qul2sb-,
+ me + bE;c1~...I.Sg''o'Pres .. Frpe".,,,,··,~·J.L:'''':
+ ~;.JzzIG
(hcy~ Qm I getting puzzled?)
1 3.
cey ~
du
now?
(/",lasl won'tjm"'r come?)
In 14 the WOrd m";: denotes astonishment, whereas in 15}cey
denotes disappointment.
We can now complete the previous statement as under:
s
(Intj) + Md + NP + Pd.P.

---

·1
32
All thsse.2na1ySGS can now be presented in the
form o( thE' following rules:
Rul e 1
S
----~").
( Intj) + rld + NP + Pd.P.
Rul e 2
Md
---->
. Ast
; ·n.Ast (
L
)
1
Rule
_jPosit;
3
.:bt - - - )
N['g~ + (Exc l )
)
Rule 4
n • rls t
- - )
:: Intgolmp!, + ( < Ex cl ;
Neg ) )
\\.
. : i l
.
t
.J
-
Rule
Posi t
I
/*
( i\\ ) **
5
- - >
I
+
-
Rule 6
~J et;) ~
/ l / +
L\\
-
Rule 7
Excl -->-
/ t / + ( ~ )
-
Rule 8
Intg -----":>
/
/;
•
c:.
11.1.:;.5
Predic,te-Phr~:se
Now let us consider th~ fo~lowing sentEnces:
14.
mUGe:
bu:rl.::.
mUsa:
+
kin 9 t·3 P • S g,..:p res. '.
(musa:
is a King.)
1 5.
musa:
12.G : k k ",: n n a
•
--.'" .
musa: + eat,:P::sb,.,oP.Sg",
1b.
mus;J:
1:-2 :kkna
lc::gi •
(musa:
has E?tcn now.)
---~---_._--------~- -_._----- -------~
1.
Ir) :<. P.S rulE'~' the 81sments in "hrac§s ~hvG precedenCE over
thosE in Parentheses.
Elements
in p~r8nthes~s are option~l.
* / i I stands for suprasegmontal phoneme.
**
/}
stands for lexical itEm.

---

33
17 .
mus2:
dara
1) : 1 .
musa: + bEi3P.Sg., + good,'Pres:' + too mLich
mus8: is too much good.)
1 8.
mUS6 :
dafa
s a war
ja:rJg
(mu~,,: is eager to study.)
1 CJ •
mUS2:
d 'B m~ a c iJ
nj'e"l •
musa: + gorPrGs~Per~.3P.Sg. + ~t + dawn
(musa:
has gone ~t the dawn.)
2'J.
mbir
mi
li;l?:rne
bi
go:r
gi
dikkcm:
(the mAtter is clear now that the man has come.)
In
14
Pd.P
is nn NP ( bu : r)
In
15
Pd.P
is (1 VP (1 fe :kk)
.,,,,.
In
1 6
Pd.P
is 1:\\ VP + r;d v (1:0 :kk + lo;gj.
~
In
17
Pd.P
is ,~n f\\ u x. + f\\d j • + .'1 d v.
(dcfa + ba: x + 1) : 1)
In
18
Pd.P
is an g u x. + I\\dj.P (d2fa + salJClr + ja:lJg)
,~/
In 19
Pd.P
is a VP + pp (d:e mn:., + Cil njBl)
-
In 20
Pd. P
is ,~n it dj + ,'\\dv. Cl ( lcE : r ne + bi
go: r gi dikkcB :)
Now WE can presEnt Pd.P in the form of the following rule:
( NP
i1
(I
; PP.
\\,
Rule 9
Pd.P
(,1 u x.
) + < VP
+ : i
; \\
f
i
'
.' j
'
\\
' \\ ) A d v ' c !
(
. I
,Adj
\\
\\ I
, i
\\ t i',dv. Clf /
1 Ad ' pi
'.
J . )

---

34
Ir.1 ..~.6
Vorb-PhrasG
A VP maY consist of mOrE than one constituent.
This Can bo oxomplificd by the follouing sentences and
their respoctivc trcc-diagrams:
21 •
musa:
1,.)8 :kkna
, ......
bi •
musa: + Eut,cPr oS "Perfo3P.Sg + ric,,-+ tho
(musa:
has catcn the rice.;
22.
muso3:
gisn a
X;Jl.ce
biy
j d
tE':re
bi
musi\\: + sOG,<Prcs,..Porh3P.Sg. + child +
tho~~rocGss~+ t~ke.Pros.+book + the
(musa: has seen tho child takinQ the book~
23.
musa:
d('8 rnna
ca
xar28
b'l •
(musa: has gone, to thE uar.)
24.
X2C
bi
b•·8101) : nn:"
bi
bl'
sa:c:s
nou::e
thief + the + corne,·P"st.,
(the dog had barked uhen thE thief came.)
2103
-- -
NP
Pd. P
1
1
1
1
I
'Jp
I
,
I
1
1
'I
1
I
1
1
I
1
VB
I
1
1
I
1
mus a:
la? :kkna CLB:p
bi
.~
_.. .J

---

35
22"
5
1rr
I
I
!
I
rI
I
--
1
,
VB
,
, \\,
I,
\\
r
,
\\
i
,
\\
!
,
\\
I
\\
I
(
m8Sa:
gisna
238
NP
;,
I
I,I
,
1
I
I
..------- ."
t,
VG
!
I
I
,
I
!
I
I
mus a:
----.-------
---------.-
-----...
-_.--~-
r~p
,
Py.P
,
" ,
t'
,
" '
,
if \\
'r \\
;
IJP
\\
r
\\
:
..--.
\\
VB
1
\\
,
I
r
I
,
I
I
I
"
'~-,~-,.... :.
xac bi

---

\\
36
The abOvE Gxemplification enables Us to prer-8nt VP ih thE
fOrm of thE fpllowing rulE:
,-
. S
\\
Rule 10
VP
-;-~
\\ VB +
{ pp
\\.
I
l,. Ad v. cl
J
!
I 1 • 1 • A• 7
Ver b a 1
Now lEt US considEr the following sentenCES and
th
.
Yt -
t
d'
ELl r . r 6 s PE l V E r e e- la 9 r a ms : .
25.
musa:
l,CB : ~na
musa: + eat~Prcs~~erfw3P.Sg.
(musa: has 62ten .. )
26.
mUSa: la:::kk·:.:nna
ca;':p bi.
--'
(musa: had c:atEn thE rice.)
27.
musa:
L::B :kkul
.
(musa: has not Baten.)
28.
musa: dafay la:? :kk •
(musa: is Eating.)
.'"
2 5"l
____.-5 -
_
------ --_.>
-----._------
-----_.-
NP-'
PG.P
!,
r1
I,
I
r
VP
I,,
I,,
I
VB
I
t
I,
I
,
I
I
I
V
---
!
....
I
-~:.:::'-- -.-"-
musa:
lEE :kkna
'-"

---

37
~JP
,
I.
v
,.,
/ '",
/
"
J
....
" '•
_-------~
mus,01:
la3 : kk :nnna
coo :p bi
27a
--------._--------..Pd.P
VP
VB
v
r
I
/\\
r
I,
,
.i
I
musa:
l~ :kkul
,-...,
--' s--"______
.
.~._-----
r~p
___________ Pd. P .~~.
Aux.G
VP
j\\
I
I
j\\
VB
?:
i I
V
I
I
,
J
\\
r
____
J
r
musa:
'. d':~f ay
lee : kk
.......<

---

{"i..,;, '
38
fin ;)n."lysis of thG abOvG sGntences enables us to prl?sent
"
"
VB in the form of thc following rule:
RulE 11
VB
V + (~JP)
An Adj.P consists of an Adj. and one marc constituGnt
at leas t.
Considor thG following sentences and their rcspec-
ti ve tr e e- diagr ams;
29
musa:
dara
b~:x
ci
::>m,H
musa: + beo'·PrEs·.·3 P.Sg. + goad + to + Om?r
(musa: is nic~
to :mer.)
30.
musa:
dara
sawar
Ja:8g
l~:l.
'--./
musa: + berPrcs~3P.5g.
+ eager + studY +
too much
(musa: is too much eager to study.)
29a
5
----
----
I~P--
Pd.P
I
-----------
-------_
I
...---
I
I
Aux:-t;
Adj.P
,
!'
I
-- "
~
I
'\\
,A d j;
pp
I
I
I \\
I
/
I
i\\.
\\
I
/
I
I
I
,
.'
,,
I
I
I,,
I \\
I
I
/
\\
I
I
/
I
I
/
,
,
/
\\
,
[_\\
I
;
I
I
\\
I.
musa:
dafa
ba:x
ci :>ffiar

---

,I
I
30 a
Adv
I
,,
I
,
Adj
,
,
5
,
,
,
,
,
I
,
,
,
T
r
,
1
,
I
,
I,
r,
dafa
S8(,Jqr
b~l
An analysis of the above sentences enablES us
to prEsent
Adj.P in the farm of the follohring rule:
,
(
RulE 12
Adj.P
)
Ad j. + 1_ PP; S
I
I I • 1 • P. • 9
N0 u n - P h r as G
Consider the follouing sentences:
31 •
bi
(thE child has not comE.)
. 32.
bi
...
jump + thr= +)mo?r + jump
'I
.'
33.
CEE ku
buy
gajj;38
ba:xul.
a + parrot + uhich •
scratch + 9ood.not.3P.Sg.
(? Patrot uhich scratch~s is not good.)
musa:
nouna •
. (musa: has come.)

---

35.
musa:
musa: + and + )m;H + come~'Prc~ ¥'Pel' h 3P. Plur
(musa:
and
.)m,"r
havQ come.)
36,
bu :r
u
aekk
bi
nowna •
king + of + country + thE + come./~PrEs'~~'·P8rf,.. 3P.Sg.
(th~ King of the country has com~.)
37.
warna,
b.J r::l m -
keGl'
to bE' cautious + must~·Pres'l;'3P.Sg + owner .+ houSG
(Cautiousness is e must to a family man.)
38.
ku
who + cO me ~"p a s t .."
(who did come?)
If Wc analyse thE structurG of the NP s of thG ~bOV8
sentencES, WG notice that an NP m2Y consist af:
r"
+
T
+ i'i1b
~J
+
T
+ Nib
+
5
r~p
+
s
r~
+
pp
r~
+
I,j
... + Conj.P
5
Pm
The above ~nalysis can bs presented in the fOrm of
the following rUle:
Rulo:: 13
NP
---...:...~ ( r:j ( n) \\+ (T) + UJ b) + (5) + (pp ) + (C 0 nj • P)
' p (n)!
)
n
~
) Nfl
I:
I
I
f
lS
!

---

II.1.A,10 Prepositional-Phrase
Consider the follo~ing sentencos:
39 ,
musa:
dafa
hoisb + of + muse: + bE.Pres~3p,Sg + tall
(musa:' s
horse is talL)
40,
sBJ nEE ga:l
danu
nu:l,
youngsteT(s) + of + SEC nee ga:l + bE,
(youngst"rs in SC13 niB gal 'are black.)
41 •
gano.:r
u
tug'el,
of + France
()mar
has bought a chi d<: en of France,)
In 39, thE NP is
formed
by
r, (fas = horse) -t' pp (u musa: = of musel:)
In 40,
thE NP is
formEd by
N (g)n:e = youngstcr(s) + pp (y Sce n:E ga:l = of
s~naeg~:l)
In 41,
the NP is
formed by
N (gane:r = chicken)
-'I-
pp (u tug'e"l = of France)
,\\s ,it Can ba Sl?l?n
from thE abovl? ,sentences, ~ pp consists of
Pr ap + NP,
---~
Prep + fJP
y + S Cl" na; gal
+ NP
u +
tuge'l
--.,.",,'
r:Jr"p + NP
The abOve analysis can be presentEd in thE form of the follo~-
ing rule:
Rul e 14
pp
-----:>
Pr ep + NP

---

II.1.A~11 ,~lUxiliQry-group
Aux.C includes different types or formatives~
Consider the following sentences:
I
42.
) mar
1:8 : kk •
--...-
( :.::m ar is 8 (} tin 9 ~ )
43.
'.;mar
1;-£ : kk
()mBr waS eating.)
dofay
wa:ja
rB3 :
(::;.mar is pr Ep",r in 9 to laugh.)
d~fay, a~gid~:nand d~fay wa:ja, respectively in 42, 43 2nd
'~.
44 Qre functioning as ~ux.C.
They can be Qn~+ysGd as under:
d 9 fay
-
-+
d a + f <'1 + ~ .
cop .. v + Pn. 13 f +" ;~sp-,>
--,~
a rJ 9 i
+ d i
+,): n
----'
cop.v + Asp +~P~st~
da fay hJt\\: ja
-----~
da + fa + y + waja
cop.v +, Pn.af + Rsp + asp.v
We Can distinguish'two types of "U~8, n3mely
Auxi+i~ry Verbs (Aux- V), ~nd Auxili2ry-affixes (Aux.afs).
Au x • Vs ar G d i vi d Gdin t o t WO
f3 U b9 r 0 ups,
nCl mG1 Y Cop u1 a-
Verbs'( Cop. V), and Aspectua l
\\/erbs (Asp. V).
Aux.afs are
. ;'
d i vid ed'--'inE'q t uO . 5ubgr oups, vi z. Pro nom inal-af fi xes (Pn-af) 1
_~..,,-"
_ , _ _ - - ~ . -.. ,-~'c> . . . ._ -
------~-
1.
WE us~~l~diffErently
Pn.af, Pe~~,af and Pers.m.
, . . ••:
r

---

~
<
....
i
2nd .Aspect-Tensr=-affix8s (R.T.8f.).
i~.T.af is furthor
divided into TEnse ~nd Modal 'aspect (RsP~.
Rll thesE analyses can now bo pr~sEntGd in the
fOrm Of the followinq rules:
Rule 1 5
Au >~. G
""'11"""' _ _
"
_/
Au x.'a fs + ('lU X. Vs)
Rule 16
Rux.sfs
-----."
( Pn-;:if) + A. T. a fs
Rule 17
A. T. a fs
- " - )
(As p)
+ TGns8
Rule 18
Aux.Vs
-----")
Cop.V + (Asp.V)
RulE 13 incliCc:tes that
f~n S
can
be
emboddpd in c'.'
rr:ott'ix' S.
This is known :-:',5 proCQSS of rccursiveness.
We shall
doan,. with thE process of Gfilbedding sC'nt8nces L!tC'r in the
p~rt 'of tr~nsform~tional rules.
Let us
consider the
following sentences:
4,5.
mbir
mi
l,~ :rna
bi
go: r
gi
dikk "8 •
~-i \\..
•
4b.
ndaG w + buy.not. 3r.Sg'i.'·PrGs,,'··P(2rf,> + chickc:n +
-~'
bEcause: + IJgo:r + comC'.ndlt.3P.Sg~~~rGs,..,pcrf,)
"._-"
(Cl~,:-e\\J h;':ls not bought ~1 chicken because
f)go:r
has not come.)

---

In 45 the clause go~r gi dikkro
'.-..-'
cl:JuSG mtir mi L~,(3 :rna by thr=- conjunction bi
.........
ThE clausG bi
go: r
Cl i
d i k k -.0 :
functions as t\\ n a d VG r b of time in t h8 Pd. P
~~'
la? :rna bi go:r
This l~ads us to say that bi go:r
gi dikkg;: is an adverbial C~aUsG (i:.dv. Cl).
--../
The Same relationship of Adverb-Predicate exists betwGen the
We can state then, that the ~dvGrbi~l-claus5 is
formed by a sentence, and a conjunction which converts that
sentGnCE into cOnstituent of ~ m~trix sentence.
The abOvE ~nalysis Can be presont5d in the form
of the following rulE:
Rul 8 19
Ad v. Cl
---~
Conj.sub + S

---

*
*
*
I L 1
CHAPTER
8
*
*
*
*
*
S UGC ATE GCR I ZAT I Cl'! RUL ES
*
*
*
I .

---

I I • 1 . B • 1
V[Jr b s
the basis or the F?llo~in~ criteria:
\\J r -, b - -~
-r- '" -,~ en!· T' r] "'~. -, n n s !-.. ;:j. Q
•
'---.. J.
-
e l L . - __
<
I
...
"
'-
• "'" .... -
... I '
1 __ ,
IJ(,I'b-.Lnstrumc:nt relationship
11.1.8.2
V.int -:- ilJP ~Q
This class -is
form::d by
v[;rbs \\Jhich-ar:: intr2nsitivc:
ThE labEl
NP a9 indicates that
aD gi y
_.-'
~in~r -{- bc.~Jrc:s.PI'OC -~- swim
(jmar is swimming)
dqu.
:2 •
xal.:£ .
nqiy
"• • _1
( the c 'Il ~_l dr c Cl a I' c run n 5. n g)
fJ:i.
na:W •
CC
the + be. P-::
fly
(0 s . PT.' 0 C
1 "
'
_L_)L_ ng.)
-'- .'J
d) X
•

---

.',
II.1.8~3 . V.int + NP 0~ ~ dativG
-,~ ------ - - ---.' --"
.:.,.
This clC)ss is
formEd
by vcir.bs
lJhicll :!rc intransitivC'
Ex x.
5.
::n 9 iy
.musa:
•
, ....'
)miJr + bE.Pr8s.Proc + S"lJirn.·for + mUsa:
(·:m~.'r is swimming for mUsa: .)
6.
C)ngiy
mus Q:
•
'-'"
)m3r + bc.Pres.Proc + wrestle. for
+ mUS3:
(:JTl,-:r is lJrGstling for
musa:
.)
8Q.9 iy
d:l(=.' ma 1
musEJ:
•
)mor + bG.Pres.PrOc + go. for + musa:
( )rn::r is going on bchr~lf of musa: .)
11.1.8.4
V.int + Er + dativG
This class is
formed
by
verbs
lJhich imply an
~rgativc subject and a d~tivc,
Ex .•
8.
]mc.r
81)gi Y
fc~ylul
musa~
•
....... _..
E~r + be.PrGs.Proc + swim.c~usE.for + musa:
(-::m.e,r is mqking (somebodY)
swim for
mUSa:
.)
11.1.8 •.5
V.tr.dir + ~lP ttg + (Obj)
This class is
formEd by
verbs
which take' an
Exx.
musa:
b eyn;3
musa: + plough.Prcs.Perf.3P.Sg + (fiGld + the)
(musa:
has
ploughed (the:: field).

---

48
10 •
'.mor
l::B:kk
~ .....
( ~m;-:-r is [';::) tin Q ( r ice) • )
11.1.B.6
V.tr + d8tive(1)*+ NP qQ + (obe)
--. -- -_._-"..-.---- -----~~-----~-----
This class is
FormEd by verbs which rEquir~ onE d~tive
o~~y, alonQ with an NP dQ and an option81 direct object.
Ex· •
11 •
al)Qiy
beYa l
musa:
-~-
jm:..~r + bc.Pres.PrOc + plouQh. For + musa= + (Field-his)
(1m~r is ploughin@ musa:1s ficl~ on his behalf.
II . 1 • B • 7
~.t r + Er + (0 b j )
-- -,. - . -" ",. ,_. -- .--- .
This cIa s s i s
for mE d b Y V Er bs whi c h t a k E an 0 pt i 0 na 1
direct object and a causal subjEct; thct is: thE NP subject
requires ~n ~gEnt who acts On his behalf.
This true agent dOes
not stand as c9 segment in the sentence.
nt
thE: bEst it can
be referred to dS COVErt agent.
Ex x.
12.
t~; : la m •
jm~r + bc.PrEs.Proc + plough.make + fiEld.his
(-.lm:'r is gEtting his fiC?ld being ploughGd
(unsPEciFiGd aQent)
).
1 3.
xadi
xadi + stitch.makc.3P.Sg.Pres.PcrF + (garment)
(xadi h2s got D garment stitched (unspecified Agent)~
-----_-.-~...-.'_ .. ~._-----~ ..
-----_._--- ._- -.--_. -----~- - -------
* nu mber s wr i t tEn wit hi n p-=1 r Ent hES es '\\r E E X P0 nt1l t s •

---

49
I I • 1 • B • 8
V• i n t r
+ Er,
.
.
~
Th~s cl8ilss fs fOTml:?d by \\J12rbs \\.Jhic,.h do not.take
o~ject .but, on theot';hef' hand, theY 'l,~[pji;1'~ ~n orgativE subject •
.{~'
."
...
"0'
'
14.
go:1'
gu
gi
d2.wlu •
m~ : ~ 9i:G €i.
man + who + old + the + be.3P.Sg.Prcs. Pr oc +
run.ca us (;.
(the old man is making (someone)
run on his bEh~lf.)
11.1.9.9
V.t1' + Er + dctive(Z)
Co.""
This class is formed by vGrbs which take two
<.
datives, namely onE Ben.O and one Optional Ben.I.
Moreover
they take an ergative subject •
. Ex;
15.
Jm~r
dafaY
yoplul
mUsa: Qana:r gi xadi.
musa: + chicken + the + xadi
()m~r ~s getting th2 chicken beEn SEnt (to xadi)
on bGhalf of musa:
(1)
11.1.8.10 V.tr + Er -I- dative
This class is formed by verbs which take one
dativG only, and 1'Eq~ire an ersative subject.
~x .•
1 6.
~mp1'
dnfaY
yoplu
xadi
Qana:r
g l .
~mar + bE.3P.5g .. P1'es. Proc + send.cquse.to +
~di + chicKEn + tho
(~mar is getting the ch~cken been
sent to
xadi
(unsPecified agent acting on beh~lf of
jmar).
)

---

~o··'
r~ ......-" •..~ ,
I,.,.,
50
-------_
_
.. _--- ...
.._--------
This class is formeo 'by verbs ~hic~ Can take two
dc- t iv8s, n::::mely one 8en.O and one optional Ben'!.
On the other h:-;nd
they require an NP 619.
Ben'" I and NP obj can simultaneously be
deleted.
when both benefactiv8s are named/the NP obj cannot
be deleted.
Ex •
1 7.
,mar
dafaY
yobbul
musa:
(gana r gi)
(xa di ).
)ma r + be.3P.Sg.Pres.Proc + take to. for +
muSa: + (chicken + the) + (xndi)
(JmrI' is taking the chicken to x8di on behalf
of mu sa: .)
11.1.8.12 V.,tr + Er + Ag + (obj)
_-0_.
._._
--'~... ' - -
This cl~ss is formed by verbs which take an optional
NP object and require ~n ergative subject ;:>nd an d ago
Exx.
-
18.
musa:
L:'8'J<k l ' : na
')mor
Ca;J:P
bi
..'
.'
musa: + ea t .cause.3P.Sg.Pres. Pe rf + :)m,c: r +
rie 8 + the
(musa:
has caused )m,'1r to eat the rice.·)
19.
;m::r
ja:yl):na
muSa:
f!l-9a: m
mi •
)ma r + selLcause.3P.Sg.Pres.Perf + musa: +
donkey + the
(jm8 r has c8used musa: to seli the donkey.)
l'

---

,,'
51
11.1.8.13 V.tr + Er + Ag + Obj
~_~
_... ,
~~_,--~·c.~
_" _ _ . _ - -
This clas~ is formed by verbs whiLh require ~n
erg at i v e sub j BC t , an
aQ
~nd an obligatory NP obj.
safara
S l .
20.
musa=
feE yl~:na
fJQo:r
"- .,
mUsa ~ + 8 X tin 9 u :n's h. ce use . 3 P • 5 9 • Pr e s • Per f +
ng o =r + fire + the
--'
(musa~ caused ~go:r to extinguish the fire.)
11.1.8.14 V.tr + dative + NP ~g + Obj
. . . .
L '
_
• • ~'"
~_.-
_
. . . . . . .
This class is formed by verbs which require Cc d~:tive
an NP 2g,
2nd an obligatory NP object.
Ex .•
21.
yoP
g1 •
't','
Chicken'+ the
, ~
:"'~:,
-"::~~.
I.,
(')m~ r is taking the chicken to. !l·go:r.)
' , J
The abOve analyses Can be presented in the form
of the following rules:
( + Er '}
,
-..,.
)
R uiG 1
'J
i
l
1 -
Er
,
".
lto caUSe to plough'
[xx.
bey
tto plough l
1
( -Er-AgS
)
I
~~
R ul e 2
I -Er + AgS ...
"
'
1
Ag5 has the Same meaning as NP ago
A9
is used to refer to a dOer differGnt from NP SUbjECt.

---

; -',-
.".
:..:
{ '
52
Exx.
S):ppiku
'to cha ng e" l ;)-ro.."i\\":.\\\\~\\Jt)
, to
bey
plough!
1
R ul e 3
+Er
----;:..
+Er +~'Ag
\\
J
(
I
i
I +' Er - Ag
1)
Exx.
b 8 yl j:
'to caus e to plough'
, to
b eylu
order to plough'
R ul e 4
-Er.. AgS
------~
-Er - AgS - Ag
Ex~
'to change'
+Er + Ag + tr
Rule 5
+Er + Ag
---_.~
;
+Er + Ag + i ntr .:
E xx.
beyl ::',:
'to cause to plough
fe:yl-::l:
Ito cause to swim'
t' +Er
Ag + tr
)
R ul e 6
+Er -
Ag
----'7
-<
t, -fEr
,q 9 + .
t
I
-
In r j
Exx.
beylu
'to order to plough'
'to caus e to swim'
- Er
AgS
Ag + tr
Rui e 7
(
- Er -
AgS -
Ag -------.-i-
.
r
- Er - AqS - Ag + lntr )
Exx.
se: n
'to perceive!
na3 1 aw
'to sleEp'

---

.\\
, .......
~. ~,,;:,\\-
53
(' -Er + AgS + tr
Rule 8
-Er + Ag5
)",; - Er + AgS .... intr
"
'to scratch oneself'
Ito s lJim r
-,
+Er + ,'1g -+ tr + dEl
I
I
R ul e 9
+Er + Ag + tr ----~
l'
+Er + Ag + tr - del )
E~x.
b eyl):
, ff 0
caus·e to plough'
yopl ):
'to cause to tak e (to someone) ,
+Er
AQ + tr + del
Rule 1D
+Er -
Ag + tr ----).
+Er -
A~ + tr - del
)
Exx •.
beylu
, yoplu
"
-Er -
AgS - Ag + tr + del
Rule 11
'- Er -
P. QS -
A9 + t r
-----.07
\\-Er -
AgS - Ag + tr -
del
Exx.
xaemaam
se:n
, - Er + I~ 9S + t r
+ del ;
R ul e 12
- Er + AgS + tr
- - - - 7 )
,
i,-Er + AgS + tr -
deli
Exx.
bey
se: nu
/<8ule 13
.
+ El' + ,q g + t r
+ del
_._-...,.
+Er + Ag + tr + del - dat
~
. Ex .

---

,.
54
\\ +Er+Ag+tr-deltctitj
R ul e 14
+ Er + ill 9 + t r -
del _~ I
)
! +Er+Ag+tr -d 81- da t )
"
Exx.
yopl);
RUle 15
+ Er + Ag +
intr
-;--~.
+Er+i~g+intr-dat
Exx.
fe~yl):
~,+E1'-~g+t1'+del+d2t /
RulG 16
+ Er - .q 9 + t l' + del -~>~
'(
l+E1'-~g+t1'+del-dat ~
Exx •.
bey 1 ul
beylu
.....
.\\, +E1' -;~ g+t1'- del +d at /
Rule 17
+ Er - Ag + tr· - del ""::;--7
I'
J\\
.....
; +El' -Pi 9 +t l' - de 1- dJ t j
Exx.
yoplul
yoplu
(
+Er-f\\g+int1'+dat
I
Rule 1 B
+ [ r - ,~g + i nt r
- - - - - ' ?
+E1'-'!~g+int1'-d~t
)
,r
~
J
E;.<x.
fe
:ylul
fe
:ylu
( - Er-11 gS-A-g+t l' +d El +d;: t -.i
Rule 19
- Er - AgS - Ag + t1' + del - ' 7 j
. .
I;.
1-Er-AgS-~g+tr+del~jati
~
J
Exx.
gisal
xcamoom

---

55
-El'-!\\gS-\\g+t1'-del+dc:t (
Ru 1 e 20
-E1'-AgS-Ag+t1'-del
)
.-E1'-~g~-Ag+t1'-de~-dat)
Exx.
se:nal
S B: n
-E1'+AgS+t1'+del+dc·t )
Rule 21
-E1'HlgS+t1'+del
- - - - ' 7 )
i,
i - E1'+lIg5 +t1' +d el- d pt. J
Exx.
b eyel
b By
. ,
:i -E1'+AgS+t1'-de.l+dat ~
Rule 22
-E1'+;<gS+t1'-del
- - - , , "
\\, -E1'+AgS+t1'-del-da t J
Exx.
se: nul
.;
S 8: nu
(
-E1'+Ag5+intr+dat )
)
I
Rule 23
-E1'+·'g5+intr
---~
rI
-Er+.1gs+intr-d a t "
Exx.
fe:yd
fe:y
Rule ='4
+E1'+;,g+t1'-del+dat _ _~
+E1'+Ag+t1'-del+dat( 1)
Ex.
yopl'J:
Rule 25
+E1'-~g+tr+del+d?t --~
+E1'-Ag+t1'+del+dat(1)
Ex.
beylul
I+E1'-Ag+t1'-del+dat(1)
Rule 26
+E1'-Ag+t1'-del+dat --~ ..>
l.+E1'-Ag+t1'-del+dat(2)
Exx.
yoplu
yoplul

---

I
I
56
\\ '
0
Rule 27
+Er-Ag+intr+dat' ----)
+Er-Ag+intr+d?t )
fe:ylul
E
" S "
t
d I d t ( 1 ) . ,
-
r-H9 -rlg+ r-
e + a
)
\\
~/:
Ru 1 e 28
-Er-AgS-~g+tr-del+dat
/
,! -Er-,;gS-:~g+tr-del+dat(
I
2) '.
'.
Rule 29
- Er+·'. g5 +tr+d el+d?t
R ul e 30
-Er+K gS +tr- d 81 +d at
Ex....
se:nul
Rule 31
-Er+;.I,gS+intr+dat ---7
Tense-m2rkers aI'S gramm~tical fU~~3tives which ?t the
syntactic levEl are ~ssumed to represent the extra-linguistic
notion of time.
The notion of time as it results frOm our analysis
compriSES two distinctions, nomely P~st time 2nd 'non-P~st time.
In these two domains,
us make use of moods and
~spects to giVE to the events their re12ti0ely exact descriptions.
Given th~t ~n eVEnt is either Pest o~ non-Post, We
can consider it from the 8sPectuJl point of view.
:~n event may be reported .ss Perfective or Imperf~ctiv8'
,
it may also be presented ~s unre21.
These features arE also syntactically represented by
the gr~mmatical formati~es called ~spect-m3rkers (2sp.m).

---

57
I 1, 1 • B• 16 I en s e- m:o r k er
Now let us return for a while to ':he Tense-mcrkers
(Ts-m).
Consider the following sentenc8S 22-32:
22
)m2r
dafay daw •
-;mar
+
·b e. 3P .S-g. Pr es. Pr Oc + run
( ::ma r
is run n i n go)
23
-3T1ar
dafadJ:n
daw.
-:ma r
+
be.3 P .Sg.Pr o c.P8st + run
( ')nl" r
was running.)
24
.-:m&r
dafa
d :~~ w..
~..mar
+
be.3P.Sg.Pres.Perf + run
,
( )11ar
has
run. )
25
;mar
d~f3
d':' w:,: n
.Jm:3 r
+
be.3 P .Sg. + run
P<'st .Perf
•
( :Imer
had run. )
26
)mar
d,naY
d(~w.
~m.:_'r
+
be. 3P. Sg. hc'bl;t,Pre '5' + run
( :;mar
runs (usually).
27
,'m ~_':
d:-::n8d ~;:n
d:: w.
)m~r
-.-
be.3P.SC;.h,bit.P "st + r-un
( jmar
used to run. )
28
-,mar
narna
daw.
~mar
+
inte n d.3P,Sg.Pres + run
( )rn ar
intends
to run. )

---

58
79.
)m.~r
dalJ.
."
~,)m a I'
T'
intend.3P.Sg.Past + run
( )mar
intended to run.)
3CJ •
)ma I'
da lJ.
3m2 I'
+
be.3P.Sg.Future + run
( Jmcr
lJillrun. )
31,
)m cr
:jmar
+
run.cond.P,st.3P Sg.
)mar
lJould have r6n.)
32.
)maI'
d~:nnA
dalJi.
JrilaI'
+
be.P~st.3P.Sg. + run. unreal
( Jmar
lJould hav" ran.)
the prepositional phrase Ci kanam are the representation of the
5upra-linguistic notion of tin,- nt the lexical level.
5 C f)X
=
s om et illi e
b"fore
-
1 e: 9 i
--
nOlJ
ci k.~nam
--
sometimG
"fte r nOlJ.
If lJe c'pply thos e lexical fDrmativ"s one after the
other to
each of the sentences 22-32,
th" result is as gi'Jen in the
- - - - _ .. _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
S "ntences
________________________________________________ !
J
i
22 i 23 I 24 i 25 ! 26 i 27 : 28 i 29 i 3DJ 31 i 32
i
~
-I -
'f
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- i -
- -: - -; - - T - - - -I - +;-+
,
1
I - -I - - i
l
S,,~3
+-~_+-~ ! - l~_J _-_.__..:':.__~_ T ! - I + .1--+----1
r
'.
le:gi
i' T : - ~ i -
+ ! - i + I - I + ! - i - I
cTk~na;;;---~-- +
i
i + I - -- + I
I;-r+r - ; --
!
,
I ' "
'---------------1
I '
I
---1-,~-- i
,+ Pc' s t '.'~,.,-
+
+
i
I +
I
+
, -
+:...
I
: - '
I
\\
I
l i T
i
)_ _ _
~ __ ."_., '_ ,__
~ __I, __ '
'
I
i
.J

---

, ,
59
- ,. ".
';
"";"
m,orked ( + ) in the er,vironmpntof SarJx, it is m,,,rked ( - ) in
.......:_ ..
the environment of le:gi and ci kcnam.
In the mean time when
it is ",:'rked (
- ) in' environment of S"fjX, it is marked ( + ) in
' - '
environment of le:gi ,~rld ci kc;nam,
except in 24,
for which we
hCIJe (
-
) in the environment of ci k",nam.
On the other Iland, we notice that whenever le:gi is
applicable, ci kcnam is applic.ble too, except for 24 where
rl
third remark is that whenelJer
«+ Past" occurs, it
coincides in the corresponding sentencE with the occurrence cf
J:ni
"nd whenever <', -Ppst.." oCOJ rs, it coincides in the correspond-
ing sentence with the non-occurrence of
~n.
We conclude thAt there is nb grammotical difference
between le:gi and' ci kanam; and therefore they stpnd for one
common supralinguistic reality of time which ~t the grpmmntical
level we call n:Jn-P"st tense,
her8 and there l.3bel".!
(J.. -Post
On the otheJ
hand,« +Past ""
is m"rk cd
]: nand
<'--Past "") is merked
IJ
The ~bolJe cnalyses can be presented in the form of the
following rule:
Rule 32
Tens e
- - ' - ' ?
5, ,:,+Pas t "
,
«-Past '.:-..., '(
,!

---

60
11.1.8.17 ~spect-m2rker.
------....~
,
:>Now,
wo turn to the 3s!=ect-mark8r~,. Let us reconsider
the s'~ntE"ce 24.
We h,":\\ve seen· that whiJe 24a is gramm<"ltical
...~~ ,24b is hot .
. ,
daf,':l
da\\J •
n.ow
~; m;lr
has
run
")mar
dew •
*s omet ime
2fter now
1m~r
has
ran
lity
The ungr~mm~tic2'/of 24c is dUE to the fact that 24 denotes an
action alre~dy finishEc.
Thus 24 cnnnot st2nd with the pr~position3l
phr2se ci kanam which assigns
to the
verb its
full
status of
potential ~ction.
On the contrary, ci konam would perfectly stand uith
28,. bec2~use 78. expresses an action which is to be performed,
that is an action which .has in storaoe ~ll its .potentiality.·
-
~
-
This implies th~t the action is given ~s unre~l, comp~re~ to 24.
but thoy present .th e action
d::w
in differen,t
uJays.
By this
time
the reader knows that
24 presents
'J
finished Gction.
.Synt,::;cti-
cally i t Cliffers
frolTl1 tbecause of the occurrence of the
0 \\
m0 r ph Gm 8 / y I
in,2 2. T, hi s m0 r ph e III E /
Y / filP /
d i· /
den 0 t e S q,'l
2ction which·is in process •
. If we an~lyse the remaining sentences of thG set 22.':'32
we WQulJ ,cQr;;G, to the conclusion that they :..'11 carry anyone of
the th,ree tyPes of ::'spects "lre,·,dY 8xplainoaL

---

61
The cbove analysis can be presented in the form of the
followin s rule :
(" ProcEss .....\\
Rule 33
,',s p
_._--...-;.
~ 'Pe) fect
I
" Unr 881
Yet ue could have deeper ai$l"ects expressed by the,v,erb.
For instance,
consider the follouiAg sentences:
33.
Jm2I'
d~fqy
d2W
")mnr
runs
(is running)
34.
"Jma r
dan'aY
d2w
Jmqr
runs
usudly
different m:;nner the Lction dau.
In 33 the c;ction is 2
punctuQl
process, whereas in 34 it is a habitual process.
On the other ha~d compare the fol18wing sentences:
35.
--:;mar
narna
dau .
:-}mar
has
intended to run
36.
--:-Jma r
d,.,n"
d,U
)m:::r
will
run
of aspect is shown in either sentenCe& 35 presents the ~ction
cS a merc intention, uhile 36 considers
the action as a matter'
Of fact.
We uould call the iatter aSPect ~s future and the
former as intentive.
Thc &bove an3l~'.ses can be presented iA th c form of
tho follouing'rules:

---

62
~' P·u'~'~t.Proc"]
Rule 34
PrOCESS
\\
!
J '
•
! H~'b~'-~t oc
)
') intentivo )
RUle 35
Unreal
)-
j
( Future
)
I n I L 1 • ,0. • 1 1,
we imp 1 i c i t 1 Y s tat e d t ha t
01 a i n - Ver b S <,I r e
different from "sP-V">, themselvGs
different from
Cop-Vs.
This is
not a mere assumption bU~ is b:lsed on cert::dn syntectic eriteri.':).
,,~ )
DiFference between Cop~Vs ~nd Asp-Vs.
Con si de r
son t 8 n C e 37 g i v en below:
37.
l,·~e : kk
-::,m (J r
8 at s
(i s
~ a tin g )
...
-,
\\ ....1"
there exists
a dialect which uses simply the form '37a.
I
3 7a.
l'E ~ kk
_.
~m~r eats (is eating)
!
.; .-~._...,-~
,
!
,The deletion of
da
affects the sentencG neither syntactic~lly
'I
nOr
sem~ntic;:lly.,·d'a
stands as a mdr~ copul:cl linking the .v~F
to the NP.
But on
the other
hand,
consider,
sentence 38.
38.
da,fa
b'e~3
)m,,:r
want s
to
eat
If we considEr the dialect
which we allude to,
we could have
the form
38a bElow:
38.:\\
)mar
li"E :kk
---'
wants
to
eat

---

63
but not 38b
38b.
*Jmar
fa
1<33: kk
.--
38b has a meaning which difFers from 38.
It would be m;~Fked cS
ungrammatical if c~n3idcrGd to be the surf~ce structure of the
P-m~rker which underlies 38.
b'e"gg
c::~nnot be deleted bec.C-?use it conveys ;.:n <lsPEctu~l me?ning
---'
which is necessary for the interpret0tion of the VP.
The ;:::ctual
meaning of the VP is not I to e~tl but only 'desire to e~tl.
This differencG of beh~viour betw8en d~ 3nd begg seems to justify
.--,
the distinction between Copula ~nd aspectual-verb •.
8
On th e other hand, cons ider 39-42
39 "
)m:.::'r
-Jm;-:r
is
40.
)m<.'r
, rJg i
c.i bi:r
)m?,r
is
. inside
41
:lr)giy
•
) me,r
:~ m;-! r
l S
S e ;.~ tin 9
(doing the nction)
42.
cl .b i: r .
* )m·.'r
J mi)r
is
being
inside
In 39, a~Qi is followed by a participle.
In 40, :- f"1gi is
.•J
---"
... followed by an :Jdv-plr'ce.
If we ?dd Progressive-,.,sPect to 39 ·lnd 40 , thE operation
will genE~~tE rEspectively 41 Rnd 42 given abov~ rGsulting in an
un·gr:.~mm;:tic~l 'sentenCE: in the c:Jse Of 42.

---

,11
In 40, a~gi being Followed b~ ~ri ~dv.Pl. shows that it is .~
m~in-vErb Ul-V), but in 39 ~hE predicatE is the p,:rticiple t):k.
ThereforE, we can assert that a~gi in 39 is an 0uxili~ry which
links the prGdicatE ,1nd the NP.
Thus, Clr:J9i is a Copula-verb hGre •
._'
Actually 889i in 40 is ~ verb of Existence.
This
~~
semantic stotus implies a non-possidlity of 2pplic~tion of
0(
progressive 2sPect.
This explains the ungr~mm~tic~lity of42.
c)
Difference between Asp. Vs FInd l'l::in-Vs
_ _ _ .......
_"
_ _ " _ _ " _ . 0 , . . . . .
" ••• _T
O
- - - · _ , - _
Now let us a~alyse the following sentences:
43.
OQo:r
f)Qo:r
has oato n
ti4.
?_~q
warna
0 :r
r;go:r
must eat (has to eat)
45.
-i*"f)go~r
warn,,:!
noD ;1'
must
,
J
46.
has run
f)go:r
rJQ 0:
has intendGd to run
l'
48.
rlgo :1'
I)go:r
has intended
TheSE EX8mples show that war (45)
and n,-:;r (48)
9re :: tYPE: of
I

---

I~ •.
~
65
-
T~~s, syntact~c~l+y, copulg.. vert;:ls, aspe~tyal~.vE~b.S
and ,·r·la~r-vErbs though theY may 'sh::r E' sOme prqpert~es ~ :.'r-e
nevertheless to be classiRidd as
diFFerB~u c~tEgori8s,
II.1.b.19 i;3Pt?ctw,l .. \\j~nb:;
<'-
' .
:l
' . 0 :
•
.- _. . - ._-- - ._._.-
...~.
Wo halJE gi"..'C:I:· :4UX:""Vs
'",","::,~...,.,-.~
\\C,f GatGgoria l rule 18).
Wc considep n,oLJ AsP""Vs sC?P3r.ately!
Rs i t has alre~dy bEen said, theY cannot occur ~~
pr Ecj+.-cat8 alonE~ - From thi~ point of viELJ, lJqlof AsP-Vs c:jiffer
from thE Rsp-:Vs
Q'f som~ l~'[lguag':'s, say ~pg:Li.sh.
-.
.-
.
.
.
\\ .
...
(0;:-
E'xamplE in (lis lI[nglish ASPGctu'_'l Verbs ll
LJh~c(l
i \\l thE i r E pis t cm i c s co n s co s f °u i... mod a 1s, na mEly; ma y ;. mu s t, c 2 ~
fu~ction semant~cally as predicates of En~ir~ proP9s~~
'C i o'I1S ~ .1 t~~? ins ·i:~_~"fl.x., ~h.E._..J h~ LlE.Y_ ~ ~.s~_,b_9~ds.f ¥ou ;J r G
~~._~L,!.rnb }a lld ~.\\Jrn_~F_o~~i.§ Mon~ r: esp\\?ct1 v ely, t
it may rain todaY.
'" (Pas sib ~;li ty)
4.
thE thEory mus-c then hold.
(truth by nEcG~$i,t,Y)
5.
How can you be so dumb~
(Pq$Slibil~ty)
6. •
Tom 0 r, i.' 0 W will b C' ~l 0 n d .::-, Y
<: Fu t u re)
gi
n<lJ n \\
thE: chicke;n wants
~o lay (eg~~.)., ;
--,.-'.'~~_. " -.
_..- .- _
__
- -_.--...- _---- - ~~---_._..+-_.~
_-_ -------- , -
~-,---
.-_.-
1., PJ;',eder ich J .Ne.'Jn~e.yer; E..ng.;L,5.sb #ispc:ctLJ'!~
\\t8rb.s,,,
r.1outEln l
1975,
Page 73:
I,'

---

\\<
66
-l-J
50
;m,~"r
d;"fa
nrJr .1
dnem
(
jrile'r
has intended to go
..
51
mr:nna.
am
mu
t'JlJ
t 2e' y-
it may rain today
\\
. J
52
naka
Qg8
m-en
mu:ma:
ni: (
~~
HOlJ can YO\\1 bE SO dumb
? )
Here We' have purposely takEn tlJO s8nte'nce's (49-50)
containing
Asp-V, in their root Senses, 2nd tlJO se'ntences
(51,52) 2mong
In nonG of tHem lJC could expect the Asp-Ve'rbs alone'
as prEdicates,
eVen semantically.
ThE O~8r~tion would haVE generntEd the follolJing
ungfamm3tical sentences 49a-52a:
*n::G n
la
gqna:r
gi
*d ..·:o m
12
)m~·""!r
nar
( go
is
Jrn 2 I'
intend~
*mu'_t :l lJ trey
m'sn na
f
• t
\\ l
rains
tOdaY may~3P.af .Sg)
.
. ..
J 52~
mu:ma:
n i:
n ak a
la
mOon ('
*Q~a
(You dumb
sO
hOlJ
is
can) '7
Many Wolof sPeak8rs would ~CCEpt 49 a-52 G 8S grammatical till
their ~ttEntion is dralJn to thc f?ct thet the' grammntical
sentencES actually sho~ld be 49b-52b
49b
n~ n
la
g{)n,"J ~r
gi
b"c'g'J9
d'le' f
lay
is
chickcn thc lJant
do
( 1:.0 12)' [fo. 0. s is lJhat the chicken lJants to do~

---

67
SOb
nara
cffCI? f
•
(to go is what
,;mar intGnos 'to do.)
51b
mu
tee y
m·Enna
am •
it
rain
today
may .... 3P:af.Sg haPpen
(it rains todaY may happen. )
52b
fJ 9a
mU:fila:
ni:
naka
la
m·e1l a
amro
?
you
dumb
sa
how
is
can'
happ en
( you' bGing SO dumb how Can i t bc:? )
A pr0 0f that 49a is ungfammatical but 49b is grammatical is that
WG could repla c ::: noon by Ca2:?(:;;: riCE) in 49a but not in 49b.
Jr, 49a nee n is 3u!J~oscd to be a Verb.
Thorr..:foILe i t should not
be: subst.itutod by}~'·noun., f"lore clEarly nze n and c:::e:p~r~ not in
paradigmqtic r~lation.
Thus somantically as well as synt~ctic811y it is
corrc:ct to state that onC'
c.!:>sen't'i'"'.3T char.acteristic of the ,~sp-Vs
.,
is that
they must be folloued
by a M~in VErb (M.V) in:Wolof.
Now 1 (? t
u s
tu r n to. anD the r, ;j s p. (C t
0 f
,; s p. Vs.
Tr 2 d i -
t i on all y the y arc d 8 fin C? d El she 1 pii:'! g. v Er b ~ •
T his not ion c 0 U 1 d
bc misleading because ~sp.Vs u~like Cop.Vs ~o not function RS
rJ1erE second<:>ry consU.tu8'l t.
Here:; it
is prop8r:~to quote th8
..... '.
point Of ViEW of Michacl
Crady
I'Syntax Dnd Semantjcs
of the
English Verb-Phrase'
(1970 P.9).

---

68
.
,
~n2lysing the following sentEncss, hE writ~~ thus:
x1
x2
x 3
x4
1.01
I
may
hove
bben
talking
SentenCE
N~
V
N.Obj
V
N.obj
V
N.comp
V
sentoncG
,..
-
.~-
-j 1
1.02
\\
I may
i
h,..~ vc
b BEn
[
talking )
!
!
J j
' -
-
lWe
consida X1
(may) '1S the sole true verb '3S to
Gxtern~l function, with its object bEing the
We ~rG not Gxtending our 0nalysis tow~rds Gr:dyls
CQncEption.
NevGrtholc:ss wc:: do think that i~SP-V~ play morc than
.~ sGcondary rolE, a helping rols in the PrcdicctG Phrase."
Consider sentence 53.
53
)mar
dEl fay
13E:: kk
\\
( )mar
Eats .j
\\
We h0vc noticed that the doletion of the Cop,V ,
da
in no l,J;:;Y
affccts thE SEntenCE.
So w~ haVE concluded th~t
da
simply
r'GinforcGs NP and VP relationship.
Th;.1t is why thE: L-:bEl
Copul~-Verb is used.
'. '.
But on the other hand, considGr the following
54
jmar
dafa
b·eg g
1<:8 :kk
,-,'
.
( )mar
w:=;nts
to
E,~ t
")
We s::.id t h~)t if WE cons i d Er the di::)lsct which we havc:: allUded
.,.
to, WE co~ld h2v8 tho sentence
54a given below:
)m.'Jr
fa
1 a3 It.kk
t jmar
wants to e8t
. J

---

69
but not 54b
54b
fa
(.~.
Since transfOrmations ar~ not meaning ch~nging ~ccording to
54b
Chomsky, 8~ WQ shall SEC it latQr,/h~ving a meaning diffGrEnt
from 54a, would be marked as u0grammatical,
if considered uS
the surface structurG of thG P.miHkn which underliGs 54.
oe gg
cannot be delefed bccausG it conveys ~n
2spect u al ~eaninQ indispensable to thQ interprGt~tion of the
VP.
ThG act~Bl mGaning of the prGdic~tG is not 'to eat' but
strictly 'dEsire:: to eat'.
According to ,this fact,
Asp,'Vs can be.subcatcgori zed .-
on the busis of their inherent featuros which detErmine thEir
rel~tions with the propositions which follow them.
fol ~ 0 wi n 9 r u 1 e :
Rule 36
....
~
+ V
+ V
i~s p. V '-::.,
!
+ mod
+ mod
I
I
I
i,
i+ announcomcnt!
I
I
I
1+
V
! +
..
V
I
!
I
j
,
'--
-
L
)
+ V
+ V
'{<'()\\-(\\ 1
1
i
+ mod
i
+ mod
I
i
I
+ P CT' mis si v G
I
+ JPtitudE!
J
i
I
I
I
+
V
I
+
V
!
--'-
e
-
l.-
I
)
.....L
I~c

---

-70
,
l
+ V
,~~
t
'-+' V
I + mod
~' ""c---t'- I
+ mod
I
~
I;; 11
Possibility
+ obligation
i +
I
i
V
v
,i
I +
I + .- .--_-
I
..J
1
L
--'
,
- I
I
,
+ V
,
.(
!
I
+ mod
CXa-.
I
\\ .+ mod
I
+ cO unt cr- ex p ect Gd I \\' +
I +
V
I +
V
L
L
!
,.. v
}
+ V
t
+ V
.lr V"\\.o~ ~G'<
i
+ mod
+ mod
-\\- \\~.'\\"<"\\.
I
~ _V
I.
I
I
--'
L.
. ,
r+
c.-
,
C)
I
I
+ V
i
1
-1
4-V
",~~
V
•
I
I
~~~~
i + mod
I
~~~
I
:,~Y4\\\\'l~ ~ ;
I + mod
f
I
+ final action
' . ,\\. ~
~ J
:+ \\\\', \\,'
,
+ desirE
.1>'.].
I
l
+
V
+
V
i - t - \\ }
I
L
--l
i-
; +. V
i
_'\\.~
jJ
I
""--~ ,
+ mod
..f'..r
+ mod'
+ n8g~tion
+
V
'-

---

,
,
C'
71
-,
.....' -
,-
i
0.,,-J
+ V
'\\~:;.
:
+ V
...... '\\.
i
'f.
- '"
i
+ mOd
~
I
+ moc!
!i
+ Probability
'I + miss to
Ii
+
V
I
+
V
J
I
I
'-
--'
1+
i
/
V
,
I
-{"Q)
+ mod
II\\o-'"J~
I
+ decided to
II
+
V
1
11.1.8.19 Copu12-Vcrbs
Wc he-vc r~sortod to the deletion of d3 in a
scntonce like 55.
55
)m'r
dafay
l~ : kk
to show that thc rolc of the Copula,is secondary.
This is not
~ctually convincing if wc apply the s~mc device to other
Copu 1 2,s 'such as Clfl9i, n·:-;c :kk, d.~:n /
di / .
Nc·ver·thclGss, for
o
. . . : . - , .
" ' - . . , . . . . .
the: present time wc will wantcdly by-p?ss this quostio'n, 2nd
concentrate on the oth~r side of the medal.
Cop u1
Cons idcr
3 - Vs.
FJ 1 s 0
C El n b G sub cat l? gO'!' i zed •
1
fiOr
cx~mplc the following sentences:
56
d".:) : nnu
ngo:r
has bGc::rl1lf? king

---

---

73
69
da fa
dew
r)go:r
..... _ _ J
70
fJgo:r
LJ:=:E : x
~o:r
is white
71
QgO: r
du
daLJ
----
IJgo:r
wi 11 not run
---"
Wc have combined da, afJgi,
d):n, 2nd n:cC':kk r['spectivEly, with a
'''--
~
nominal predicate, a verb-phrase, ~n adjcctival-Ptedicatc, anJ a
It GPp8Rrs from the SEt gEnerated 3bovc that s6mo 6f
thorn do not LJork with nCQatiGn, some takE optionaly nogation,
sOmE work obligatorily with nomin~l_prcdicato ~nd somE others
only LJith either ~djcctival_prcdicato or verb-phrase.
This analysis con bE presenteei' in thG form of the folloLJing rule:
+
Rul
\\1
e 37
+ ,~ux
Cop
+ Cop
~a d j • Pr (0' d ;
<..
1++ V
I
Aux
+ Cop
-
_,_,nog
...
,:dj. Prcd; VP
I
J

---

·~<....'\\
"i-'
74
+ v
+ Aux
+ [ibp
NP. Pr ed
I
--l
50 far wc havE used the: tErm adjEctivE in a gEnGral SenSe.
A closEr analysis would show 2
distincti~n of cs many 28 six tyPes
,of adjEctives :. dEscriptiVE adjEctiDG,
dcmonstratiVG adjective;
.
possessive. Bdjectivc;
numnal adjectivE?; indefinite 2djcctivc and
in t e:1' I' 0 gat i vC'~ d j c:c t i V2.
Th'is Can be: prc:scntcd ill thc= f~rm of the: f;.'1ll o wing rule.':
Rule: 38
/
DEsc.~\\dj
'\\
.\\
DGm.Adj
!
i
Poss.Adj
Adj.
-_._.:;..
f
I
j
l\\ium.f\\dj
i
I
'II
I
\\ IndGr.,':1,0j ;!
Intg.Adj'
I
I
This type of adjectivE can option~lly be: mOdified by
Ex.
"12
fas
wi
hors6+th[+b~.3P.Sg.Prcs+tircd+too
much
(Th2 horsE is too much tired.)

---

'75
~
ThC' abOvE ana.lysis
C2n be presented in the: form of· t hG
folloLJing l' ul e:
RUle 39
/;u j
~
DGSC .Adj /
+ (i"dv)
11.1.8.22 Domonstrative DdjGctivcs
...-
_ _
_,._L _ ••
...... _••
_ _ • •
L
' . _
_
~ .
~
TheY ~rG of four tYPGS qnd hav~ the feature 4numberv •
Ty p c 1:
T his t Yp EJ has the f Eat ur e .e: + n Gal' i).
It indicates
persons, animals or objects that
2rc proxim~tG in r~gard to the
speaker
particular! y.
Exx.
73
xar
mi:
shETp
this
( this sheEP'
7 !.~
NG: g
bi:
room
this
( this room)
75
Nit
ki:
person
" this
( th is person)
76
X8r
yi:
sh G'CP
thC?sG
( thEse s h Gep)
77
Ne:g
y i ~
room
thesE
(these l' Ooms )

---

76
......
78
i'J i t
n~:
f1 Grs 8n
those
( t hG S 0
parsons)
Type 2:
This second typo :laS
t hi? fC'ntur e (I, + R Gmot c ))0
It indi-
CatEs Persons, animals
or
objects that GiG nGither in the;
. '
imm~diatc area of the sp8akcr nor in that of the hearEr.
Exx.
79
xaI'
mala:;
shEep
-that
( th:'lt s h eGP)
80
rJ c: 9
bal~
room
that
( that room)
81
ndatJ
(laIa:: )
=
(that child)·
'--'
82
gjnae
( gal 'JG )
=
( th2.t child)
83
j j: ~ 9 a rn ,'}
-(ja 1 :£ )
(t hut 12 dy)
84
nit
(kala=' )
::;-
(that PErson)
79a
xar
(ya 1 ;e)
=
( thos E s h El? p)
BOa
ne:g
(yahl2 )
=
(thOSE r 8 om s)
81 a .
ndaw
(yaIa? )
:!j:
(those children)
o-.-.!
82a
g~ ncR
(ya l !¥2)
=
.(thClsC? chi I~r_cn)
83a
j~:ngama (ya 1 ae)
=
(thOse 1ajic;s)
84a
nit
(na1~ )
=
(thOSE pBI's eJnS ).
TYPe 3:
The third type ;--l s o indi c::·tos
pErsons, ;J ni ma1s or
objects
that qrG romotcl
but only in regard to
the sPG;3kcr and
not to the h c.gI'(?r 0

---

77
.....r
Exx.
7gb
Xar
m): mu
::::
th;o;t shcco:p(neFJr tD the hearor)
.'
:' .
80b
thc;t
ne:g
b):bu
::::
room
81b
no a\\J
1") :lu
":':
tha.t-child
'--'
82b
g-) n ae
Q'):gU
;::;
that child
83b
j') : f)g am~ jl) : jU
=
t h;"t lady
--
84b
nit
k-:;:ku
=
th:;t person
/
7ge
X&r
thos c sheep
'y"):yu
;::;
BOe
ne:g
y-.):yU
=
those rooms
81c
ndaw
y:,,~yu
;::;
these ehil dr en
82c
g) n c:8
y ~~: yu
th03E children
83c
j::J :1J9·-,ma
y') :yu
=
those ladi cS
'"--'"-
B4c
nit
t hos c
n ') :nu
=
pGrsons
this third type is ~lso used whcn the no~n it.refers to was
p~cviously a topic botwEcn 5pG~ker 2 n d hearer.
Exx •.
X aT'
m-:im1;\\ (Or m) ma:? .')
th:'lt sheep ewe talked a.bout )
;::;
thOse:; shce::p
TyfQ. 4'
both from the SPeaker
~nd the heareT as w~ll, however,
nearcT
tCl the latJ:(T•.
Exx •.
79d
xar
mJ :m",c :
that sheeP OVGr ('you)' t her c
BOd
n C :'f;:
Wi :Wt [ : ·
=
that hous G ovcr
(you)
t h er I?
'
81d
n oa1J . l"):l.:c
-
that child ovcr
("you) t her c
'---'
8.2d
Q';nC18
g') :.g a,c :
;::;
th:lt child over
(.y ou) ther c
B3d
j'.J : rJQe:rma
j) : j;"]8
= that lady OVEr (y ou) thE.'r c
'--
84d
nIt
k""):k88 ::
;::;
that Pl:"Ts on o VGI'
(you) thcr e
79E;J
Xi::1r
yj :.y:"':o :.
.-
t"h os c=: shcep Over' (you)
thGT' C
.
BOe
n "' : g','
y):yao
--
thcs (' hous cs o VGI'
(you)
.
th[T '"'

---

78
81 c
r:.9 a y J: y
LJ
8G
=
thos c childrcon o v cor
(you)
that;
82e
g)naE : y-::;:yaG :
:::::
those ehildYcn e, vcr
(you) therE
')
83e
j"): ngama j-J:yae:
= those ladi GS o vcr (YiJu) thore
-
' -
nil
(you) ther G
840
n~.l:n3E' :
=
those parsons o vcor
this tYPe refers "lsQ to 0 topic involvod in a previous contc:<t.
These analyses C2n be prcs~ntGd in tho form of the
following
rule:;:
Rul c 40
/Prox.Sp (H)
) Pr ox • 0 x cl . H
,
i Rem. eq
\\\\
I
!
I\\R cm. lesser. H J
I I.1.B. 23 Possessiv,o adj c:ctivC's
The th5td sub-~lass of adj2ctivcs is what is known as
Possessive ~'djEetivcs.
Normali.y' thE Poss.:J,dj precedes thG nOun.
But the third person singulct Poss.~dj is ~lways suffixed to the
•
noun.
Moreover
Poss.;dj have a
decl~nsion which shows Person
r arlk J
say 1 st,
2nd
etC.
Ex x.
65
sama lar.n
=
my bracc;let
86
sa lam
=
your (singul':1r), br,,-,cclet
57
lamam
his
(h er ~ its) br'~ eel et
- . __ . __ .. -" ._----- ~-_. ----_.
.
__ .. _--------_.__
- - - -
1
Pr:Jx.Sp(H) means
proximat'? to
the speakGr and evcontually to the
hcarGr.
Prox. axe!. H me~ns proximate exclusively to the he~re-,;
R<::rn.(?q mc:ar-ls
equally remate frOm the sP~ab:.r and the hearer;
Rem.lcsser.H means r~motE fr6m ~peskcr ~nd hearer but nearer
to thc lattGr.

---

79
88
sunu lam
==
our bracelet
89
~~:.~ la.m
90
§...dE':~ l2m
The Pos s cS si VG. ,0,djcetivc b~ars plural-m~irkn if, the:
POSSl's2'cd noun has
the fEature? ((+' Plur>:>.
But
this rule does
not ;>pply
to the: third person singul;;r Poss.,~'.dj.
Exx.
85,:,
:_(3:n.a.1:- l2m
"'"
my br:-cclGts
86a
~ay' lam
==
your
(sinq)
braeclGts
87a
ay l.3m§.~
==
his
(her.,
its)
br ac cl cts
,,~.,
88a"
.:'3ynuy lam·
==
Our bri,:cd cts
89a
~~,;ni lam
=;:
your
(plural)
br ;,;c cl cts
90a
s ~c;~..1am
""
their braCl:15ts
PossEssiv[ ndj~ctivc neVGr appear ~ithout the possesSEd NP to
~hich it refers.
ThcsG. analy~cs Can be rcprc:scntcd in the
fOrm of the follo~ing rUle:
Rule' 41
Poss .!~ d j
----~~
+ :\\1"
1+ Pcrs i
I
1+ nb
I..
I I • 1 • 8 • 24 Num Era 1 'B cl j E c t i vc s
_. -----~~-~-- -----~-'---
The fourth subcLrss is kno~n 3S numerical adjectivE's.
It
can be subdivided into t~o sUbclass~s, that is, ordinal
ndjcctiv~s and carJinal adjectives.
C,-rd.Adj.
arc
t'hosc usc'd
for
E'numeration
Exx.
91
b<:e nn
Xslae
=;:
on[ chi~d
92
na:ri
Xaloc
==
two
children

---

80
Ord.Adj arE those used to indicate 2 rank.
[xx. "
93
=
fourth daY
9/+
JirO:IflC8:1
i
fan
=::::
fifth doy
This (;1n q lysis CF1n be prosontecJ in the form of the following rule:
R ul 0
42
Num.Rd j
.:.:~ . Adj ~:, Cord; Ord
•
j
T~ fifth cL.:ss oF' <ldjectives is known ~s Indofinite
2djectivEs.
[xx.
95
je~~;~l be: pp jen b): fa gis = buy any fis h you c~c n
- - " . - - -
see th er e
c
-~-~
96
na k ye:2? ma~9ina"ilu "" 2 11 the cows h:..:ve gone on
trilnshumance
-.~--
.-.,...
~.-
97
nit
;~ll the people ha VE'
ne :pp nownanu
=
come
98
nit k::B":nn
.,:t"oLJul = nobod y has' co.-lIed
This -:.'nalysis C2n be prEsented in the
form of the following rule:
Rule 43
Indef.,",dj
I r. d e f • It d j
+ <.~ Nb ~)
II~1.B.26 Interrogative ~djectives
r_,~'
_ - -
__ "!,
• • _
r .. _ _ ' - - _ _ ••
_ . _
T~e sixth class of 2djectives· is known GS
Interrogative ~oj8ctives.
Exx. '
99
bqn xalcB
=
which child
""
which children
This can be presented in
the fo-rm of the following rule:
Rule 44
Intg.:~dj
---+

---

81
No~ let us consider ~h8 category of ~dverbs.
Consider
the
follo~ing sentences.
101
=
gO there
102
103
le:gi la: no~
=
I h 3 ve jUs t
c Om e
104
d,xal nd8']k
=
~Qlk slo~ly
"--
----'
10 1)
r 03 : ~rj gel"): 1
=
you are too much impolite.
106
IJgo:r
ligge:yul
f:) •
(ngo:r
plaYs
rather
than ~orking)
107
ni
bidde:~.
~
(ncJ:.J8Y
is beaUtiful likE" star).
~_.'
f}go:r
dana
daem.
'-
( yES,
rjgo:r
~ill go) •.
~.
109
;mar
da~a
-nu: 1
kuk
.
(:<mar
is
(Lip-top
black.)
110
(')mar
has gon" to
the meeting.)
11 1
de: ce : t
rj go: r
d u d 2e m.
~
(no,
IJgo:r
~ill not go.)
Ws notE th.~t adverfuls C,rE of different rdctional values.
In 101
the "dverb. intr oduces 2 notion of Remo'te Pl-cE
In 102
-do-
Pr oxi:mi' t e Pi:. ce
In 103
-dD-
Time
In
1O,~
-do-
r~!!nn er
In 105
-do-
Intensity
.'.
',..

---

:,
82
~..
In 106
the c:dverb introJuced
not i un of ndvers;::.tivE'
In 107
-do-
comp~lr ison
In 1 0 8
-do-
;:!ffirmation
In 108
-do-
5 u perL::tive
In 110
-do-
Place
In 111
-do-
r'Jegation
This an:" 1 ys i s C 2 n lJ E pr e s e nt edin the
fo r m 0 f t h8
following rule:
Rul e 45
- ,
.Cl.dv
-->1 + Adv
1+ ~dv
I
I + Place
I
+ rema te-eq
I + Rem.l es s er. H
+ V
) + V
i_
i ~
- )
,
-
j
:
I + ';d v
I
+ ,lid v
!
I
i
+ PL:CF
,
I
+ Pr a ;,- 8 xci . H i
+ Pro x. s p • ( H)
II + V
I
+ V
1-
.-!
- :
+ .':'dv
+ t irre
~ ....
P;:>st
P::~s t
+ imminent
-. imminent
+ V
'-

---

83
-
+ ,~dv
1- + .',dv
+ time
I + time
_. P~:st
i
+ immin snt
I
+ Punct Ua 1 '1
+ v
I
I
I
'--
L
I
+ V
..J
-,
1
--
f -
I
+ Adv
I
','
,o,dv
I
!
I
+ tim s
+ time
i
+ P"'st
+ P~lS t
III
+ late
- 1 c~ t 8
Ii
+ V-_
V
I
......-
L+
- - ' -
J
I
+ Adv
+ ':';dv
.1I
I
r
+ time
I
I + ~hnn8r
I
I
+ 'pc;st
i
+ V
I
-
+ Punctual
_.
V
'-1
+ Adv
l
+ Adv
I
I + Q'..'::::nt
i
+ int ens i ty I
I
+ V
+ V
!
I
--.
_.-J
---.\\
-
---;
I
-
I
+ Adv
+ Adv
I
I
!
+ adversative I
+ comparisoil iI
V
NP
i
+ V. neg _ _V I.
+
I
I
I
:"
~
' - - -
I
'~

---

....."",' ~--...- ".
i
i~
---,
84
i ~t
Adv
!
+ Adv
.'
!
i
Il~+
!
negation
,
+ affirmation
I
I
I
S
I
+
s
I
~I
--.J
--I
+ Adv
I
+ Adv
i
I
i
!.
I
+ superla t iveJ
I
+ tim e
I
i
i
!
+ adj
+ Premature
I
I
I
I
,-
i
+ V
I
11.1.8.28 Conjoining Particles
CO~junction may involve Phrases or Clauses in,a ~imple
coordination or On the other hand, lJith a relation of subOrdination
holding betlJeen the elements' conjoined.
In the former Case,
coordinating conjunctions are involved, whereas in the latter,
subordinating conjunctions are involved.
At this st8Qe, lJe want to give a subcateqorization of
these two different types of COnjunctions.
Let us consider the coordinating conjunctions in the
analYsis of the follolJlng sentences
1 12
Yae mal
mba:
lJga
Qe:nn •
(behave yourself or get out.)
113
b a: xn a
wanta3
(~go:r
is nice but (he is) rowdy.)
1 14
rJgo~r
dafa
s~:nn
ndax
dafa +JJ~~:1 lu epp.
(ogo:r
is tired because he wo~kGd. excessively.)
11 5
a=ndna
ak
rakkam •
~,
(~go:r
has gOne along wit~ his young brother.)

---

85
~.I-.a:,
. t
ndax and a k establish a relation of coordInation
- ~
Wc :_n~ EE
between tf-Je two memberls
of their respecti Ve sentenc·es.
But the
relation SO established in each sentence varies and depends
on
the inherent feature of the involved coordinating conjunction.
Thus mba:
denotes an alternative,
whereas W;:'l:ritCf]
OppOses two
elements.-
On the oth eT side, ndax dBnotes an explica-
tiv8 relation,
while ak
denotes a combinatory or copulative relation.,
Consider now. this other set of sentences 11'6-121
below:
116
n~g~)y
dana
,jond
x)r)m
bu
bitik
ba
tejul.
( n ) 9 :, Y
wi 11 buy sal t
i:..f. the s hop is not cl 0 sed. )
117
nam pa 1
d~): mam
ligge:y.
--.....'
,_.~.
( n)g " y
will n ur s e her b a b Y ~ s h s fin ish es
WO rk in g. )
118
fJgo:r
siDtiwul
nJx~)r
atta:
xamna fi mu dal.
~
(~go:r did not call on n~XJr though he knew
where he staYed
119
n~)g~.lY
jendu1
gal1aa
ndaxlmar~owu1.
(n~g~y
has not
purChased chicken' because lmar
has not
comse)
120
n) Q':lY
nam?::J1na d.")':J1\\am, bi mu s.)tala2: li~.e:y •
(n~g~y
has nursed her baby when she has
f in ish 8 d lJ or kin 9 • )
121
IJgo:r
ce: t
li xumb
'~-
' " - '
(fJ9. o : r
has invited nds= nit) ~.~hai the
uedding could be liVEly.)

---

86
The relation of the
clauses
-bu
bitik
ba
tejul
i f the shop is
not closem.
-bu
s)tal33:
ligge:y
when she finr.ishes lJoMng
;"at!a:
xamna
fi
mu
dal
though he knew where he stayed
-
ndax )mar
nowul
, ~
because ~ar has not come
-bi
mu
s::JtahB:
ligge:y
when she has
finished
working
-I)gir
ce:t
l i
xumb
SO
that the wedding could be animated
with the remaining Part
of their resPective se'ntences depend~ OIl
the nature of the subordinating conjunctions which we have made
us e 0 f.
For
example,
in 116,
bu
denotes a neC essary condition
for
nJg)y's salt
purchasing.
In 117,
bu
denotes
a notion of
time which coincides with the end 0 f
the I.D rk that n,gJY
is
actually
doing.
In 118,
atta:
introduces an advorsative
~
relationship.
In 1l9,
ndax is
a
causal link.
In 120,
bi,
like bu in 117,
denotes
a relation of time but contrarily to
bu the time i t denotes is.-.Past" •
In 121
finally,
ngir,
purposive link,
indicates what an
action is intended to.
Notice that there is no clear-cut distinction between
~ax as coordinating cOnjunction and ~ax as subordination con-
junction.
The s'yntactic test
consisting of a
pre-posing move-
ment
transformation is
har~ly helpful.

---

87
This analysis can be presented in the fOrm of the following
'*
r ules ~
Rule 46
5Conj •CO J....
Conj. P
--~
t Conj. Sub
Rule 47
f+ conj.
Conj·Co
+ Co
+ alternative
+ f\\JP
NP
+ S
S
-,
+ Conj
+ Conj
+ Co
+ Co
+ adversative
+ Explicative
+
s
s
+ S
S
1-
- I
+ conj
1
+ Co
+ Combinatory
+ NP
~~p
i + S ----S
L_
-_.'-
Rul e 48
+ Conj
1
Conj.Sub
- - j
I
+ sub
I
+ Coridition ,
+ V
5
I
I
~

---

88
+ Conj
I I
+ Sub
I
+ temporal
+ acristic
L +
S
V
+ conj
+ Conj
+ Sub
+ Sub
+ Causa~
- aOr is tic
+ V
5
+ V
-5
+ Conj
+ Sub
+ PurposiVE
+ V
5
While d~aling with PP, we have mentioned that pp
may have different functions.
This of course depends on the
nature of the Prep itSElf.
Consider tile following sentences~
u
122
(~go:r
has bought a blanket frOm
Indi=
--
(~ made in India)).
123
Qe:c
u
EG rm'
r eyul •
(The Sea of India is not l~rge.)
ca
ge: c

---

89
. Q'
v
~
,....
125
now
bala:
~ei'e1< •
(come bEfore tomorrow.)
126
fJQ 0: r
ndar- '.
'-...-
---
has been upto ndar .)
' - '
1 27
d:::'smal
b ~,
·81·e1< •
(go till tomorrow.)
128
2Sl'1:r
ubbina
bunt
bi
nk
ca :bce :m
~
•
(119, :r
has openned the door with his key) •
_ ..-
.~
1 29
119 (1: r
noun,1
ci
ng'):n
(Ilg~~r
came In the evening.)
130
du
b J : 1 ae
c Ea r <:El : k
s:,):w •
( 11 go: r
don 0 t mi x I C:=J3 rare: ~w i t h cur d• )
........
131
(1J90:r has purchased e house ~nd iJ field.)
' - -
1 32
andne
C;lk
'-.-'
(IJQ{J:r
has gone along with N:>g)y .)
-----
133
ci
bi:
(~go.~r is in this room)
.._-.....
in 122
the Pr ep
u
denotes qn origin
in 123
It
u
"
2
genitive relation
in 124
tl
ca
.)
a spatipl location + notion of remote
in 125
11
b ~l;::): 11
a temporal loc~tion
in 126 .
n
ba
11
sP6tial location
in 127
11
ba
11
a temporal location
in 128
11
qk
11
an ins tr um ent
in 129
11
ci
"
a temporal loc~tion

---

90
in 130
the Prep
ck
denotes
- sucL"tive "r eL, ti on
in 1 31
"
,~k
"
.~ n
addition
in 1 32
"
'
"k
"
compenionship
in 133
"
ci
"
spctGd lOC2tion + a
not i on of near
Thus
ue can distinguish "s many
as
eight types of Prep.
This
analysis can be presented in the form
of the following rule:
','t'
I,I!I
+ NP
NP
[
pos s eSS ed,:"""
poss es s0::J )
I
I
~
I
-,
i
,
, I
I
+ Prep
+ Pr ep
+ Sp~t-loc
+ t",mp';'lac
+ Rem
+ Rem
+ V
P1Flcs
+ V
time
L
--"
, -
I
i
,
-,,
+ Pr ep
+ Pr ep
I
I
I
+ ins t
I
+ Sociat
I
I
1
+ V
inst I
NP
I
L+
---
~I-
_J
"pJ )
)
-
, -
+ Pr ep,
+ Pr ep
I
+ c,ddit
+ Camp
I
I + NP
~IP
+ V
-NP ins tr ument
I
_..!
'--
-J
)

---

.J
91
,--
+ Prep
I + ,~rep
+ Sp~t-loc
, + temp-loc
+ near
+ V
+ V
t im e
I I • 1 • B • 30 N0 u n s
N
Can be ch~r?cteriZBd JS nouns which have no Case-
contr~st, no person distinctian, ~nd;do not refer to another NP.
The class of N Can be SUbdivided into two groups;
n~:mely plroper
nouns 2nd cummon nouns.
Proper nouns ~rB thOse which cannot be determined by
~rticles, unless theY 2re given partitive meaning.
Exx.
1 g~a
c
nj:;~re:m
'~
Common nouns are generi c nouns.
They refer to persons,
~nimals, objects, etc. unsPecificallyw
Common nouns can be
determined by ~rticl8s.
Exx.
1 35;:
DP
x'1l.:u
=
C1
child
b
sp
f,;s
:::::
3
hor Se
c
::,m
su:f
:::::
~
s~nd
The sbove Rnslysis can be presented in the form of the
following rule:
,.- Npr
,)
I
Rule sO
~J
7-
'r
I
\\
1eN C
\\
\\..
.~
)

---

. " . . .
" ¥
92
N.pr
includes;
On
the one hand;
N~pr which fefer
to
human
(Npr.H) ~ and on the other hafld, includes Npr tha.t rsfer
to non-
human (Npr.nH).
Exx~
flJ pr. H:
1 36 ':: )
)rn:Jr
b)
r );xxi
c)
g:.: ~~~J k
Npr. n H:
d)
guy-gewel
( name of j'l tr ee)
e}
ndcr
(noms of :') town)
"1. •...,
f)
. mb:, IW
(name of :J village)
'''-..J"
i:
This <!n.'lys is c;}n be pr es ent ed in the form of the
,11
followi n 9 rule:
RUle 51
~Jpr
~
~
"
Npr.• H.
~
I
Npr. nH )
l.
The subgroup Npr. H C,-c:n further be subdivided into
three groups.
Th.'Cit is
Npr.H which refer
to ethnics,
for
which
which
we USe the L'bel Npr.H.eth,~ Npr.H which refers to origi.n, forI
we Use the l2be l
Npr.H.Orig; 2nd
Npr.H which are known as
PersOn
names L-,beled here ;;s Npr.H.
nams.
Exx.
Npr.H.name:
r ).~xi
Npr .'H. 8th:
,
f)
j-):1£.,":
g)
p·e'l

---

•
93
Npr.' H.orig:
h)
si:nsi:n
The o:bove Can be presented in the form of the
following rule:
~ Npr. H name 'Ij
f
RUle 52
Npr.H
-,_.~>
eth
I
(::::: ',.I
orig
)
i'
The subgroup Npr.nH isfurther divided into h:o grOups.
The first
11
"
9 r 0 u p c 0 [l t a ins r~ pr. H ~ hi c h h a VEt h 8
f e :~' t u r e
;0: n i m:-: t 8 .
The y a r 8
;
,
The second !]roIJp contains ~lpr.nH that have? the
fe~ture In:lnimc"Qe? (Npr.nHJ)
Exx.
Hpr. nHl'
138 ;])
ftla:lCJLJ
c::
a hors 8
b)
mo"s ll-::,x
c::
0'
horse
c)
mb :J : s EJ3
c::
t":'}
lezord
'---'
Npr. n HJ
d)
ncja r
;;;:
to~n
~'--
e)
guy-geweL
=
-,
, <~
tree
f)
guy~S ef] :>:;r
;;;:
:"i
tr ee
g)
m·3 :maf)ge:c
=
~
Lac
h)
f!\\_~D: y 0:
~
:J
~ind from east in
Senegal
i)
si:n
=
region
~ ,Polo
j)
ra~
= .:2 to lJn

---

, ' (
~'1- I
This an~lysis Can be presented in the form of the following rule:
Rule -
53
-\\
j Npr .. n H. A (
~J pr. n H
---"3>
,
I
~ Npr.nH~I J
Yet thE
SIJb-grOup ~Jpr.nH.I can further
be subdivided into two
groups.
The first group contains Npr.nf-U which refer:
to
objects
which have the 'fe:Jt,ure concrete.
We designc.te this
group with the label Npr.nHJ.
conc.
The second group contains
Npr.nHI th:.:t rr;fsr to objects which h0vE the feetLJre"-,,,-3bstract-:.~.
Wo use the label
Npr.nH) ~b for this grOup.
Exx.
town
b)
si:n
::::
r egi on
c)
mc,: m;:;r)gE:C
'---"
cl)
~q a ~ 1)11 a : n ::::
- - '
e)
xumm Cl
::::
village
"--.,..-
g)
h)
de:g-u-da:ya:n
::::
;~' river 1 s name
(fr om tale)
i)
ndumbce la:n
::::
town
(froril tale)
_.~
....--'.
j)
Safara
::::
Hell
This analysis
Can be prEsented in the
fDrm of the
follouing
rUle:
, '
Rule -
54
(
Npr. n HI. C 6 n c -)
GJpr • n HJ
)
l
l Npr.nHI.,,:b j

---

·...,.
'1 ') .:."
95
'<~-,l/'
We have seen previously in R.49 that N is
rewr i tten
thus:
(
"
I'Jpr i,
I'J
)
- - - 7
l
\\
Ne
,\\
,
Ik has been given c,s
generic nouC13 'which refer:
unspecifi-
cally to human or
to nonhuman.
In its turn Nc r.an be subdividod intc two
groups.
The first group contairs
",11 Nc
which rE'fer to
human.
The second
group contains Ncs which refer to ron-human;
The former is
l~b81o.c Nc.H and the second group is l,"belec\\ 'Jc.nH.
Ex x.
NcH:
140 a)
x,',I'13
=
child
b)
b,: :y
=
f2ther
c)
nd :lf1g) =
studGnt
~ '
,
d)
njc :tig,ce
=
p"trCln
'~
e)
je:k
=
lady
F)
r(j.;-.gamr: :r
=
girl
(young)
Nc.n,H.
g)
fes
hors e
h)
c -): f
=
a
variety of fis h
i)
pi t~x
-
d
,
OV8
j)
garap
=
tr ee
k)
jen
=
fis h
1)
X?JC
=
dOg
etc.
This ~nalysis C2n be pr esenteo in the
form of the following rule:
~ Ne. H )
RUle 55
Ne
.~~
i
l ~.\\c.i1Hj
•

---

96
The subsr.cur'
Nc.H itsdf'w'il,l bE split into tuo subgrsIJpe
. ,." ..
The
firs~ onE referring tOk~nship terms is labeled as Nc.H.K
'-' .
The second one referring
to non-kinship terms is labeled ~s
Nc.H.nK
Exx.
Nc.H.I<:
1 41
c~ )
ba:y
=
father
b)
n de" y
=
mother
'--'"
c)
d:,: m
=
son
d)
g:;r)
=
in-law
e)
ma:m
=
grand-parent
f)
.""
C.c :mmln
to
=
re fer
to 2 LJoman'S
br other
g)
b 13 : j j.9SI1 =
father's
si st Gr
etc
.
~1c.H.nK:
142 d
xa 1 00
=
child
b)
,k f)X
=
girl
c)
ni t
=
pers on
d)
g:) n;-:B
=
child
~)
m·.,:gg:'8t =
old person
~_.,
f)
waxambD : n 'lS =
young man
EtC .'
This analysis can be' prEsentGd in thE farm of the
following rule-
SNC.H.K
i
RUle 56
NcH
- - ' 7
l Ne. H.nK J
Th" Nc.H.K can in
its turn be s!='lit into three subgrQUrs.~
ThE first
subgroup
refsrs
to N~.H.K wbich haVE thE fEGturc
·~<collectivE;P. It is labelEd f'c. H.K. coL

---

, .. ~
9'"(
,or
Th~ second subgroup r~fErs to thG Nc.H.K which indic?te
an order or a rank.
This
group is 12bGled as
Nc.H.K.Ord.
ThE third subgroup then refers to NC.,H. K which may
rsfer to an individuc<!.•
lJE use thE label Nc.H.K.lnd.
for tU5
subgroup.
Exx.
Nc.H.K.Col:
143 a)
wa:jur
rehtivGs
b)
nJ',b~·t
-.
children of ths family
~
c)
:0.11 fhe' pErsOns of ;:
family
c::tc.
~1c.H.K.Ord:
d)
ta:w
=
eldest son
8)
ca:t
=
yDungest cloild
f)
2 : U)
=
first
WifE in pol ygamy s ys t Em
g)
t:cfu
=
youngEr br ot her
h)
m"k
=
Elder brothef
i)
r akk
=
yo ung brothEr
~
etc.
Nc.H.K.lnd.
j)
j.~bc:r
k)
fe~~·G·r
husband
1)
b~,: y
rathdr
m)
ma:m
n)
sOaD
gr and- s.on
et c.

---

'!oo ...
,"
•
98
This ~nalysis can be pros~nt8d in the furm of thG followin~ rule:
I
Ne. H. 1<. Col )
RulE 57
Nc.H.I<
~ ~J c • H. K • 0r [I \\
\\i, Ne. H.K. Ind )
MoreoV8r if we ~n~lysB
the following s~nton[2S
( Xa d i· ha s a s 0 n who S E n a m~ i s r, j : x xi. )
'--"
it aPPEars that 14~a ~nd,,144c arc ungr~mmatical due to 2 lack
and
jabar on thE other hand.
I
The matrimonial kinship term jG~~e~ has thG fEature
(J,masculinc»and thG matrimon~al kinship term .::iabar has th8 feature
(.(fGmininG'; while ~mar and Xadi rc:spe ctivcly haVe the feature
~"masculinG>.and(dcmininGii. Thus J5~kG·r cannot stand as NP objE'ct
in 144a, and similarly 3abar'cannot stand as NP Object in 144c,
whilE 1440 and d ar3 grammatical sinc2 here jabar and jo~~~r
respGctively arE IIJ'P objC'cts in 144b and'144d.
But in 1448 and

---

144f in spite of the: diff[rEnCE botu8/On musa: and r:;.:xxi [,jhich
' - J
used to refer to Musa: and r;:xxi
•
"-_.--'
The res u1 t
0 f
t his a n a 1 ysi s is Ne. H. K• In d.,
will in i ts
turn b(l dEvidc:d into three sub~rol1.llps.
The: first onc rGfers to Nc.H.K.lnd.
which have: thE
Th (I S E CO n don 0 r [f e r s
toN c. H. K. In d.
whie h h a v E: t h (3
,
thus 1abe1ed Nc.H.K.lnd.f~m.
The third one refers to Nc.H.K. lnd.
which have thE
thus
labc1ed Nc.H.K.lr'ld.neut.
Exx_
Nc.H.K. Ind~masc:
145 a)
ba~Y
, .-
=
father
b)
jt!kk"G\\-
=
husband
,~
c)
• .J
ca:mm~n
wom~n's brothGr!
""
d)
ni ja:Y
=
:In p'i3 mot hc:r ' s
brothel;
Nc.H.K.lnd.fl?m:
G)
ya:y
=
mothGr
r)
jabar
::=
wifC!
g)
Jig E:n
=man's
sistGr
h)
ba:L~aJr'l
etc.
Nc.H.K~lnd.neut:
i)
d'j: m
son
;', ...
j)
ss"t
grand-son
k)
ma:m
""
gr ar'l d- par.'s nt
1)
g-Jr) [
ir'l-law
ate.

---

. ,
100
This analysis can· bG prGsGntc:d in the form of the following rule:
(
Ne. H. K. Jn cl, mes c •.)
Rul e 58
Ne.H.K.lnd.
)
Nc.H.K.lnd.,fem.
r
~ Nc.H.K.lnd.ncut. )
Then Nc·.H.nK also can be subdivided into five subgro~ps.
;Subgroup-I.
refErs to Ne. H.nK which have the: fcature(...co.llGctivG ....>.·
That is theY rofer to human as a·body.
This group is
labsled (Ne.H.nK.Col.)
Subgroup 11.
refers to Ne.H.nK which h~vG t~G fGaturG«lndividual)~
They refer to human as an individual.
They arE grouPed undGr
the; label (Ne.H.nK.lnd.).
Subgroup-Ill.
refGrs to Ne.H.nK. which have the feature
<~profcssional»•.
That is, indicating tho type of work.
We us[?
the:l~bel (Ne.H.nK.Prof.) for this group.
Subgroup-IV.
refers to Nc.H.nK which have: the feature<.<..Origin\\>
That is N which indicate the ge:og~aphical origin of somebody.
They arG grouped undGr the: labGl (Nc.H.nK.Origo).
Subgroup-V.
refers to' Nc.H.nK which have tho featurG~Ethnies;..;.
That is N which indicatG racs.
This group is labolod
(Nc. H.nK.Eth.).
! '
Exx.
Ne. H.nK.Col:
. !
146 a)
mb):l-j:
=
group of per~ons
b)
je:k (/-ji) :::
all th'c ladies
c)
1 'G°l
=
group of children for
initiation in traditional
society
d)
=
association of persons

---

101
Nc.H.nK.lnd:
c)
nit
=
person
f)
g:> nm
=
child
g)
J-i go: n
=
woman
h) .
go:r
=
man
et c.
Nc.H,nK.Prof:
i)
u :dm
=
cobbler
~)
t·o·CJ.Sl
=
smi th,
jcw"llcr
k)
mbandkat
=
trcuba dour
~j
' , • • "
1)
ta: xura: nkllt -
troubadour
etc.
Ne. H.nK. Orig:
m)
wa :l)wa :1)
=
from
w·a : 1)
n)
si:nsi:n
=
from si:n
0)
baw~lbaw-,:
=
from .Ja w)l
p)
aJ): r
~
frOm kajJ:r
Gtc.
Ne.H.nK. Eth:
q)
sC?:rG:r
1')
tukulo:r
s)
j:J:la:
t)
w): mif)ka
...,.
etc.

---

"
102
This analysis
can be presented in the
form of the following rule:
l
('Ne.H.riK.col.
\\
Ne. H.nK. Ind.
'(
Rule 59
Ne.H.nK
---.:,
)
Nc.H.nK.Prof.
,
\\ Ne. H. n K• Or i g. \\
~Ne.H.nK.Eth. )
Yet
Ne.H.nK.Col.
can be subdivided into three
groups
according
to the gGndcr.
The first
group ineludGs
N with the feature ",maseuline,o -".",
They are labcled Ne.H.nK.Col.
Masc.
The second
group contains t, with the? feature «,feminine ", :
They
arc labGled Ne .H.nK.6ol.fe?m.
The third group contains
I~ with thG feature «,neutGL',\\ '.
ThEY
are labelEd
Ne. H.nK. Col.neut.
~xx.
Ne·H.nK.Col.masc:
*'
147 a)
surga (/_ _
' !d) = the employeos
Ne.H.nK.Col.fem:
b)
Je:k
U_--,.-ji) =
thG ladies
c)
jSl)x (,
' j i ) =
t'hc
girls
~
etc.
Ne.H.nK.Col.NGu:
,)
n
m_9:l :h:
=
group of persons
e)
rJl_~):fa:y
=
association of persons
ct c.
Thi s analysis can bG pr es Gnt cd in the form of the following rule:
(Ne.l--i.riK.Col.[;l"sc. "
Ne. H. n K. Co 1.
~
I
I NC' H. n K. Co 1. f em.
j
'. Ne. H.nK.Col.neuto

---

103
Si mi 1 ar 1 y, Nc. H. n K. I nd ~ can be sub d i vi d l?d in t o t hr G E gr 0 u ps 0 nth G
bEl S ~.
0 f
g: '1 d 0 I' •
'"
th~ first group is constituted by N which havl? tho foaturG
<<.m~sculinG)~• .They are labc1ed Nc. H.nK. Ind.masc.
Th o socond group contains N which haVe? the foaturl? «fGminim:)~.
ThGY arc labdGd Ne.H.nK. Ind.f8m.
The third group includes
N which have thG fGaturl?,.,nGutor>
ThGY ar€
labaled Nc.H.nK.lnd.n8u~t.
Exx.
Nc.H.nK.lnd.masc:
148 a) ,
go a
=
man
b)
LJa xamba : n as
:::
young man
., ...'"
Ne.H.nK.lnd.fGm:
. .
.
c)'
Jlgo. n
=
d)
ja~
=
girl
0)
'njagama:r
:::;
young girl
' - J
f)
je:k
=
lady
etc.
Nc.H.nK.lnd.nGut:
g)
nit
=
pGrson
h)
xa1re
:::;
child
i)
g-.:;. naJ
""
child
j)
ndaw
""
young person
'--'
etc.
This analysis can bG presC?nted in
thE
FmI'm of fhG
followi ng rulG:
Nc.H.nK.lnd.Masc.
(
RulG 61
Nc~ H.nK. lrid. fern.
Nc. H.nK. Ind.nGut.,

---

ThBn analysing Nc.nH.
it appears that it can in its turn be
j
divided into two sub§roups:
Subgroup~-I
refers to N that arE~animatoA
Thus they arG
grouped under thE labol Nc.nH.A.
Subgroup~:
refers to N which arE~inanimate~
Thus they are
grouped under the labGl Nc.nH.I
Exx.
Nc.nH.A:
149 a)
Xar
=
sheep
b)
nak
=
cow
c)
fas
=
hors 0
d)
c -): f
=
a var i ety of fish
G)
jar:ln
=
a variety of fis h
ate.
Ne. 11 H. I :
f)
guy
:::
tree
g)
do:ba:L.
=
ver iety of treG
h)
g8:1
==
dug-out can('O
i)
tama
:::
a drum
j)
da:ll
==
shoe
ate.
This analysis ean be presentod In the form of the follouing rule:
Rule 62
Nc.nH

---

105
Ne.nH.A
ean in its turn b" subdivided into two groups.
Th" first
gro~p eortains Ne.nH.A
~~ie~ ref"r
to n.Hu,an as
a group.
Thus
thGY are laboled Ne.nH.A.Col.
ThG seeond group eontains Ne.nH.A whieh refer
to n.human as
Eln
individual,
Thus
thoy Elro groupod under
the label Ne.nH.A. Ind.
Exx.
Ne.nH.A.col:
150 a)
jur
=
eattle
b)
o e: tt
herd
~
~
=
e)
e):ggal
=
a group of animals
otc~"
Ne.nH.A.lnd:
d)'
fas
=
h or se
0)
ga :tt
=
Elny animal (but of small
~
stat(_;~)
f)
cJ:f
=
a
variety of fish
g)
mb,):tt
=
a VariGty of fish
h}
Ca:' ku
parrot
etc.
This anEllysis
CEln be presented in the
form of the following rule:
)l' Ne.~H.A.COl. IJ~
Rule 63
Nc.nH.A
Nc.nH.A.lnd.
Again Nc.nH.A. Ind.
ean be split into three smallGr subgroups
according to the gender.
Subgroup- I is Nc.nH'.A. Ind.
whieh
have the feature"" masculine".
They ar e labeled ~rc.nH.A. Ind .masc.
Subgroup'-II is
Nc.nH.A.lnc<.
which
have the feature <<Feminine».
They Elre grouped under
the label
Nc.nH.A. Ind.fem.
:-1,·

---

·' ..
106
Sub 9 r 0 u p - I I I con t Cl i n ~ ~J c • n H• ,0,. I n d.
whie h r c fer
t 0
~J wit h f Gat u r (?
-;'ineutGr')') •
They arc labolGd Ne. nH.A. Ind.ndut.
[xx.
Nc.nH.A.lnd.masc:
1 51
a)
SI2:XX
=
:ock
b)
ku:y
=
ram
c)
m:: ;1
::::
stallion
d)
yb'kk
=
Bull
'-'-
etc.
Nc.nH.A.lrirJ.fEm:
t · ·er) 9
=
hon
waj-a n
maro
Nc.nH.A.lnd.neut:
g)
Xa r
=
shoep
h)
bey
=
goat
i)
nak
=
chickon
EtC.
1
.l
~ "
This analysis can bcprcsontGd in the form
of trG following rule:
Nc.~H.A.lnd.Masc~ ;.'
R"Ljlc 64
f·Jc.nH.A.·lnd.
~
---'i>
Nc.nH.A.lnd.rc.m.
J
\\. Nc.nH.A. Ind.r~cut.
Nc.nH.I.
can be split into two subgroups.
Th le fir s t
sub ~ r nil 'p con t a ins t h G [\\J c • n H. I whie h h a v G t h l? f Eat u r G
\\<.concrl2tc ».
T.hEY aro grouped 'ut;dor
thE label Ne. nH - 1. cone.
ThG SEcond contains tho Nc.nH. I which have thG fc-aturo
«abstract».
Thoy arC' labolcd Nc.nH.I.Abs.

---

107
..:..
...
Exx.
Nc.nH.I.Cone:
152 a)
su:f
'"
b)
garap
=:
c)
da=ll
=:
d)
to:to:r
:=;
flower
/
e)
X)P
;::::
.lEa f
Gte.
Ne. n H. 1. Abs
f)
Xa2 1
""
int G 110e t
,
g)
mb'8·gg aG : 1
lOVe
' - . . /
=
'-_ ....
,.-.
h)
e') 'fa: :1
=
10 vC'
......
i)
fit
=
courago
atc.
This analysis can be presented in the form of the· following rule:
SNe, nH, 1. Con c. l
.
r
Ruls 6S
~Je.nH.I
- - >
I Nc.nH.I.abs.
)
\\.
Moreover Nc.nH.I.Conc. is in its turn divid~d into two subgroups.
Nc.nH.I.Conc. which refer
to living objEcts constitute the first
growp that wc label Nc.nH.I.Conc.L
Nc.nH.I.c~nc. that refer t~ n=n living ~bjEctJ c~n5tiDut~ the
soc:Jnd gr::Jup that Wc:: label Nc.nH. I.cGnc.nL
[xx.
Nc.nH. I.c::::nc.L:
1 5:3 a)
garap
=
tr8c
b)
x~p :. r '
=
loaf
c)
t:J:,tc.::r
;::;
fl-::wcr
. "

---

10'8
d)
kawar
hair
0)
nax
=
grOGn~grass
E.'tc •.
Nc.nH.I.cJnc.nL:
f)
d:c
=
st~ne
g)
su:f
=
sand
h)
xa~>:
=
plank
'i)
p·8C1.9
=
dust
j)
taxxandED :r
=
shadDw
-..../
~,
This analysis can be presented in the form ~f the fDIIDwing rule:
S~Ic•n•H.I•conc•L "(
Rule 66
Nc.nH. 1. conc.
I
r
( Nc.nH.1.cClnc.nL
)
Th
b
N
H I
L
be· dl' ·vl·d~d
8
su grDUp
c.n • • eClnc.
Can m~reOVer
~
into twc
smaller subgroups which arc as follows:
The first onc c~ntains Nc.nH.I.eonc.L
which have the feature
«collectivo~>.
TheY arc grClup8d under thG labEl Nc.nH. 1. ccnc.L.Cal.
The s8eond Dne contains Ne.nH.I.e~ne.L
which have tha feature
... Individual
.. . TheY arC' groupod undGr the labGl Ne.nH.1.eClnc.L.
Ind.
Ex x.
Ne.nH. Lcclnc·.;L.CCJI:
154 a)
Cl : 11
=
fCJr es t
b)
gancax
vordure
-
~
=
c)
cagg
=
bunch,
cluster
~
d)
jiwu
=
s Gods
et c.

---

109
Nc.nH.I.cJnc.L.lno:
~)
garap
tree
f)
fr u i t
g)
t=:t'J:r
=
etc.
This analysis Can be prcscntocl in thl?
f::;rm :Jf the follolJing _rule:.
) Ne. n H • ~. Cel ne. L • Col.;
Rule 67
Nc.nH.I.cClnc.L
~---~-
,
r
lNc • nH. I. cClnc •L• Ind •)
Nc.nH.I.conc.nL
can in its turn be split intc tw~ sUbgroups.
That is N which havE' [) moaning Jf celllGctivD and N which ha\\\\JfG a
meaning ~f individual.
Tho first gr:Jup is labElod Nc.nH.'Lconc.nLC::il.
Tho s~c~nd grJUp is labolGd Nc.nH.I.conc.nL.lnd.
Exx.
Nc.nH. I.cJnc.nL.CDl:
155 a)
takka:y
=
asct of jcwclleries
'---"'
b)
la1ta:y,
~
swaddling-clJthQS
c)
ka :k CD
:;:;
luggagE'1
I?t c.
Nc.nH. Lc:mc.nL.lnd:
cl)
mbaxana:;
=
hcad-dr GSS
' - '
G)
lam
=
bracelet
f)
Q")bar
:::
big knife
g)
ilo:r
:::
a typo of instrument
f':Jr
pl:Jughing
etc.

---

--'-7',
110
~_~~ It
This analysis can be presented In thG f~rm of the following rule:
/ Nc.nH,I.conc.nL.Col.
\\
\\
i
Rule 68
Nc.nH.I.CClnc.nL
J
~ Nc.nH.I.conc.nL.lnd.
\\
I Nc.nH. I.cCJnc.nL.
+- count
\\.
I1.1.8.31
Pronouns
------
Pn
arc all Ns which have c2asc-c ontrast and Person
distit.cti~n1 or an NP rcforont.
Pns arc dividGdinto several
classes as presented in the following rul~:
-
" Pors. Pn
\\
(
\\
Dcm.Pn
\\
) IntQ+Pn I
Rule 69
Pn
- - - " ?
P.cs • Pn .
\\,
\\
)
'\\
Re fl. Pn
(
I Rd. Pn
I
t
Indef.Pn
)
\\.
1I.1-.8.32 Personal
~ _ _ _ _ ""_h
Pr :1nGuns
-.
(
\\
1 Pers.
)
)
Rule: ]0
Pcrs.Pn
~
\\
2 Pors.
~
I
+ singtNClm; ACCU5~
I
I
-
l
I
3 Pcrs.
)
.
(1
""\\
(1
P
'\\
!
Per s.
Grs. !
I
RuJ,.tJ 71
~ 2 Pers.;
+ sing.N:Jm. ~
II
(,3 Por s. )
i2 Pers.l + sing.NCJm.2=. :cm,sh
1
I
r
3 Pers.)

---

1··,
"
"!
-= r\\
111
Dom8nstratiYG Pronouns
I 1. 1 ~ 8 ~ 33r-----~--..:~-:-:=:=---
( Praxosp( H)
~\\
\\
)
Proxocxcl.H
/
Rulo 72
Dom.
Pn.
---3>
,I
\\l
\\ R Gm. 8 q.
[
{
(
)
Rc:m.Lesscr H
\\
IntorrogativG pronouns Can bo divided into threB tYPGS
which arc as follows:
type having,the feature e,+ human»
t ype ha vi n Q t hG f Gat ur G « + n 8 ut 8 r ~)
type havinQ the feature ~<,+ huma.n>~+ selective ">
Let us analYse the following sentences:-
1 56 a)
kan
mJ:
WaX
=
who has spCJk en
b)
* 'lan m):
waX
=
What has spokGn
c)
*·J:-ban
m') :
wax
=
which has sp':Jken
Tho VErb
wax
requires a subject which has the feature
«+ human~~ kan is suitable wher2as lan and ban makb sentencos
156b and 156c unQrammatical.
II
Thus kan is interrogative pronoun
rhe: use;: af lan sUQQGsts an irldeterminati::m as
f~H the
Ex.
157
lan
fi
jola3
mburu
mi
?
.~.
(what has rem':Jved the bread fr'Jm hGrG 7)

---

112
ThG speaker d~~snrt care whcthar the do~r ~f the action is a
As Wc have just soen, kan w~uld have implicated a p8rs~n
as
door ~f the action necessarily.
Thus lan is interrCl~ative prClnClun ~"+ ncuter-:».
NDw if wc c::msidcr tho f::Jllowing scntcnccs:
158 a)
ban
ci
xac
yi
m>:y
atld
_.~
ak man: ?
(which among tho dogs will cCJm G along LJi t h me;. 7)
b)
* ban
ci
xalao
yi
mJ: y
and
ak
man ?
( whie h 8m0 n c;: the bCl Ys wi 11 CJ mG 81 ~ n9 wit h mcc?)
. Wen Cl tic e t hat the n Cl u n x2 1co
whi c h has t h c: f eat u r c «+ hum a n 7/
d~csnlt accept the IntcrrClgativc Pr~noun ban,whilc the noun x~
<<--human""»
'lJJJrks 'with ban.
Tho conclusion is that ban is the
pr Cl n Cl un wh i c h f u1 f i l s t Il c a Qr c e m0 nt
wit h a n 0 u n 1...<- -
hum Cl n '-.>.> •
Morc~vcr the Interrogative prJnClUn ban has thc feature
<<.... s d cc t i v (;"";>") t hEl t
i s t 0 say,
i t r e fer s t,:) a n Cl b j cc t l n
opposition tCJ another Clbjcet.
Int.Pron~· <<.. + hum2n » may have tho feature: <<., .: sin g >'>
.'
Ex x.
159 a)
ka n
m ):y
wax ? ::::: ( wf:1 0 speaks?)
b)
--nan n:;.:y
waX ? ::; ( WhCl speaks)
kan
==
<'- + sing "»
nan
::::
4<- sing ;,)
·Int. Pron. <.<. + nowt(?r"» have the feature ,,~ + sing '71 only

---

" L'
113
159 c)
lan
What is stirring
?.
This
analysis
can be pres~ntcd in the farm of thG following rylo:
(+
human
I nt. Pn
---...;.. Int.pnl: neuter
sing y~
PCls.Pn.
is gc:nc:raly.
pr~cedGd by Poss.Adj.
lJh~n thG P'JSSCS2CJr is namod, thG Adj. doesntt apPcar.
Exx.
1'60 a)
'sama
b5s
::::
min G'
b)
sa
b )s
::::
YClurs ( + sirm )
. i
c)
b)sam
:::::
his
d)
~
s unu b)5
::::
'Jurs
c)
sa: :n
b)s
r
y 'J ur s
( - sing)
r)
S~ : n
b )s
::::
theirs
If we analyse the f::Jl i Ciwi ng. fJhrascE'"
1 61
a)
s am a
xar
::::
( my shc:cp)
b)
S3ma
bf>s
::::
(mine)
WO
can nCJticc that b~s LJGhaVCs likE a w:Jrd which replacc:s xar.
•
11
Thus, 161
b sh'Juld be translatcod as:
limy mIne.
In the same'
way WE have 151
c.
161
c)
b )SU
)mar
his
0 f
jm El r
/ t hat
0 f
:Jm a r == ,]m a r 1 s
P::J ss c: ss i VG pr rJn [) U n s
hElve t h c f cat u r I? ~< + sing"?).
FClr
instance

---

Il-t
1i;2- a)
sam3
b)s
:c>
min
(
(3
+ sing)
b)
s ams
y~s
=
mIne
(
sing)
c)
L ')S u )fT1ar
""
t ha t
CIf ')mar
d)
y-:;,s
u
)rnar
=
t h CJS co of ')mar<
This anal·ysis
can
bG
pr CS cnt c:d
in
thE fOrm
'Jf the? f<JlloLring rule::
I 1
PGrs.
\\
(.
II
1
Rulc= 73
Pos.Pn
I
--> Pas • Pn~2 Pers.
.« + nUfilb cor »
I
\\3 Pers.
j
11.1.8.36 Refloxive; PrClnCluns
Considc=r
the
follo~ing sentenCEs:
..
'i 63 a)
f CC ta 1
s h Cl ·~:t
Jmar
m L'nna
- )mar Can
fa3 tal
b)
::;m;3r
men na/b):p pa m =
:)mar
can shCJ:Jt himself.
--<
c)
,)mar
m'~nna
feD tala 1
b):p p"arn
=
.....
.)ma r
can
shoot
by ( f:Jr )
hims 51 f.
d)
=
musa:
15)
e.)
)maT
m";?nna
fa:-talal
mUSa:
) mar
Can s h CJ CJt
fClr mus a~
In
1b3a tb~ VB has no Np c~mpl.GmEflt"
In "16~b EIrH:l
In 163d and
mUGs:
Thus
in 1'~J and 163~ )mar can shoot somGOnc else Sr for
SOmeone else,
But
·in 163b and 163r!:,wC understand )ma r
can

---

115
'Whoot )fll3r,
and --;maI' can shQ::t by (fQr)
.)mar.
Wc shall analyst?
in thc Chapter:.
CJn Transf:Jrm<;ltions the pT:JCeSs by which
b)ppam is substitutld f~r Jmar (NP complcmGnt).
This analysis can be prcs[ntcd in
the f 8 rm of the following rul,:
(1
\\
Rule: 74
Rpf.Pn)2 PETS.
,
(3 Pers
II • 1 • B • 37 R cl at i v c:? Pr:m 0 un s
RGlatiVG Pronouns arc used to introduc~ a clause
which functi~ns as modifi~r of NP.
EXX.
aP
cs: ku
co'
I I
a Parrot has gone this way
aP
CI2 ku
buy
sap
a parrot which cries has oone this way
164a and 164b
can be pr~s~nted in th~ form of the following
16~a
NP ---------
PJ.P
~----------
/ / / /
T
N
'/
,
I
,
,
,
\\,
r
/
,
r
,
I
,
r
,
,
/
r
I
/_----
r
r
ap
ca:'ku
!a1n:=J
fi
a
parrot
has Q~nc this way

---

116
s
--
-_...---------------
d.P
/\\
/ "
j-a;r n a
fi
In
164b the: previous sontoncc164a has boc;n GxtondGd by El
In 164a wc talk about a parrot, 1n 1:64b
wc spGcifvthat the parrot criGs.
Parr:::Jt
=
ca::ku
par rClt
cr ies
==
CeD ku 'Sap
In orde:r t'J aV:::Jid tho recurrc:nee of caoku in the relative'
clauSe: i t i s substituod by the: prOnClun bu.
This ,Ptoc.Qdure of
substituti~n will be analyse:d with m~rc details latcr, in the
et.ha pt or
on Tr ans f'JrTn a ti Clns •
ap
cc.c ku
bu y
SaP
Ja:t:na fi
8
Parr~t which cries has gone this way
c)
El P
cEe ku
b i Y
sap,", J I\\:\\:t' n El
Fi
D parrot
which cries has gene this uay
.
ca::; ku,
biy
sap
ja:r na
~
,1
the" parrot which cries has g~no this uay.'

---

11 '7
We nClticc that
1 G4b
and c
ha vc NP d Q t G r mi n c d by T. i nd .,
whi 1 c d is
d"tcrmincd by T..def. (hc:re dc;IEtc.'d).
band d arc grammatically cClrrect sentences,
while
c is not.
-In
b
the Rc:l.
Pr:Jn.
is
bu
-In
d
the Rel~ PrOn.
is
bi
Tho result
=f this
Glnalysis
is
th8t
when NP has Tjnd.,
the USG
CIf bi is ungrammatical, but the usejf bu is grammatical.
ThCSG sclccti;Jnal restrictions IGad ·us to tho eanclusi~n that
Rc:l.Pron.
may be definite Clr indcfinitG.
Furthermorc if wc: consider the fallowing NP,
1650
aP
c~ ku
buy
sap
a P8rrot which cries
b
ay
ca: ku
yuy
saP
parr at~ which cry
c
c33 ku
biy
saP
the ParrClt
0hich cries
d
C3J ku
yiy
sap
the Parrats
which cry
WC' Can notice anJthEr feature: Rel.Pron.
is~ +- sing. '>',
This analysis Can be presented
in the
farm of the fDllowinQ
rule:
) dGfinite
~I
Rule 75
R c:L Pr on •
- - - 7
RGI.Pron.
,
<.'-- +- nb,)
Li n d c fin i t C .J
.'.
. -

---

1
"..,
•
118
11.1.8.38 IndefinitE Pr~noun8
In d • Pro n.
fila yha v~: t h G f c=- a t u r c .~'. + hum an» •
Exx.
kE:PP
ku
* whOever whs speaks catch y~u him.
(catch wh:JcoVGT
sp c~l<s.)
.b)
* k CO -: pp
ku
Sap
ja:1iJ
lEG : n
'--'
' - '
whOever
whc cries catch you him
(catch wh'Jcvcr eriC's.)
166b
lS n~t grammatical because the sclectisnal
rr=stricti::-:n lS
such that the verb Sap which has
the
fGaturc <".- human))i
roquires al\\ NP subjc et,
which has
the feature <z-
human -"),
whereaS
,66a
is grammatical.
The CQnclusl::n is
that kc:pp is
'-'
a
1nd.Pr:::Jn. «.+ human )~. ~lorcovcr iF lJG analyse
,67a an'd 1G7b.
kE/2 :nn
.---
waxul
b)
'*' dara
w3xul
wh i 1 e '1 67 a is.
Thus
kao :nn
is Ind.Pr:Jn. (<. + human »
'---"
dara
is
Ind.Pr':Jn.
/.<.
-
human »
Sow co Can s tat c t hat
In d , f:r 0". mEl y a 1~o ha \\i e the f c; a t LJ r to' «- hum () n j? •

---

119
This analysis ean be presented in the f~rm of the f~llowing rula:
RulG 76
1nd.Pr~n.
-----'>
1nd.Pr~n. <-< + human 7> •
11.1.8.39 ~~e~aS~R~~ntal~~~n£~
t
Rul e 77
/ ' /
-----:l;
/r. ih to.r,. /.;
/ f :intoo) 1

---

.-. -~?'.~(i''1 (".
.
120
~,
.......
*
*
*
11.1
CHAPTER C
*
*
*
*,~
*
LEX le O/'J
~~
*
*
*
'*

---

121
II.1.c
.'
k.EXI CAlIT Ef'lS
Enclosed in square bTackets are the
Features relevant
to the sUbcatego1:issti'Jn rules.
Side by side, We are giving in parenthest=s,
whenever
W8
find i t easy,
the elem.ents
for semantic interpretation.
r)go:r
(jlbur i
+ N
I
- I
+ N
i
II
+ Prop
... PrOp
+ Prop
+ H
l: H
+ Male
+ Male
~lale ii
--!
'Person generally belong-\\,
'Person generally\\
peTS,On generally \\
( ing to Se:Te:r ethnics,;1
From pular
)
from la.1olof
)
(
\\ m~st probably from
,-
(
ethnics
I
et hni cs
,Sl:nregion
/
m'a : la w
+ N
+ N
+ Prop
l+ Prop~
+ H
+ Female
Person generally\\
to an
o~
\\
fr
Se::r; e : r
)
tr ans f8rtJ
(
ethni cs
, ~

---

122
s.e:re:r
ai:n-5i:n
+ N
----[
l -----...
, r +
, -
.--L
NJ-_
Prop)
+ Com.!
1+ . Prop --1
_..J
" Com/T
j
- 1I
+ Ethnies
~
) + H
(
e
!
human
J
G- Ethnie~ E
j
L
di3 1 0ct -l ..± Epicane
+ Orioiri,
~
,-
/ From Si:n
":SSoken mainly \\
I
\\I
, Co mmun i t Y r 0 f er r in 9 t 0
\\
r Sa:lum;
\\i1in Si:n,.Petite)
pers ons or iginat ed from \\
\\
P e tite-c3te; 1 Cote;
01ont-
I
/
1
5i:n region and belonging'
\\\\Mol>t-Rollal>diiftOlland area:
I
( to So:re:r-speakinq
. ,ar 8 a.
)
\\,5 ~ : 1 um
/
\\. Community.
mbo:yo:
Quy'-gewe"l
nda:r]ga:n
'--"
~--'
.:..........
I-:!\\]
l
-,
G.N
I+ Prop
+
,
Prop
!
.. H
-
An
i
- l i v ing;
+ livin~
+ pf.-ace
, + ::ling
!
+ Sing
~
- '
Sing
\\J3rm wind blowing
i
\\ I The cast 8 0 f g el.,ta"l USed
\\
name of 'j
J
\\
from East in Seneoal'
! .tc ~p8rform Ceremonies under)
( an area j
\\'
fr o'm
Ju~e»)
(? r'lay to
Ithe shadow Of one Parti- )'
I
t cuWar ~I GtJy rI _,tr 8e, hone 8
,
\\
.~
/
\\named
9UY-Qewe~.
/

---

123
de:g-u-da:ya:n
ndubae laC,n
~~ :s a2 - ku~~e·- ji ge: n
...
.----
1+ N
I
I
+ N
(
+ N
Pr:>p
I
1+
+ Prop
1+ Prop
I
-
I
H
H
(
- An
I
- An
I
~ Hliving
II
+ ,!\\ bs
I
--.J
+ Abs
( ~ame given to a riVer) 'name of an area in) a lizard believed
In a Senegalese tale
( . a Senagalese tale
to be the protect- \\
ing totem at
l
\\ Kaolack (Senegal)
)
l
ba:y
I
1
+ N
I
+ N
~N
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ H
+ H
+ An
+ epicene
+ 'picene
+ Male
l
+ Sing
I
+ Sing
+ Sing
--..;
+ Kinship I
-.l
' below age. 0 f
pub er t y •\\)
I
below age 0 f pub er t y 1 ( rl ale -P are n ~ )
I
MaY refer
to the
Moy refer to the
(
,
young generation.
young generatic::n.
)
I

---

12~
nd:> :nq"":)
nja :ti gaB
njagama: r
' -
:,.'j
'--'
'"-
---.
+ N
+ N
+ N
\\
+ Corn
+ Com
+ Corn
j
+ LI,.
+ H
+ H
?
epi cene
+ Sing
- '
+ Sing
1 -
Person devo::i.ng
\\
( em p 10 Yer )
.tudie~
(himself.to
•.•
\\
~- term used sometlmes )
by 01 d CD en to addr es s
a young Fellow [ _
li 1/
Ja : f) x
je:k
-----
-,
i
+ N
+ N
.1I
+ N
+ Com
+ Cam
I
+ Com
+ P-
+ H
+ H
l+ Fdma1e
+ Female
+ Femal e
_+
+
Sing_J.
+ Sing--l
Sing
\\
(- attained PUbert Y
divorcee C1r lJid OW'\\
r. -
l
Virgin
not married asaln
\\
not Yet marr ied'/
lady doing
prostitution
/
1. de fin i t e a r tic 1 e
<''- + Sin 9 ....j)

---

",
F" '
lZ5
kuti
xac
+ N
+ N
+-bom
+ Corn
+ $In
+ An
+ Sing
+ Sing
(given
tQ unknQwn dQgs)
' C8rnivorous quadraped of genus Of]
( many breeds wild and domE'sticatC'd)
3C'n
garap
- ,-
+ r-J
+ N
+ N
+ Prop
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ An
+ An
Human
-
+ Species
+ Sing
+ li ving
+ Sing
-+ generic
+ eeneric
name given to a \\
'Vertebratecol~~blooded !-Perenr;lial plant
\\
(
I
\\
\\ variety of fish,)
animal having gills
-
c.(th a single self- \\
ii
throughout life and
supporting trunk
j
limbs (if any)
modi-
Qf wood
-
wi. th .
~
\\
i
I
fied into fins.
<us~ally) no bran-
I
II/(
/

---

'I
126
'.
I
pitax
- '
+ r~
+ N
+ Com
+ Cam
+ An
+ An
+ Sing
(bird a f family,
I Feat her ed vertebrate
-
Small hard
columbidCQ,
) (With two wings and
inflamed spot
pigeon.
two fe et •
on skin.
ace ku
'ia.:y
i '.
+ N
+ N
l
-+ N
+ Prop
+ Corn
+ Com
+ An
+ li vin 9
i+ Sin g.
+ 5 i ng.
+ ~ in g.
' -
+ kinship
+ Epicene
--...J.
+ kinship
• / bird wi th short hooked
-
Par ant
-
offspring Df\\\\'
bill,
of order Psittaci-
/ _ j i , any lady
per s on, ani ma 1
\\
formes,
mainly tropiCal,
having more or
or
plant.
)
J
of which many species havl£
1 es s
on e' s
beautiful plumage and
mother's age.
/
/
some can be taught to
/
t epea t WO r d s •

---

127
3ige: n
1 - - - - -
--,
1-
I
+ N
I
+ Corn
+ C
+ Corn
+ H
lll+ Adj
1+
living
+/-livinc;·
+ Fernali? I
'__
_ I
+ H
+ Sing.
+ Court
+ f'lale
+ Sing
+ Female
+ Sing.
+ Kins hi
+ Concret
+ Kinship
/ -term by which a lad Y\\;" -human fema leildenote \\ (pawn, in
\\,
refers to hor brother
(_adult "",,,,a·~)(tho sex) games likE]
or for rc=spect,
to
\\
any male p[?rson having)l
by a human male
\\ more or less her
age. /
to refer to his
J
sistEr or by res- \\
\\ PEC:,to any f~nn 1G)
per"",_n of mQrl: or I
\\ less his age.
J
go:r ---
--:.:..
+ Adj
iI
!
+ Corn
+ living
+ H
+ H
+ Male
+ Sing.
+ SIng
(~
(havi~g attained~
adul t
male pers on
\\ ( denot_es \\
~
a brave
(both s8xes))
male sex.;
matur ity
)
\\

---

128
ba:jjro :n
nija: y
+ N
+ N .
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ H
+ H
+ Female
+ Male
+ Kinshi
+ Kinship
+ Sing
+ Sing -'
used t~ refer to ons's,
( fathEr's sister
)
-oxprcssian used by a lady
referring to her husband.
+ N
+ N
+ COrn
NP
+ Corn
+ H
- H
+ H
SUbj-
+ FEmale
+ Female
+ Kinship I
+ Sing. I
---1.
+ Sing. -.J
WomEn with Llhom ~Jne)
t [) re fer t [) a nl a 1 E)
(
(
is lawfully married.
pgrsonfs l:Jve'
to practice
tradi tional
medicine, while
pretending to base
knowledgE on occultism.

---

129
far
...------.---- I
: : : : - -
_ _ _ _ _- --------
!
I
, -
-.---------===-------..._-
- -
.
- .
t -
r-""----.
i
N
I
-1+Adj
+A,ux.
I
+ Com
I +/ - l.i vi n9
i+ Ma d
II
objEct
+ H
I
+
v
I, + DEscrip-
+ r~a I ['
+ CountEr
t i~n
GXpGct c~
/dGnatEs thiCk.ness) / indicates that1/to br::1on£\\
SPGC~allY of
[
an acti:'n has \\( to DnG
;
(
llquld elements.
f
finally
bGc:n
i\\group
J
I
I.
donE at
the
I placE of an I
i action that
!
\\
was expected.!
magQret
mak
~
--, . -
--------
-
"
-! + Adj
I +. N
. I
+ .4d j
j
I
+ Pr Gp
I + ep icen e I + COWl
+ !picenGi
-'
-'1
+ H
. + ~picone
I
+ epicene
+ Sing.
I
--'
+ Kinshi~
Pers::>n elder to
'of PersClns \\
!::>f advanced) j-
1
(
somebody and
animals
and \\
age.
' /
,
)
\\
related to
him
things
tCl
\\
Polite term ta
comparE
)1
( -
addr ess to some-
\\ their ago.,
b~dy elder to you
but of Same genGra-
ti on.
\\ - /
ni the old
ge'nerati'::m
Pers on adl,'l t
/
\\-

---

13U
mak
wa :jur
~~_.
.~ --"'"
j
....
I + V
I
I + N
I
1-
j -
fJP
I
l + Corn
,
! us c::'d f'Jr human s hClwin~
__ I
J
;
I + H
th
"\\ ; QrGatn~ss of charactcf:,1
e proces S
i
I
+ Kinship
)
J
and f~r ideals and
maturity.
!
+ Plural
i
l bc=hCJ\\.Jiour, to dc::n:Jte
I
----I
!
r
:_onGTS parents
\\
\\ tl'at thG~ .are mOrallY)
, pralse-wCJrthy.
~all Parents hav-i
(
i:lg childr~n.
.I
wa: k'G'r
1 -
+ f\\l
+ N
I
+
!
N
+ CClm
+ '::;om
+ [om
+ H
I
+ H
+ An
I
+ Call ect
+ Collect
+ Kinship
+ Sing.
+ Plural
+ Si ng 9•.
I
I~ Kit'iship
!
;-
L
Ki.ns hi p
+ }epiCEnel
- ,
I
- . J
( fi rst b 'Jr n
\\
I
1
child Cl f
a
I
1
.\\ PETSCln, an r)
animal
,I

---

131
ca.:t
S8't
-,
L--
- I
+ N
I
+ r~
j
I
I
+ Corn
+ COm
+ Corn
+ H
+ H
+ Kinship
+ Ft='ma1e
+ .Epiceno
+ S inQular
+ Kinship -~
+ Singular
last born
child\\
child bOrn fr~m\\
of a person,
o r )
(
.
one's OffSPring)
(
an anima 1.
leol
+ N·
+ N
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ Col
+ H
+ H
+ H
+ Mal ['
+ EpicGne
+ Sing.
+ Kinship
+ Kinship
+ 5 ing.
"group of pC'rs~ns\\
a\\
(any pGrson related
u n d erg 0 in 9 thE
l' .t 0 0 n G" s wif G ~ r
\\\\
) \\ onE's husband.
rite of intiatLm
\\
3ftcr a cClurag(j-
)
test
c:Jnsisting
I,
\\ ~on circumcision. /

---

.......... ~
<:'.
~-
.. -
132
,,\\.,:.: • :.f",o,"
'
mb):"l"):
"--'
r~
r -
-I
i
+ N
+ [\\J
I + ~
+ Col
+ Col
+ CDl
1
+ H
I
+ H
- living
I
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
_I
I
~
' P[rs~ns f~rming
~T~anizcd body ~
/ set Cl f
"clot h cs \\
(
gat her in g by
of peTs~ns f:n
used to CaTry a
\\
(
I
\\ chance or not.
joint purp~se,
baby on thE' back j
nda j-a~
nit
............
--------==--
+ N
+ N
I
+ ilj
+ H"
+ Corn
+ Com
+ CC)l
+ H
+'H
+ Sing.
+ apicene
+ @-Cr'lOT ic
I" + Sing. J
1--
'. , .
/ as s cmb1 y 0 f
peapl C for)
1 i vi ng
b 0 d Y 0 f \\)
I c~tcTta~nmcntl"
( human being.
\\dlseUSSlo n etc.

---

133
d·.)f
~-----
-._--~- - ------
I
+ f'J
I
+ H
+ Epicene;
L+ Sin~.
" Pcrs".;n whc::!
has lClst
\\
Jf pe;rsOn who
has lClst his\\
(
)
his mGntal
faculties. )
( mental faculties.
u: d EL
-,
+ r~
+ N
+ ~
j
+ Com
+ Cam
+ C
+ H
+ H
+
H
+ Pr~f.
+ Pr~f.
+ PrClf.
+ Sing.
+ Epiccna.
~
J
+ Sing.
+ Sing . •
- PGrs.~n wh~s E
\\
/wh'JSC prOfGSSion\\
\\ \\
profcssi:Jn is ta
is
to' make goods
t1
make; gQQds out
~f \\
out of metal
thE KinQ and accompany-
1 e;athGr.
-caste Cl r- pcople:
ing him during Wars in
-c as te Cl f
P GO pI G
having this
ordEr
tQ E?xhClrt him.
I
J
II
whoSe; profGssi~n
\\ profC'ssi~n.
/
ThGn,
lyric p~ct
II
)
\\
is SO
"
d~ubl Bd wi t h drum
I
Playc;r.
.
J/
\\
-cash CJf thase pC 8 plc. ,

---

134
sur ga
~:". -----
--, ------[~-;:;;r1j
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ H
-
An
- An
+ f:pic2nc
+ li vin g !
+ Livin!;
+ Sing.
+ g::n2rici
+ Varioty
- '
'-.---
(employee)
(any big trod /a variety of tr8G 1
( / -+-
S ao d d _ _)
\\
( sciEnti Fie name
I
\\ adansDnia ~igitata)
\\sc=nega1ensls.
)
3ur
Se: xx
--------r-·_·-~'.
I----""
+ N
'+ V
+ r~
(
+ Corn'
+ An
Li ving + .,subject
---- (N p)
I
+ Sing.
_I
' all domcsticatc= ')
/ -to bring tc li fe:
(
male
Of)
vortGbratG four-
-to produce (of a
\\
chickon
•
(
leggod animal
.
plant)
-to produce of an
.,
action.

---

135
ga:tt
.
C8"gg
.-
~.
- I
'-"
-
+ r,j
I
,+ N
+ N
I
I
+ COm
I
+ Col
+ C~l
"
I
+ An
I
+ human
- An
+ Po.
+ Sing ..
L+ Sing.
+ Sing._J
-J
I
sp~cially
(Cluster et' fruit,rncrt\\
I
f'Jr\\; dG~'~.te~ smal)! graup of ani-\\
I gCJats
I
I
and
II hCLQht I!')r ~ mal [Of ~amc: J r mOved from their )
\\
J\\
shGC=p
1
h
.
')]
,
\\
En g t .
.
s p [; C 1 GS ,
\\support.
/
mb-:>:tt
ku:y
--,
' . . /
ye~
r-
-
-
\\
1
r -
I
+ N
+ r~
I + N
I
I
I
+ C() f1)
+ Cam
+ COrn
\\
+ An
+ An
+ An
1
+ S in=-:i
+ Male
+ r~a 10
'_.
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
L
"1
• \\
. l
,/taill£ss smCJoth ..skinnGct ,/
\\
! r.l;;le
h
t h t
I
rn ale :J f
J X
ha vi n C;
jleapino amphibian of )
I r ha; :t:::nCd"th;) "ttaincd its Full·
\\ order Anura
\\ full
growth.
J \\ br'owth.

---

~" .. -.
136
gana:r
1-+ r~ --I
+ N
I
+ Com I
T
Com
+ Com
_
- l
I~
----'- ----...... --. + An
+ An
"
Human
+ An
I
I
I
+ Fornalo
+ I!pi ccn8
+ rlal G
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
+ Pro F.
+ Epicene
+ Sing.
-pers!Jn wh:JsG\\
/ -hird Gspc:cially of\\
pro f Gss i 'J"n is \\
gGnus
~allus
\\
\\
Fishing.
-i ts
fIGS h as
Food /)\\
)
-cast:,," of
-of a person whD
/
I
, fishc:rmGn
g:Jos
t'J bed vc;ry
Early at night.
cu : c
wajan
xar
------- ------
+ N
+ N
~~(NP~
+ N
+ Corn
+ Corn
+ Corn
' -
-
+ Ah
+ An
+ An
+ Sing.
+ Sin~J
+ Sidg.
young birtJ C;SPGCi 8 ," (fc:malc of
'\\ (to cleave)
- d om c:s ti cat 8
\\
\\\\
lly Jf gc;nus gallus (eqUinE:: ani-
)\\
ruminant
\\i
domGstic
fOwl.
mal c;SPocia1lyJ
of gGnus :Jvis!
\\
-
\\horsG (sc:c
fas)
-its flosh
)
as
fO:Jd.

---

137
nak
~
j + N
l
I
+ ColP.
H. Sub j .!
Com
+ Corn
I
+ ,o,n
NP.
~
"-~"
+ An
+ An
+ Sin g.
+ Spic~no
+ Sing.
+ gpiCEnGJ
+ Sing.
+ Epicr:;nc
"
' - -
,
' d om~s.ti·c
/prcparc
(domes
and\\/d':Jmf2st~c SPC~iC3~\\
ti c bovine:\\,
1-
\\
(
" of gGnus Caprc
us 0 land
)1'
of bCllilnG anlmal)l l animal of youn g IJ
J
'\\-i ts flesh as
For crcps.
l\\,its
Flesh as
J \\ age;.
!
\\
"
'\\
rood.
/
\\ -Produce crops\\(
food.
/
1\\
/
\\ by t· i 11 a QC.
!
.5ikka?t
"'-""
1-
+ N
+ N
+ N
+ Corn
+ CJl
-I-
Com
+ An
+ An
+Abs
+ (fpiceno
+ PIuI' "
I
-~.
L+ Sing ~j
II + Sin[lo
I
L -
-
__ /
organised beings \\\\
/ imagi nary
\\\\
i
i -auuH 0 f domos- \\
/ young)
(ond:::Jw[d with lifE
croature:: hav- \\
(
\\
I
\\
I
( tic ~ c nu sea pr a
\\ \\ sheeP
(sensation onu
J
ing ei"ther
\\
{
I
,
\\
-of mal~ human
I
\\. vClluntary motion .I
I human or ani- \\
i~ oxcc::ssi\\-'cly lCJv-
)
l
j
mal shape,
I
1I
{
\\ing thG fair sex.}
[
protr:ctifl9'
1
I
\\
I
\\
persons 81':
i
\\
I
\\
!
\\ prc;judi cial
!i
\\\\ta them.
\\
/

---

138
Su:f
--~---- - - - - - - -
I
---
r+
-1 -----
IN
r- + fJ
I
+ Adv.
l
1
l + cam
+ Com
+ Place
I
H
- H
I
I
- Celunt
II ci
+ Count
J
,
/
Gr :Jun d upper
,
laYGr CJ.f
i
land(s)
bGlong- )
I
the? floJr
I
\\
I
/ -en
I
Garth in which pl an ts
I
\\ ing. to someone.; ( -undor s elm [-
f
J
gr:)w,
c':Jns istinC] of
!
thing ( 7)
\\
dioinlGgrot8d rock
J
I
usually wi"th admixture i
of elrganic remains,
)
/
\\
maul d.
da: 11
tc:tO:r
' - '
!
,-
--'!
+ N
- - - - - - l:- V
+.Ccm
+ Lom
- An
~~~j-~P
+ Count
+ livinQ
L
- An
- An
- j
+ living
' -
/spcciallY Plant,.
whe?n bG,aring
)
plastic or [von
( fl CJwsrs •

---

,
J~O>.••-'
. -
• ~>
\\
X )p
xa: 1
r u :
139
,-
- ,
r: I
- I
~~
+ ["J
(elm
of-
Celm
I :+ Count
+ Abs
I
+ .~bs
-
- C:Junt
-
C:Junt
j
~
(scat of cClnsci=us-
, spiritual Cir
,
I rc:lativc:ly br'Jad flat.:.\\
CJrgan 8f pl~nt sp~ing­
n ~~S thought,
immaterial part
.
"
ing frCJm side :Jp stem
vclfti'Jn and
r
\\
Or branch :Jr direct
survive death.
/
\\
/
••
ncWlJU
mb·COy g a::: :l
--"
"-- -...-
+ N
+ N
+ S fng •
+ ·Abs.
+ Act i:Jn
c:Junt
+ An
' take oir intu and\\
/sr- ~r'itual,
( the ~ c t i ::'n
inn!Jcont·\\
'J f \\).....,
cxpc:l it f r::Jm .' th c: )
\\brt?C)thin g •
( aff~ction shClun . .' 1
( lungs.
.
i
/
\\ G 5 P c cia 11;' by: hum a n /
c")fED : 1
kalJar
r - -
I
I
+ N
I
+ N
I
I + Abs
'+ Abs J
I
+ N
+ C:Jncrc:t
I~- C:;Vflt
l- count
- living
-... count
innCJccnt afPccticm, \\ (~SCXUal affcctLm\\
/fino filaments Qr'Jw-\\
spiritUal l~vc' sh:JlJn'
::Jr
passion.
1 ' i n 9
f r elm ski n.
F:J I'
\\
(
. by somcrnody to somc"]l-rclotion between)
human,
cspc:ci~lly )'
(
\\onc. .
/
\\slJccthc::arts.
\\ the ones
g~slJin~ 'In
\\thc head.

---

140
nax
, -
I + N
l
+ C;)m
+ Celm
+ Cam
- CelLJnt
-
eaunt
+ li v ing
- living
i
-
R.iving
I
.. A
_ I
'--
\\
Plant Qf which the
\\
\\
J
stem is nClt weedy
'\\ /[f::n:1::::,P:
\\
cc c),r:::::,l:rP::~::
1
CJr
pcrsistcnt and
fr=w inches
/;
matter lying
\\
~n
\\\\
\\
\\ thick
f
grQund CH
cm sur-
0
, /
which dies dCJwn to
I
I
I
I
!
. I
ground
after
flowcr~
fa c cS
e r e a r r l co [,
i
\\I
about by
wind.
ing.
TheY arc CeJil-
i
-dust liftcd by somC?- j
s 8m othi nCJ
/I
/
taxxar'ldao :r
---
km r
kw:PPa :r
~
, + N
+ N
+ Com
+ C:Jm
+ Corn
+ CCJunt
+ ec;nc
Il:i vi ng
-
livlng
+ C.'mc
-
living
\\
I dark figure projcctcd
/ co 81 and s'Jft
\\
( by bodythet lnt crccpto Ir co Lm nClt\\
f
\\
I
.
I reachGd bY)
I wind at the shade 1
I
li~ht IdYS, this
\\ l i Qht~-
trGE,
[, elf a
<}
I
rccardccl as pGrs:Jn's
~ wall etc.
)
\\ . Or thing's appGnda~G.

---

1~1
,
;] ~\\ll
m:a: n difJ
J'iwu
'---'
",,-+,."
.......--
----.I
+ N
+ N
!
+ CGm
+ Com
+ CDl
+ CeJ n c.
+ Con c.
... C!oun t
- Li ving
- li \\linG
"'c:!on Cl' ow
- Li vin~
-area n:Jt inhabitc:d",
(natural lar go\\
"('SGGdS in any quantity\\
by persons;
hence
( tract covered J
especially ~s CD11CC-)
(
whGrc animals live.
\\with treGs
)
tGd
f:;r
sOWlng.
-area unknown to us.
~ugo:r
ka :kac
+ N
+ N
+ N
+ CClm
+ Cuunt
+ Count
-
l i ving
-
Count
+ C:JncrGte
-
living
living
+ Sin~>
+ Con er ete
PI ur al
~,
(Plant's or trCG~s\\ (-ornamC?nt containing '\\ (Set ~Jf lugGagc~")
odible product if
I precious stones Clr not ~
scc=d with its
worn
f:Jr personal
I
\\ cnvdopE. "
adornment.
thG sot of
t h [' se: Cl r n <Cl men i&
f
I
- taiis man tiod on tho
body. Sot of TalismiJn.
\\

---

1~2
lalta:y
mbaxana;
lam
' - J
--;
I--
I:
I
N
I
I + N·
+ [elm
~om
+ Com
+ CC) n c
li v in~
+ Concrc::;tll
living
+ C:J n er eta.
- li ving
+ Caunt
+ Sin g.
+ Sing.
-
+ Sing.
+ C:'1unt
L-
Piece elf towelling
\\ (HGad dross for)
(ornamontal band,\\
atc.
w:::Jrn by baby or
human male
rh"
I c ,82n c; t c. f or
')
placrd on its b Gd to
\\
wrist ~r arm.
J
abs'Jrb '-Ir rGta i:"i
oxcr[?ta.
Se: t
0 f
t h cs G piG C GS .;
fc:y
daw
- ,
-----.
-----
~
1+
I
I
~
NP
NP
I ,-
I
,
I
V
V
+ V
I
I
+
Nfl
- Er
- rr
- Er
+ Animate Subj.
+ ,inimatE Subj.
+'Animatc Subj.
NP ag.-
NP
~JP ag.-
NP
NP a g. +
NP
I
/
Progrc:ss 8t
aV'.Jid
. \\
elL ,bCIOW\\
/('.Jf pcrs'.Jn)
prClgrcss
(
surface 'Jf w8b=r
by
f at Pace fastor than
'. s:::Jmothing. )
(
w'.Jrking 1(;g8, I arms,
I walk by 8dvancing each
\\
tail,
WEbbGd FOGt,
) I
fc:c:t altornatcly,
f~ns, flipPers,
)
\\
never having both foet
\\
wl.ngs,
body atc.
on, ground at once.
.
('.Jf animal)
go at 'qUi,_)'
Ck er t ha n i t s wEl'lkimg
.
\\ PaCG.
/.,
I
I

---

1~3
na:w
,
,
I
! -
+ V.
+ V
+ V
I
I
I
I
fliP
- Er
~JP
I
I +
Er
i
NP
Er
i
I
+ winged being I
+ Animal Subj.
Human Subj.
I
I +
I
I
Subj.
i
1
I
NP ag-
~JP
NP .gg
r~p+
NP ag +
r~p + i
I,-
I
""""BGn-O
pr cp
I
L.
/-r1CJvc
thc2ugh
(Swim
:m behalf of) .: grapple with and
\\
E:lir\\
(
\\
\\
I
\\
i
(
with wings.
( try to throw advGr- \\
I
I
I
\\
1
\\-glidl?
,/
I sary esp. in sp:nt- !j
i
I
\\ in 9 co ntest und er
Ij
J
\\CGdE Jr rules.
"
b'cr eJ: : 1
dcE ma'l
bOdre
+ V
+ \\!
I +. ~J
I
I
- Er
NP
.L
i
,4cti 'In_1
Np
Er
I
/i
I
I
i
\\ + H. Sub j.-
+H.· SUbj.
I
NP 'ag-
fliP J
I
I
NP. ag-
NP + )
!
8 En. I
I
8 en. I
I
!
_~I
(Wr Est le
fGr)
(go on b ('half of)
( wr ~·s tIe)

---

•
f C': y lu 1
r
i
I
+ v
+ V
+ V
i
I
I
! + Er
I
~JP
+ _ _( Nl»
-
Er
I
+ H Subj.
~ H Subj.
+
NP
- - " ' -
i!
+ Animate- SubjL
r~p Grg.-_.~r~~PI'
_
NP ac:] +_(NP),
I
+ Be-n.D
P
+ novablE Obj.'
,..,
rcparc and USG \\
(makE swim far S':Jmpb8dY)! -s=il f x
crops.
\\1 -
NP. ag.+__NP"j
1
-Pr~c1ucc crops ,by
I t Oll
!ta take somcbCJdy~
\\
l
~agE.
(
\\
\\
R
h
b
"th'
:Jrs:JmEthing
)
-
cmoVG
er
Wl
lJ
\\~grarian to:lls. / ,somEwhEre:.
.I
yap
" b GY lu
- I
I
+ V
I + V
I
~
!
V
I
,
I ,
I
I _ Er
T
-
Er
( NP)
I
"I
--
+
~JP
I +-( NP)
+ Er
+' AnimatE' Subj.
+ Animate: 5ubj.
I + H. Subj.
+ tllClvablG Obj.
+ NP aQ. +
(N~ + NP ago +_JNP)
NP ago '+
~JP
+
Ben. I
to takE somcthino or 1 ! Pu tin H12 mQut h ')
( somEbody to snm~~OdY) \\ C hGW Cl nd Swa llow JI

---

yoplul
fe~ylu
--I
l -
I
1+
V
i
1-: V
II;
r v
1
NP
I
+
NP
I ~ __ .".( rJP)
I
i -
+ Er
+ El'
I + Er
I
+ H 5ubj.
+ H Subj.
' "+ Human Subj.
I
+ hlovable obj.
I
NP nA0 +
( NP)
I
NP nAg -
! -
_I
N~I
,
NP nAg + _['JP
(get stitched by)
/ have someone SWim)
+ Ben.I +
A\\.
fo:r
oneself
.
Ben.O
_~l
! get something or \\
I
\\
(
somebody taken to
:
i
I
I
somebody for some- !
body by somebody. )
\\
yoplu
'llawlul
.~
1 -
I + V
i + V
!,
l
!
I
+ Er
( NP)
i
+
+
r~p
+
Er
+- Movable Obj.
+
l1um S ubj.
,.
+ H Sub j.
NP nA 9 +
( NP)
I
NP nAg +
~JP + B['n. I I
B En-. 0
,
~
' -
~
\\
f get somebody or somet hing \\
( get stitched
for
somebQ:\\y\\
(
I
j
taken to 5 om Ebody by
I
by sOmebody
/
\\
\\
" I
)
\\ s om ebod y

---

1~6
yo:bbu l
da jEB
,-or
r-+
1-
v
-"j
+ V
I
I
i
Er
l
I
Er
+
I
r'JP
+
~jP
I
I
+ Hum. Su bj •
+ An5_mate S u bj."
I
+ ~CJbable Obj.
+ :~n imat e Obj.
I
NP ag.+
I\\JP +
rljP
a9 '+
NP +!
Conj.
"take something ~r sornebodY\\
, -come face to
face with
j
I
I
-gO-to place to be present
\\.
( somewhere for sOmebOdY,)
..
at somebodyts arrival-
\\
\\ (to somebody)
/
I
,
I -reach one point of contact with
I"
oppose in contest
I
j
-
CO me
by
a cc i d E3 n t i n to the
\\\\
company of.
i
\\
come into conformity with
\\\\\\
one's lJisheS
\\\\,
\\ -coincide.
,I
tagg"):
ta :gg:):
"~-
------~--~
/ '
---:----
-
---,
I
,-; V
I + V
+ V
l
I
I
rJ P
NP
1+
NP
1+
J
+ tium. Subj.
+ Hum. Subj.
- Er
:
+ tiu manD b j .
+ liurn NP
l~ ['JP ag - __N~I
1
-I-
r~p 8g +
NP +
+ Hum~ Obj.
I
+
-require permission L
Prlp.P
I
"r~P Ag. +
N~ I
-----'
to do an action.
1_
"'+ Pr ep •.
I
J
(
- '
(-to part
)
\\ announce that one
/to
praise oneself
\\.
\\ -to di vOrce
\\ is leaving
,
for
•
• •
I
\\
j

---

1~7
x ):lant82
x"e"cca
.---,
nt et"
lee :kka3
.
'....-.
' .........
-----.._~:I
1 -
. -----;.
i
i + V
!+V
i i+ V
I
~ !
,
I
I
I +
f\\JP
: +.
~IP
' J +
i
N~·
i
i
- Er
I i-
I
Er
'1
+ AnimatE ~ubj.
I : ::imote Subj •
+ Animate NP
+ Ani mate Ob j .
+ Animate Obj.
NP Ag. +
~JP +
( Pr ep)
I
- - '
+ NP ag •. +
NP +
+ NP a g.
+
NP +
~
Con j.
Conj.
+ Reciprocal
+R eciprocal
-..
Clo!Jk
each other)
(to pull each at her)
( e~ch out, of ... )
daB mEB
1<13 : k k L):
ja:yl"J':
1-
-~.'
· - - - - · 1 ' i -
.+
V
.
---I
+: V
.
I
.
- !
I
J
v
flJP
I '
I
NP
I
+
I \\
+ ---:.J f\\p
I
Er
+ Er
I
+ Er
.~ .:
+ Animate NP
+ Animate Ag.
+ h'um. Subj.
+~IP.8rg+
( ~JP)
+ NP 8g +
NP +
(I'JP) +
I
I
+ Po + ( ben)
Pr ep.
I1_.
A
---- L
(go by
. . .)
/-Cause to
eat. \\
f
)
( CaUse, make, \\
J
or d er t D sell )
\\ -make to
eat.
!
\\
I
\\. -order
to eat. /

---

148
dae mand"~:
dae m
"~-T
r--
I
+ V
-11 + V
I
!
NP
NP
I
NP
--
!
-
Er
I
-
Er
-
Er
+ NP ag +.
NP +
+ "'to va b le Sub j •
+ Animate NP
Con i
+ Comb inat:oW'~.
' J
+~JPag-
f~P
I
+ Np nAg -
N
L -
'( feel
sleepy
')
/ -go; leaVE together. \\
(-to leave.
\\
\\ -lEaVe at same time.)
\\-to gO. l<l..o..'o1Q.)
gemmge'mmlu
gemg'emlu
"-_.-
-----
....
.
~
i
, +
I
+ V
~V
V
J
+
NP
NP
+
( NP)
-
Er
-
Er
-
Er
+ Hum NP
I + Hum NP
I
+ rfum r--JP
i
( Np)
I~NJ=i Ag + __.' (~JP)
+ NP A~ + __lNF}
i~+_NP Ag. +
to sing without payin g\\
pretend to '\\
Ita act ClOSing)
1-
any attention to
it;
\\ (
(
\\one's
eyes
\\
believe.
)
\\
without any consid~I'a-)
\\ t ion.
8:):ppiku
s -,: n n
.J
'---"
I~
I
b.dj.
j
1+ __(adv. of time;
+
(adv. de[~;,tjll
degree; P;f'1an)
comp)
- y
I1I
]
+ Animate NP
" I
1 -
( to" bEt r a ns for me d. )
(to be tired)

---

149
damm
Xi:f
---'
- I
, -
i + "dj.
i
.j.
~dj.
! + _(;'dv. PI •
I
+ __ "'_ Adv-time;
1
time.
~Ian;
deg.
r'~.?n . Com~ I
-
y
)
. ,
!I
+ NP.o(<.solid»
+ Animate NP
---,
' -
/break'
especially l>1ood,
iron\\
(,to bE hUngry))
bone
\\.1
1
',0 ther
things,
lJhen
)1
rami shed
(
\\ having slender fOrm.
S): PP"e"lu
j--; f9.dj
---r
1+ !dj.
I
I
I
! + '
( Ad v • t i me,
d E Q. c 0 mp I
I
l~ ~d~.:~i~8;comp;d~gl
I -y
+ A. NP
~ NP('l.conc:c et't"»
(-to be afraid
\\
1
)
( 10iJabO:e)
\\. fearfl!Jl
J
-1
Ad j"
.+
(~dv. time;
+
f4dv
t imc;
PI:, comp
-y-
j
I
_
y"
L
:~
P.oim<3te
-_J
1_ _
-
(l
(t~
r est fui~l)
be accomplished.)

---

150
cl a'r:J-1) a : m
~'~I
r-+ Adj
I
I + -_. ~ d \\,'. t im E i I
j-+ Ptdj
I
dEO.
1
comp,
I
I
-. J
.
I
+
'I
6.dv. 02g. tim:=.colTip.
.
~
J
~
I
.\\-
y - - - ...
,+ Ani ma t E 1'1 P
!i
\\ + r·J P hum8n
----I
L
b.l·".
/
.
rTll "
• J
wi: ,
ji: si:/
I -
.)
+ De m• a cl j 4
!
i
+ Sinq.
I + ['JP Sing
fI + f'ro;>( .. Sp( H)
+ ~JP Si ng
L
_,
+
nit
+ PrfJ x • SP (H )
(thws)
( thiS)
~
yi:
'ni:
1'-
1 -
I
I '
+ ,LIcm.adj.
i
I
6Grn. ad j .
+. Plur
I
+ Plur
-'.
. vNP Plur
+ [IJP Plut' .
~o.~~
/ -
.{n'it; j i ge : J} ; g 0-=1 ~
I{nit; Aige'n;
I~ ProxeSp( H)
+ prox.Sp (H)
I
---..I

---

151
b EEl : / bal~
mce : / malce
US=: :
/ walEl'
~..
-
/ lalae
kce: /kulClC
gEl'
/
galeE
j-cE
/
jcJ 1 ac
-I
r--:;: .Dem. "cJ j •
sa;; /
Sal if'
+ Sing.
i -
+ DEm.CJdj.
+ NP Sing
+ Sinl;l
/nit _ _
+ [JP Sing
+ Rem.eq
+ Ii em'. eq
' -
.:.,'"
( that)
(that)
-na!C: / ,..
Yaa: /
YalES
nalcB;
-\\
I~
1--:
.I)
.Dem.
em • a cl j •
Cl d j •
+ Plur
I + Plur
I
+ NP Plur
+ NP )'Jl"ur
go:r)L._~
/
- [nit;
jigE':n;
go:r}_
/ {n it;
ji 9 E : n ;
1
l'
,+Rem.E'q.
I
+ Rem. E'q
~
L_
(thoso)
(those)

---

152
--
+
I
Sinr;'.
+ I,JP 5 ing.
+ Sing.
+ Prox.
Excl.H
+ Hum
+' flJP Sing
I nit
+ Rem.lEsser. H
(t ha t)
(t ha t)
1 -
+ Dem~ adj.
1+ fiEm.adj.
+ Sing.
+ Plur.
+ [IJP 5 in g.
+ NP Plur.
I nit
I {nit·) jige:n; go:r} __
+ Pr 'lX. eKcl. H
Prox.excl.H
(that)
(those')
y ~:yu
8ama
+f)em.adj.
+ Ro~.adj.
+ Plur
+ Sing.
+ NP Plur
+ I
Pcrs.Sing.
I ! - (n it;
1-i g
:r)~
G : n;
9 0
+
HP. Si~ .
~ Prox.excl.H
( those)
(my)

---

I
.;
153
Say
S amay
Sa
- I
!
i Pos.a·dj.
!+ pos.adj
.' I
"1
+ Sing
.
i +.' Plur
1+ Plur
I
I
+ 11 PGrs.SinCj"
+ I~ PGrs .Sing.
1+ I PE:rsoSingol
+ __[\\JP Sing.
I
+
NP p~ur_,
!~_NP Plur. I
~
(my)'
(your)
(yoIJr)
-am
sunu
- I
j -
- I-
i -
-,
I
+ Pos.adj.
+
+
Pos. ad j.
POs.adj.
i
I
Numb er
+
+ Plur
Sing.
II
+ I
PErs.
Plur I
+
+ I Per soP 1 u r •
III Pers.Sing.
I
+
NP Sing-
+
[IJP ~ lur. I
~+ NP ~ing_
j
IL+ NP Plur
1 -
, - -
i
-----t
( our)
(his) ( her) (its)
(our)
s ae : n'
S28 :ni
+; Pas .adj.
I
+ Pos.adj.
1
I
+ Sin g
I
+ Plur ..
0
,
iI
+(2
+ ) 2 Pers. Plur,(
Pers.Plur;
l3 P8 r soP1Ur .)
3 Pers.Plur~
+'
NP Sing.
+
NP Plut~
--'-'
Ij
- '
(your)
(your)

---

154
r be:pp
y r.:: p
nep
~-'
r-
"
Indef.adj.
+ IndcF.adj.
I
+ Indef. adj.
I
Sing.
,+ Plur
+ Plur
I
i. +
+ NP Plur
I
+ NP Plur
I
I
I -lnit;jige:n;
I {n it; j i ge : n;go: rL I
;
:
I_
go:1' ) _...._
\\
- l
(any)
(all)
(all)
mEJ3 : nn,
bEE: n n,
LJ a3 : n n ,
gEE :nn,
........,
~
' - - '
jae :nn,
.
sae :nn
'-.--
I
-1
I I nd e f • ad J' •
I
.
I
I
+ sing.
+ Sing.
l
+ hum
+ NP Sing
I
L_
I
- '
+ NP Sing
/
nit
( e v E'T y )
(every)
ke:pp
KunCE (k) I
KucinEB (k)1
.-'-.-
-I
+ IndEf.
adj.,
+ Indef.adj.
+ Sing.
of Sing.
+ NP Sing.
+ NP Sing.
"
I nit
I nit
I
L.
_ i
nun CE (k ) -nu c i n~' ( k )
yunCE (k)
yucincs
(k)
+ Indef.adj.
I
+ Indef.adj.
+ PIu l'
+ Plur
+ 1'1" ~lur
+ NP Plur
--~
I nit
I_nit _._
-.J
(r::vEry)
(every)

---

155
bunEB (k) /bucinae (k) /
la n/ gan/s an/ma n/uan/ban
munE\\? (k)/mucinae (k)/
~.- tnto. adj.
uunro (kJ/I,lucinae (k)/
+ Sing.
lunae(k )/lucinEE (k)/
+ NP Sing.
gunae (k)/gucinae (k)/
/
-
nit
junro (k)/ jucinEE (k) /
sunadk)/sucinao (k)/
(which)
--I
+ tn de f • ad j. 1
+ Sin 9 •
lan
kan
nan
, -
,-
I
+ tntg.adj.
1+ intg.adj.
l
!ntg.adj.
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
+
Plur
+ NP Sing
+
NP Sing
+
NP Plur
/
-
nit
/
nit
/ (nitijigen; go :~
_I
~
(uhi ch
(which)
(which)
ya n
nm:nl:m :~
fuk kEB:l-ak -b CJ3:n n.
~
~.
~
_+
-,
tritg.adj. I
1
""d • " " . Od
+
NP
I+
I
Plur
.
NP Plur
L+
l ,-
-i
+
~
'i
""d. " " . odj
_ ...-
J
+
NP
.
-'
(uhich)
( fouiDt h)
( elGv8nth).

---

' V
b 32: n n
na:I'
nm tt
i + Card.adj.
.\\ + Ca r d. a d j 1
'1 + ecard'.Gdj~
1+
\\i+
i
NP
\\+
~~p
!
l_+
\\+
Nfl
I
NP
!
\\ - -
--'
(thousand)
( t LJo)
( thI'ed
nae
fan WEJe> : r
:nt
--
ji r 0: m
fukk
"-.../
- \\
I
I
'arcJ. ad j--:\\ 1:
CArdoJdjl \\: card.adjol
1+ Card.dOj·l
\\+ cord. au/ ~1 \\+
1
1+
r~p
,
\\+
r-JP
I
NP
I
1
j+
L
I
Jl:
NP
.J
L
- '
J
l+ ~jP !
~-
I
-1
(four)
( five)
( ten)
(thirty)
( hun dn,d)
as
ay
.-
+ T .
- I
1+ T
+ ,Ad
I
j •
+ T
+ Inclef.
+
IndEf.
+ Indef.
+ Sing
Sing.
+ P~uI'
+ PIuI'
+
fL.Sing.
t+ __NP Sing
+
NP.PIuI'
+
NP PIuI'
- -
--.J
_I
I
- - l
(iJ, an)
I a ,. an
\\
'
Involv(2s a
\\
Pejorative or I
(
dimu~i
;
ti VG
;
\\ mSEJnlnQ
,/
bi/si, wi, Ii, gi,
ni
yi
, - - .
ki,
mi,
j i/
I + T
+ T
1+ T
+ DeL
+ l)Gf.
+ PIuI'
+ PIur
+- Sing.
+ ~JP PIur
-I ! , ,..
~L+ NP Sing.
l+ NP PIuI'
. /{nit;j i 9G : n ; 00 • .1-
~
.l.)
/
-tnit,jige:n;Qo:~
(t he)
(t he)

---

·,-
157
ba/sa,
y3 .
LJ8,
la,
Qa,
ka, ma; ja/
- ,
+ T
+ T
+ T
+ r;1ef.
I
+ S iflg
+ Plur
+ PIuI'
II
+ f\\IP Sin g
!
+ NP PIuI'
+ NP PIuI'
I
I
/{nit;ji Q8:n;
/-tnit;jige:n~ go :rJ
:
--I
1-
---l
qo:r} __
"
_ _J
,
t'he .....
that-)
(t he
(thE ......
that)
)
.~. -..
( when the rGfOI'cnt waS I
\\
i
\\ oncc in cont2xt
/
u
ci
-~
--- ~
,-+
~
- I
P;:, Ep.
Pr eP.
1+ Pr ep.
\\+ Pr ep.
!
--'
+ Or ig.
+ GenitivE
I
+ Spat-loco
+ Tr::mp.loc ..
(
NP __Pl acel
~
+ NP PossGsserl/
+ /'!rear
I
+ NP
I -+ \\j
Place
Tim E
POsSEssor
I~
I
' -
-----l
( fr om)
(Of)
(in,
at, to)
(in, at, to)
ba
Ca
~~--------
-----.....
.--------
- I
\\-+
-1
PrEP,
+ Pr 2P
+ Pr ep.
----+ Prep.
1
1+
i
Spat-loco
+ Tern ~J. 0 c.
+ SpaLLoc.
+ TEmp.loc
!
(
i +
i
V
Placl:!
+
V
tkl8
+ Rem
+ REm
!
_.~
_ t
I
--
I - -
- !
+ V
Place
+ V
Time
"
I
t i l l
'
\\ upto )
- '
until
(ifl
at,
to)
1

---

ISH
bala:
ak
,
~-I ~,-
-
!
~
--:T
i
Pr ep
i
, + Pr i? p
!
l + Conj.
-I r--
1+
+ PreP
I
I
1+ Temp .loc'
+ Inst.
I
+ Co
I
+ comp.
I
r
j
+
Time
+ V
inst
I
+ ~mbinatory
+ V
~JP
i
!
,
I
-' I
- - . J
L -
!( + NP
NP)
\\
!( + S
S )
I
I
I
(before)
/ -with
(with)
(with)
l\\
o~)
-by means
(and)
Xa:t
fi:
- I
l' + ,Adv. I j--: Mv. ~I r+ J3dv. i
1+ ;'dv.
i
! + PlacE
I
+ Pli'lci?
'
+ Time
I
I
+ Place
I
I
I
f
I
+
+
Prematur E
Prox.~P(H)1
+ Rem. eq.
I
[: :r x.e~
0
cl • H I
+ V
I
+ V
+ V
I
L
- '
~
( there)
(there)
(already)
SElQX
cur
p.,,,: cc
<...0'-"
' - '
i -
- - j ,
I + Ad v.
i + ,adv.
1-+ ,Adv.
i
+ Time
+ Time
+ SuperlativE
+. 1)eg.
+ ptinctu21
+ Past
l
+ Superl
I + V
+ Late
. + /
x"" a=.£
\\......-'
.. - -
L.
+ V
I
- '
( now)
(sometime
(red
)
( fa ir
)
before)

---

, .
159
/:---
kuk
ku I't1 : s
na:n n
gan n
-
.~
-
, -
,
+ p,dV.
-,
- r
1 -
- j
+ ftd v.
T
JvJ v.
+ fJdv.
I
I
+ l'eg •
+ pGg.
+ DEg.
+ eeg.
+ Superl.
+ Superl.
+ S uPerl.
+ / nUl __
+
+ /
di:s __._
/
1••
Gn d'·'
c.m
+ /
1C8:r_""_"1
"-'"
-
(black_')
(dark
)
(illuminatGd
)
(hEavy
J
Xa:tt
Sa: pp
bann
--'"
,-
'--"
11 ~dv
++ Adv.
+ Adv.
: - Ad\\}.
•
\\
+ !leg.
l.I eg •
+ tJeg·
1
1
1+
I : S:~d;
I
Supsr!.
+ SupGr1.
1+ Superl.
I .
f~
~
r J x _ ..
+ / lJac~x
_
/ ('Sl; rat!oEl,)-=J
1 - , :
/
I .
1
J
( Sa vO UT y
)
(" embal mi n 9__ J
( glutinous)
nar
j -
-!
I
I
+ §d v.
+ ~~v.
i
II + fl\\:o\\n.
+ 88g.
I
+ SupErl.
+ Super!.
+ /x aS31J
,
-
----I
I~ /toUi_
( slinklnQ_J
(to lay at full
length)
ta:1Jit
n8E : pp
mGtr r
~
r-: Adv.
-I
I
+ Aldv.
-\\
A.dv
I
1+ Ceg.
+ r~an.
I
1+
I. ,
Superl'
/
damrn
I---± /
I' + ~:t'
_
ill~
- -
~
n'):y--!
(soft __ ) -
(disappear sUddEnly)
(brEak
)

---

160
ndar]k
1 ':.":1
ni
~
---
-
-
1
I
+
I
f
!
1+
J
~dv.
tJdv·l
fJdv .
'I
I
I
r'13 n.
I + OeSS.J I
I
!
I
+
+ Comp.
I
L
•
i
+ v
+ v
+ V
NP
I
-
~
-
-~)
(slowly)
(too mu ch)
( 1 i kG)
+ N
+ Com.
+. m. v.
'--..
Hum.
+ Decision
I + Animate
+
V
I
I
'
~ fpicen~
1+ Hum.NP
I
(d!?cids to)
ISolid-hoofed
\\
/to knot
'\\
/ ESP.
for
food
\\
I
1
herbivorous
\\( Gsp.f~r
Imore or loss
r quadrupped with ;\\ thread,
liq~id, when
-
f 1. n IJ i n y II! 8 n e a n d'.\\
r 0 pe,
,I)
(
0 n. e
E' a t son
I
1
\\
tail usod;]s
')\\:' string. / ! ~lmplY swa~low- \\
\\
beast of burden, i
!
lng by aSPlrat-1
" and
dr a u lJ ht,
and}
\\
l n g
t h C? f 00 d
/
\\for riding 'on •
.I
\\ brought to the j.
':
I
\\ mouth out
of
I
\\
,
\\ hands.
I
f
--------=----. - -_._~ nar --
_
Xaw
~j
+ V
I 1-+ 1'1
-1
--:--;ux.
~JP
1/ aY_-"-l
+ m.v.
I
+ Iiuma n
fJP
i
'
1
+ intentivc
~I
L
~ Aux.w.V."Iiss to
+
v
+
V
,.
+ Huma n f\\JP--=-.1
(spGak
falSEly)
( l i es)
( -to
be lik Ely tOl I f"Or action thF't
\\ -t 0 intEnd
to
) I was about to
\\ haPpen
\\

---

161
:...'a1' _-----;-=
I
+ Aux
I + V
+ m. v,
I +
NP
+ ~bligation
I + Anima t
~J
(?
P
_I
+
v
-'
-havE' to
••
\\
' -to ride anil'"l:al or bicyalE'
)
( -must....
)
( -to sit on something as on hors(.
r:
-----
Aux
+ V
m. v.
+
NP
I
+
v
+ Animate NP
+tapt itude i
Probabili ty.
.
)
per'mission}
-able to
\\
(to bE in dominating
- C ompet Ent
in
)
position'
)
(
-may
\\ sallowed to
na:kk
-------- ----r
+ Au x
, + V
+ m. v.
+
NP
to
\\
stand in n I? Ed ,Of ••• )
( to
of . . "

---

wa:w
de:de:t
162
+ ~dV.
~ Inter j8ctiO~
+
5
+
s
1_+ II ffi I'mati a n
~JGga t ion
----1
(¥'es)
(n 0)
( denotes
ClS tonishm81 t·)
xala:s
?a
~ !nterj l
GInterQj ]
l:' tn t erIJ
(denotes
dis-
( Expr ES SE::>
(exprESSES
(-to eall somEbod~'
appointm Ent;
d is El pp 0 i nt -
surprise)
-dGnotGs reproba-
administration
.)
ment admir8-
tion
ti on. )
-sign of warning.)
By
. cim/carn
cam
wa:w-go:r
i~ IntEr j ]
l + lnter~
EJntErjj
~ lnterljl.J
( eXprESSQS
I
( denotes
denotes
\\
appro-
(donotc>s appro-
rE~robation )
disgust)
bation;
Qjoy
bation but
towards thL
could be
act i on of
dErisory )
S om Eb ody
)
\\
nd;rysa:n
axaka y/ af"}kay
bu
'-'
, -
~,-
! + IntC'r j ./
+ ~dv-scntEntial Conj'''P
+
(NP) + VP
+Sub
J -IIrI'P--.·
Conj. P
I~ cLPn
+Subord
+Indcf.
Ncg • .
+ ,Aiffirmation
+Timc
+ condit
+ Sing
Part I
/
xana:
.
1
+Aoris-
+ V__ .•_S
I -
--'--
!
1 -
- '
- "
I
tic
I + V
5
I
'-- ---J
( C'xprcsse.~
(y cs)
( lJh En)
(i f )
(w hi' ch J
who;
pi ty
)
t ha t.
)

---

163
_ _' bi
- -
yu
yi
----
----.....
F I:
r -
- I
T
--
conj~ P --I 1-';' R01. Pn
I:;:' R~ 1. P';1
i + R col Pn
l+l'U~f
+ ~C:'f
"+ Sub
i +..DC?f
+ .mdf
I
+ Sing
+ time'
+ Sing.
I
+ PluI'
PIuI'
_ _1
+ NP
+ nOn-
aoI'istic
(~h(?)
(when)
( uhich .who.
{ lJ hi ch, who.
( lJhi ch. lJho ,
,
)
I
/
)
"
)
/
that
)
that)
that ')
daI'a
I
ka: n
1+
+ Pn
+ Pn
I~" Pn
Pn
- I
t
+ IndGf.
+ IndGf.
1+ Indc:f.
IndGf.
,"
I
. "
~ rfum.
,
--
-
Hum.
~
(nothing
Hum "-J
j
something)
(',whoc:vc:r )
(whatovcr )
{nobody)
"
,...
man
y) w
......
+ Pn ---"
I
I'
----!~.Pn
+ Pn
-j
~ Pn
I
+ Emph
I
I+ Emph
+ Eljlph
+ Emph
+ 1 PEr s , i
+ 1 Per sI
+ 2 Pars.
+ 3 P Cl' s.
I
+ Sing.
+ sing,l
+ Sing.
I
I + Sing.,
-~
----'-
-
~"":::-----
r! ----
:+
--.........
'~om
_,
ominJ
LAccu~-, t
~ ;~ cc.u~ t Momi~ t! Acc~:l
(1)
( you)
,
( you)
(him)
I
J

---

~
'nun
ye:n
, .
, ~_.--====--
---
---j
I+'ph
'. 'l.
,:,+
.
I
Pn
::" :'11
,
i ~ ~~
-1
! + Pn
'
+. Erriph
+'Emph
"
+ Com
+ Emph
1
.+'''!. Pars:.I'
..
+ 2 PeTs. I
-
living I
+ 3 Pors\\
i~ Plur -.J' -·-.f ./ + Plu,r _!
! + Plur
).
+ Plur
I
l -
"
-
~-
---.;:::::",
,
" '-.-
- - .
i'-'
-~
~'~_.
L+Nomirj [-+A ccu~fN.0mi~] [:A.ccus] i: + iConcrcti
'1 + f!.om in! '. ~,; ccu ~
-
~
. (Wc)
(us)
(VDU)
(you)
(eye brow)
( t h cy)
( t hpm)
'.,
la
nu
182 :n
- I
" .X .> ,'~ ~,' -':'~:'~::;~ :.j: P..~i·· '.:
+ Pn
+ Pn
+,: 1
Pcrs
+ 2 Pcrs
:
.. ~ :
~ ~n
E:~ur-'
Pc"rs]'
. '+ Sin g.
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
I + Plur
I~AICCUSI
'+ Accus
+ f4ccus
+ ,F. ccus
~ ~,CC~X·
________
1 -
---
F 2 Per s :J E 3 ~. E r ~ i
(you)
(us)
(you)
. (them)
kan
nan
ban· .
:". ~ .. .
II + Pn
'-Il~'~~'
I~ Pn
l,.'--::+.pn .....
I
+ Intg
i 1+ .!ntg
1+ intg
'+"lntg
I
I + Hum
1+
I
Hum
- Hum
. -" H~~·
!
,
+ Sing.
I
+ Plur
!I+: 5 .~':1g.'
.:~ 4'1+ Pliur
'
It".-.....Pers.af+j +'
Pc:rs.af+
I (N) + (V P)I" ( ['I) + (VP) I (fl/:r
+
~~;; ,+~ ,j+,(V"jl':r~~~; ,+
1 -
- - l
:
--"'!,":
~
(1.1 ho)
(who)
~ _'.J
lan
ki :.
n i =
!
+ Pn
i +
p'n
+
I
Pn
I
+' intg
1+ Dcm
!,-
+ ,fj Gm
I
-
Hum
1 +
r1um
+
Hum
1 + .S'lng.
+ Plur
1
I'
+.
Pi?rs • a f +
! + Prox~ ,5 p( H)
L ,pfa : 5 p( H)
, "
i_
(N) + (Vp)
(what)
(thOSE
one)

---

165
ke:/kal;:B /
'ne:/nal83 /
1(' :/lalaJ '
be:/balal
r+ Pn
Pn
!
Pn
~I
I
+
+
I + Pn
1+ Dem
+
:
.e cm
+ £)Gm
+ Dern
J
I
+ Hum
I
+ Hum
+ Hum
- Hum
+ Sing.
I
+ Plur
- Nb
+ Sin g
i
+ .R Gm. Gq i
+ R Gm" 8q I
1+ Rem. eq
+ Rem.eq
-
'.:-L
!
- - . !
(that-one)
(those on E)
( that thinQ)
( that onE)
,; ,
_ . ~
~
ye:/ya1ae
bi:
y~:
1 -
+ Pn
+ Pn
-1 I
~1-
i+ Pn
+ Pn
!
l
+ .Bem
+ J)Gf1i
!+ ..flom
+ .com
I
-
Hum
Hum
Hum
Hum
+ Plur
Nb
I
+ Sing.
+ Plu!'
+ R em •. eq
+ prGX"SP(Hl!
+ Prox.Sp(H)
+ Prox.Sp(H)
---l
_ i
, (thOSE
one)
(this)
(this one)'
(thOSE on8)
bJ:bu
r:
,
- ' 1
Pn
1+ Pn
I~ Pn '
I
I
+ .t!8m
+ J)c:'m
+ "t)em
-
Hum
-Hum
-
11um
- Nb
+ Sing.
I
+ Sing.
+ Prox.Excl.H
prO"'GXcl.~
+
+ Prox. excL H
(that one)
(that one)
(that onE)

---

·166
, -
, -
,
I
-j
i + Pn
! + Pn
r: Pn
1
I
+ J)em
+ Dem
l 1+ ,Dem
1- HUm2:1
+ tlum
I
Nb
!
+ Sing.
+ Sing.
+ R:m.1 eS ser. HI
+ Rem.lesseI'.H,
+ Rem.less8I'.H
- '
-+
""'
s a ma"'" y JS
5 a
b ')8
......
. v
+ Pn
+ Pn
I
r: Pn
i '1+ Pn
I
i I
'
1
+
I
Pos
+ pas
,Ii+ Po~s
I1 + Pas
+ f Pers.Sing.
+ 1 Pe I' S • Sin g. ' + 2 Pe I' S • Sin 9 J l-i:: 2 Pe I' S .S in 9 •
+ Plur
L
Jt-
_,
+ 'Sing.
Plur
(mi ne)
(mi ne)
(ydJUI's)
(yours)
b:;lsam
y:;s am
+ Pn
+ Pn
+ Pos
+
Pos
+ 3 Pers.Sing •
+ 3 Pors.Sing
I +.1' :oro.p.~~~ [+ 1 Pers.Plur
.1
+ Sing ..
+ PtUI'
-i L!·:~·ing...
:J ~PIUI'
--1
(his) .
(hi> )
(aLiI'S)
(ours)
'..
.~
S;;F n r
.)S
,-
' -
+ Pn
'+
Pas
1
'+
Pn
+ Pos
+ Sing
L .PIu r ,
. ~ 2
--
[+
---"""'-,
2 P~~ i+ '3Per-soP1l
Plu~ [+
l
Pers
3 Pers.
Plu-=---)
.~
0
(yours)
l(thE?i~
(yours)
(theirs)t.

---

167
mba:
' - -
r--
r-
-,
~i·-
1+ Conj
r Con
I + V
+ V
I
1+ Co·
+ co
+ Existence
I
I
l; NP
Possession
!+ Alterna-
+ ,Alterna-
+ NP
na
I
tive
I
ti VB
~NP__NP I + ~JP NP
na
I
-
_I
+ 5 __..S
+ S .
S
I
.L---!
(or)
( or )
(to have)
(-happened,
be
-ther e is
)
wa:ntm
ndax
'---"
.
'-'"
- \\
+ Conj
-+ Conj
Conj
+ Adv
I
ir
! '
+ Co
+ Co
i
+ sub
+ Adv.ersativsl
'I
+ Adversative
+ Explicative
+ causal
+ IJ + neg__sJ
. "
s
I
+ S
s
+ V
S
I
L S
-~
- ' -
( bul)
( for)
(because)
(rather)
1-';' Adv
+ Conj
,
I~ Adv
r
+ pdver S0 t i VE
+ S'ub
J
) + intg.
+ V + neg
si
+ AdVErsative
I
- - I
' - - -
---"'
I+ V ~
i _
(rather)
(perhaps)
(unless)
mb ~ tm
Ilg ir
'-'"
-1
r: Conj
+ Conj
I
+Sub
+ S Llb
+ Adversative
+ Purposive
+ V
S
-
V
S
i
l . - - .
(u riless)
(so that)

---

168
lee : kkEB :
- - '
1-; v
-0,1
I +
NP
!
I -
Er
1
I + Animate SUbj.
I~pA::m:tc o:~.
Grn~trumental
(to eat out of •• )
darm .....m :
~
' -
- - I
I + V
I
I +
NP
I - Er
+ Animate Subj
ri [~P ag -
NP
I + Means
-
(gO
by ••
)
+ V
+
NP
+ Animat e SUbj.
+ Movable Obj.
~JP at;] +
NP
+ InstrumEfl tal
(to put
~ith)
0

---

169
~V
+
(NP)
-
Er
+ Hum. Subj.
(NP) + (Ben.r)
(to s'811)
..fa : ya 1
j~ V
+:
( ~JP)
. -
+ Hum Subj.
NP ag +
(NP) + Ben.a + (Ben.r)
(to sell
for)
-antce
-kat
":,,EE : f
-
- j
~
I+SUf-r
I + Suf
!
I + Su f
+ v
f
+ REcipr
I + .Doer
1
- I
-
--...l
I + V
I + V
I
i
.-,
L
----J
-aQQce
-
;';'ae : 1
-i:n
-a:y
i-~'
- I
Su f
r-:-
I~+ SUf-;
r:-
Su f
I
SUf!
I + Adj
+ V
I
I~
I + V
'I-
~dj
,\\b"--J
+ ~s
I + ,A.bs
+ /lbs
Il--

---

170
-anta :n
-.i t
-tef
r:
1
Suf
+ Suf
"II
+ v
+ v
+ Conc.
+ Conc.
I
I
+ Part 0 f ,
,
I
.~
'.
-ka:y
-adi
----
"'.
Fsur-
,..~
,"
------r:; Suf
+ Suf
I +
l
V
+ v'
+ V
I + Place
-
+ instr.
+ Pri vati v~
-a1
.:.tal
-tce
-a:n
1 -
J
- - ,
-
1
,
+ Su f
I
t
i-:; Suf
+ Suf
I
+ Suf
~ ;ati-~j + V
+ \\J _·,,1
+ V
+
]
j\\bs.
I
-a:lu
, -anti
.......,
_antiku
--
I~ Suf -I
LV
_andi
----
r+ SUf-
1-; Suf
+ SUf
I + V
--I
]: ;~:-l
+ V _
+ V
- I
I'
+ S imu 1 tan eous
+ Simultaneousl,i+ Ftbs
)
L-
'--..
_L~!

---

171
-8 t .
FSuf
F,SUf I
+ Su f
+
l
Suf
-+-
V
1+ v__ I
+ V
+ V
.
I
'- . ~I
---I
+ OpposHe
+ Iterati V8
' -
-a: tu
-i
- i
_cB :ku
, -
; -
~
+ Suf
+ Suf
+ SUf
SUf
+ V~
l + V
+ V
+ V
+ leversiVG
+ b'l'\\ovement
+ ~eVersiVE
. - a di
/ _·o·d i
/
.,
"-\\ ..
-
. I .
+ Suf
+ V
+ Privative
"J
kan
ndax
xana:
ana
"--"
+ tidv
-I
+ ~dv l
.,. Intg.
'C
+ lid v
Adv ]
+ Antgj
+ intg
+ fntg
-.
+ time
+ 'Place
I
--<
--
(lJhe n )
( ? do)
(won 1 t
•• ?)
( wher e is)
(isn't •• ?)

---

172
-u
+ ~dv
+ particle
+ intg
+ .!ntg
+ Mann er
+ ! Y
I,
n
( haw)
k
, -
b
i
f
\\
\\1
/
(
uhich (sg/Pl)j
who.I
where.
J
what
')

---

173
"*
IL2
Ci-IAPTEri
0
*
*.,
n:
~r
p, f~S Fm r,I,U. T Hi,.,] AL RULES
*

---

174
]1.2.01
Notion of transformGtion
The notion of ttansformation can b~ stated as the
operation(s) pcrform8d on the P. mGrkcr of a sentonce in
order to generate 8nothcr P. marker.
Transformation may be obligatory or optional.
WhEn a sontence undergoes only obligatory transforma-
tions i t is said to be s kcrn~l sontcncc.
Ex.
1 •
"Jmar.
jmar
Jmar
has injured Jmar
In this sGnfcncc thG NP.object and .NP.subject arc correfcrcn-
tial.
This deep st~u.ciute has to be transformed into lmar
by a procedure of rcflcxioization.
Thus
Jm a r g a :-
n na b):p p a m
is a kG r ne 1 s (: n ten cc.
A transformation l[lay delete a cor,stituont.
This
operation is called deletion transform~tion.
R transformation
,
may also substitute a constituent.
This operation is called·
substitution transformation.
R transformation may also add a
constituont to a scntoncc.
This operation is known as
adjunctian transformation.
ThesE.' arc the throG GlcmC1l tary
transfOrmations that Operate in all natural languag~S.
Apart from these elementary transformations, soma
othor transformations arc alsO applicable in some other
languages.

---

175
This section consists of diffGrent tyibcs of rules
applied in Wolof.
11.2.02
~~9ation transformation
2 •
)mar
dafa
nj,: 1
.-
:;,mar
lS
tall
3.
)mar
nj-,:lul
'"
")mar is not tall
These two sentences arc different in that 2 is positive
assertion·, whereas 3 is a ne9ati.ve one_.
This im;.JliGs that
their
deep~tructure must be different as Can be seen below
in the tree-di0grams:
2a
s:._ .
~:- --------------
.
-----
--
/
~
-----..
Md
NP
Pd.P
I
.,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
~
·---r
I
:,st
M U X
I
."j
!;dj~PrGd
I
r
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r
I
1
I
I
I
I?os it
I
I
I
r
I
,
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
)mar
dafa
~
Qp:l

---

176
3a
s
----'/'
----~,._--
._------/
~
.,_.------
"
r'ld
NP
Pd. P
11
I
!
,
"
I
I
r
T
!
I
,
r
j~s t.
t,,
I,
arlj.Prod
I
,
r
r,
I
I,
1
,
"
I'
1
,
1
t
I
,
I
Ncog.
,
"
'r
I
I
I,
"
I,
I
I
I,
I
I
I
,
I
r
I
I
I
Ul
1
1
~')m'~r
nj"): 1
'-'
If WE compare these two treE-diagfams, WE notice that the
negative sentencE contains a segment that stands under
tha
labEl ~Jcgr~, WhErE8S thE posi tivE' sentEncE dOGS not.
is
nocessary which moves the segment
ul
und:yr tho labEl ;'dj.
Pr ed.
This 0pErati~.Jn is called negation
_ Particle movGment
transformation,
or simply nGQation trans formation.
Thus if Wc apply the negation transformation to 3a,
the trEE-diagram of thG n8U derived sEnt8ncc is as
follows:
3b
S ____
---------
N P '
.
----------------Pd.P
I
I
r
,
,
r
:
adj,Prcd
::
--------'--------.
,
adj.
affix
r
I
"
I
I
.~
~
~Eg.particJLc
,
,
t
I
"
I
1
)ma r
~).2 ~
u 1

---

177
To formaliz~ this process in somG other way,
let us consider the structural description (5.0) of 3a.
so: 11 5 (rleg. + NP. + ['dj) S .q;
1
+
2
+
3
Onc~ the nGgation transformation was applied, the following
new structure 3b will be obtainod.
I
5
(N P + "\\ d j
+ N8 g )
5 #
2 +
3
+ 1
The above structural change (se)
may bo formulatod
thus:
+ N~·. +. Adj.) =';
(N P + ad j. + n e Cl • )
'11=5
5 IJ
#- s
s #=
. that is,
se
= ·t + .2 + 3
2 + 3 + 1
If wc considGr som~ other sentonc~s WE Can notioe
-.. ~
that the oper-ation of negation transformation may vary.
LEt us analyse the negation transformation of the follo~~s
sentencos:
4.
:;mar
da (Jul
)mar
has not run
~.
:;mar
lee :kkul
CE£' : P
. ~
.bi
jrilar
has not C?cJt~n the rice;.
[) .'
)rilar
b'ogg ul
x)r)m
--
.") mEl r
does not like salt

---

" 178
7.
")mar
du
lcr'\\ : kk
x)r)m
v
---'
")ma r
do~s not
r::at salt
r'
8.
bulcc :n
l£:kk
ca:: : P
bi
......
' -
---'
don't
Gat the ricC'.
:~ssumc that their rc=spGctivE dGC?P structuro5 arE as follolJs:-
4a
S ----
______________-, I
------.------"'---.
Md
~JP
,
,
Pd. P
I
T
,
,
,
r
r
r
,
I
Ast
N
I
,
r
,
r,
r
"',
I
Wcg
~
I
r
I,
I,
I
I
1
I
I
Ji1
jmar
daIJ
1:;8
S
J
.
- - - - - - - ; - _
_
~lJ
~~ p~"-'p d • P
"
,
r
1
I
r
1
r
"
1
: :
vr
I
1
,
r ,
f
r
I
'
T
r
,
Ast
~
VB
!
I
~- ''-"
1
1
"
Ncg
:
V
yJP
j
j
l
/'-~,
:
:
V
N
T
,
r
I
I
T
1
r
r
r
r
1
I
I
I
r
,
r
r
r
f
r
r
r
,
1
,"
,
r
I
1
ul
)mch
l<p :kk
cre :p
bi
--'

---

.. r
,
1.79 .
Ca
,
I,
I
I
r
T
I
I
I
I
r
r
r
,
VP
,
I
,
r
,
,
"
I,
!
,
I
,;5 t
N
VB~
I,
.~.
~
I
I
I,,
V
NP
,
I
I
. r
I
I
I
ncg
,
V
N
,
,
1
,
ul
b"cgg
----
73
, r
1
~.-----
I,,
I
--------
A"'V(,
V
1
,
1
1
I
T
1
1
I
1
,
1
'...',I
hSt
~i
'I 1~".
1
/VB~
1
;
,
1
,
/
1
.~
1
I
V
NP
I
r
r
I
I
I
,
•
1
r
.,
1
r
I
,
,
I
I
,
,
,
I
V
N
,
I
I
,
I
r
,
1
r
I
r
r
I
r
I
I
r
r
ul
:mar
da
la: :kk
X) r.)m
'--"

---

180
8a
,
t'
r
1\\
t
!\\
I
r~
VP
,
I
!,
r
.,,
I
I
I
~~d
Md
Jrn
,
!
!
r
r
I,
r
r
r
!
I
N.Ast.
i~S t.
I
V
I
I
I
I
,
r
I
t
,
!
. ,
1
r
,
•
I
t
Imp
[\\Jcg
I
r
,
V
jIJ
T
,
•
1
,
I
I
1
I
. I
,
I
I
t
,
t
r
,
r,
r
r
,
I
t,
b
ul
I
,0
1 cc kk
Ca? :p
bi
' -
I f Wc apply the nEgation transformation,
thE newly deriVGd
p.
lJIark2rs
wi 11 b [' as
f 011 ow s :
4b
NP
,
r
---------------Pd.P
I
I,,,
VP
I,
I
I
I,,
VB
r
r
1
I
,
,
,
,
V
I,,
1
~~,,-,
I
I
vet
.'~ f
I
I
I
,
r
,
r,
NEg
I
,
,
,
r
I
t
r
,
,
JmJr
daw
ul

---

181
5b
s _ _ _ _
Pdo P
rJP
I
VI='
!
I
VB ~..~
.~ /NP~
~_V:~
N
T
vet
Af
I
[I.!G9
1
bi
ca:: :p
l~ : kk
ul
~ma.r
~
Gb
s ______________
Pd.P
\\
uP
\\
N
Vst
I
bOGgg
ul
)mar

---

182
7b
_ s ______________
Pd.P
NP
i
cl
.-=------ I
Aux.G
V~1-'
/\\
I
.
VB
~
,.
i,. ~
- i
/
{ \\
(~'-
~
/ \\
NP
I
N
/ \\
I _ _~_J
da
+ U
leD : kk
)ma r
---
Bb
c
Pf\\1
VB
f\\d
M,~
I
I
/'~
I
I
V~
f~ P
/;,st
I
I
/~
:
N
T
Imp
Neg
,
pcrs- a f
I
'
1
I
II
!
b
ul
la:: :n
leE :kk
cce:p
bi
' - - '

---

183
For 4b WE Can note that
5.0
is
Nog
+
NP
+
V
1
2
3
5.C
is
NP
+
V
+
NEg
2
3
1
In at her words 5. c. 1 + 2 + 3. ===)
2 + 3 + 1
For 5b
WE Can note that
SD
is
Neg
+
N~1) + V + Np<2)
1
2
3
4
S.C
is
N~1) . +'. V + I"Eg + NP(2)
In other wards
5 •C.
is
~. + 2 +. 3 + 4
==
)
2 + 3 + 1 + 4
For Gb WE Can not c that
5.0.
is
Ncg
+
"JJD +
V
+
NJ'l)
1
2
3
4-
S . C.
1
is
.'liP
+
V
+
Nsg
+ Np2
2
3
1
4
In othEr words S. C. is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
=;'---')
2 + 3 +- 1 + 4
For 7b wo Can note that
S.D.
is
Neg
+
NP
+
Aux.G
.+
PrGd.P
1
2
3
4
5. C.
is
l\\iP
+
Au>;, [;
+
Ncg
+
Pr ed. P
2
3
1
4
In othor uords S.C. is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ~> 2 + 3 + 1 + 4
\\

---

184 ,
For Bb WE can notE that
(1~
s .0.
is
V
NP(z)
NEg
+
NP
+
+
Imp.
1
2
:I
4
<.:J)
NGg.Imp.
+
+
N~2)
S. C • is
PErs.af +
V
1
3
4
In othGr 90rds S.C. is NGg.imp. + Pers.af+ NP dEletion + V + NP
1
3
4
that is " + 2 + 3 + 4
--~,~)
'1
+ P",rs .af' adjunetion + ~+:I+4
Now 'lEt 'us consider the nogation trans formation in an
oxplanatory SEntence which follows:-
9.
::;mar
da fiJ
lac: kkul
'~
approximately translated thus:
It is bGcause ~mar has not 8aton.
ThE 0.5. P.marker of 9 is ElB follows:'
s _
~ -------...~--
r1d
~J P
------ Pr cd. P
~/.:I
1 1
,-
,
!1st.
N
.
11ux.G
VP
i,
!
I
V
IIm :kk
' , . - '

---

185
WhGn one apply thE negation transformation to this undErlyin~
s __
~Pd.P
,i
,I
------------- I
Aux.G
vr
I
1
j
iJ
I
N
VB
iI
II,
i
!
NGg
I
I
I
J
i
I
do fa
lao :kk
u 1
In the Cas G
of Explanatory sGntencc ue Can nott~ that
•
s. D.
is NEg
+
,NP
+
f~u x • C
+
V
1
2
3
4
S • c.
is
NP
+
t1 U)~ .. C +
V
+
N8g
2
3
4
1
Th u s S . C.
is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ::;=--)
2 + 3 + 4 + 1
Hereafter WG Can statG that whenGvcr nEgation transformation is
applied, it ·moves the node Neg.
from the lcftmost branch it
occupies in P.marker O.S. and attaches it to tho verb-predicate
or to the adjectioo-predicate in Caso thoro is no auxiliary.
If
therr:: is an ;\\uxiliary, t'he Ncg. is then 8tt8ched to the auxiliary,
except caSGS where the sentence is an oxplanat~~y, sentence,

---

185
rr-
in wh.i ch cas E' the N8 g,. is at t a ch e d t o t he veT b- pr ed i cat e 0 f
to the adj~ctive-pTedicate.
Nevertheless, whEn the negation
occurs in an impeTative sentence, the negation transfOrmation
cannot move the Neg. nods.
In this Case someother transforma-
tions aTp- required as seen in 8b.
Plo r eo v er when the pr ed i -
cate is El nominal-predicate,
the negation trunsformation obligrl-
torily .attaches the negation-particlE to the Auxiliary.
Ex.
10.
)ma r
du,
bu:r
)maT is not a kin~
The P-marker of the deep structure of this SEntence 1S given
below:
Pd. P
/~/ I
Au x. G
Nom. Pr e d •
ul
da
bu:r
When the negation transformation is applied to the above
P-marker, it generates the new P-marker given below:
s _ ..~-------.
____ Pd.P
NP
I
_----
I
N
Au~.C
Nom.·Pred.
~
.,~
I
Cop
Neg
N
!
I
I
I
I
I
ul
bu:r
~mar
da

---

18'7.
Another case to ~e analysed is Neg. occurring in a nominalized
phrase.
For instance, let us analyse the following sentence
11.
dce m
ama:tna
•
for
Jmar not to go is probable.
The P-marker of this sentence is as folIous:
S
------.
NP
Pd.P
I
\\
Sa
~
NP
I
N
II
~I
")mar
na:kk
alna :tna
' -
This indicates that the sentence S.a is an NP.
This means that
S.a has beEn nominalized.
Here thE negatiC.l dOes not affect
the whole sentEnce
rather it affects only the 'predicate of
t
S.a.(daem).·
Moreover here we can notice that there is no case of
negation transfOrmation~
ThE negation mEaning is given in
the reading of the auxiliary.
In other words negation is not necessarily given by the
procedure of a transformation.
It may be entailed by the
meaning of a constituent.

---

.'.:'
188
This -"leads us
to say that negation t'ransformation
applies if and only if the underlying P.marker has a sEQment-
NeQ.
To make this statement clearer,
let us
go through the
followinQ sentences.
1 2.
)mar
ria: kkna
xar
,~
)mar
has lost a sheep
1 3.
) mar
-na:kkuJ;.
xar
' -
)ffiar
has not lost a sheep.
The P.markers of the deep structure of 1 2 and 13 are given below:
1 2a.
~5~
Md
NP
Pd~P
. I
VP
IVB
-~
----------
NP
1
')ffiar
1 3a.
~.S·_ _ _ _ _
--------.------
r~p..
---.
l"id •
·Pd. P
I
I
I
As t
N
VP
I
.
VB ~. __
Neg
V
NP
I
I
ul
:Jmar

---

189
The above tree-diagrams indicate that 13 has a syntactic
interpretation of negative sentence,
where8s 12 has not.
Nevertheless, as ue have already noted it in 11, Ra:kk has
a negative-value.
Thus we distinguish se~tences with Overt negation-
marker from sentences without overt negation-marker.
The former type undergoes obligatorily negation
transformation;
while the latter'does not undergo negation
transformation.
II.2.D3
Question Transformation:
We can distinguish two tyPes of questions in Wolof.
One is what we refer to as fUl~scope-question; the cother one
is what we refer, to as local-scope-question.
As.indicated by our termino~o~~ the full-scope-
question-type is the type of question which affects the whole
sentence in which it occurs.
It is, as it wer e, the equivalent
of yes-no-question type of English.
On the other hand, the
local-scope-question type refers merely to a part of sentence.
The affected part is either a('l NP SUbject, an NP Object, an
adverb of
place, an
adverb of time or an adverb of manner.
This tYPe is the equivalent of WH-question of English.
Let Us consider some examples:
£t,J) 1-5 cope- Dues t i ons.:
ndax
')mar
jendna
Wjt)?
.....
has jmar
bought a car?

---

190
2.
ndax
dafay
wis-':
.--..-
is i t drizzling?
3.
ndax
dingEl
d33 m 7
---
..::-..~
will you go?
In 1 -
3 each sentence as a whole is
questioned.
TI,;'~s what arE questionGd in 1 ~2 and 3 are as follows:
1 \\ :
') mar
jendna. w')t:> =
)mar
ha s bought a car
-...._.
2
· dafay wis
=
i t is drizzl~ng
'.
3 ·
diflga
dae m
=
you will go
·
The expected answers ar 13 as
follows:
S
w
w'a:
? + S
ldE!Det)
local-scope-QUestion~:
4.
lanla
-- )li1ar
}a:~ ?
IJhat has .)mar held ?
s.
,
!<anl a
)ffi ar
ja:PP Q
.~
LJhom has ')mar
held 7
6.
ban
gana :r
m');y
Sap ?
Uhi ch chicken is crying ?
7.
ban
g::,nae
m"):y
j):y ?
Whi ch ,hi Id is crying ?
8.
Fanla
")mar
dae m ?
LJ h er G has )ma r
gone 7

---

191
9.
Ka·nla
)fil a i:'
d33 m· ?
Uhen has
)mar
gone ?
1G•
ana
)mar ?
Uher 8 is
)mar
?
11.
'na,:ta
xalm
n):y
fJ ?
How many children are playihg ?
SentencE'S 4 -
11
imply the truth of the following
pr esuppos i tion s:
4a -
5 e·
)mar
ja:ppna l\\
:>ma r
has held L\\
6 all
Qana: r
a2g iy
sap
,\\ chicken is cr y i ng
~.
7 a /J g)nEB:
IJgiy
j):y
6 child ~s crying
8 a
.)mar
da fa
dae m L
:Jmar
h8s gone 6
9 a
:;ma r
daB mne
1.1
Jma r
has
gone Li
10a
Jrnar
arjgi L\\
~.
~)ma-r
is
L\\
1 1 a 6 Xal a2 :
rj giy
f.)
~
fj Chi ldr en ar G pI ay ing
wh er e the dummy symbol
IJ
stands for
dara
=
s Om et hin 9 in 4a
d or a
=
somebody. in
Sa
ap
=
a ( n)
in 6a - 7a

---

192
b·er·ep sa:1J9am (fce:n n )
=
Somewhere in 8a - 10a
, ~
'-..-/
waxtu
sa:f)gam
=
at X time in 9a
ay
=
some in 1 28
Lle Can notice that only the cons ti tu ents replaced by a dummy
symbol are questioned.
In. f~ct if.we compare 48 with Sa it
appears that they are alike.
The only difference is that in
4a the dUmmy symbol rEplaces a word which has the featurre
<'<+
indefinite,;;»
and
<..<..-human >.> •
Whereas in Sa it replaces a
lJJ I'd
which has the feature (I.. + human).
These syntactic features
which are reflected in the form of
the questilons en"able us to
state that this type of question .has a lOcal scope.
TheY are
made in order to get an information on a precise point of a
sentence.
That information may concern the subje'ct, the ['JP
object, or any
~h2r constituent except Predicate.
The procedure of question transformation:
Let Us consider the following sentences:
1 2.
fanla
musa:
mbu TU:
mi '/
~,
wherE has mUS3 kept the bread?
1 3
ndax
mUSa:
mburu
mi
'ci
mbu: s mi? ,
' - '
........
has musa: kept the bread in the bag-?
The p.
Markers of the deeP structu~es of 12 and 13 are as
follows:

---

193
1 2. a
-.Pd.P
~1 d
.-----
"I"
I
I
---
.
VP
-------Adv
I
VB
/"~"
V
NP
/ '\\
/ / \\ \\
/
\\
Vst
Af
N
T
I
iI
Quest
musa: dce-nc
na
mburu
mi
+ Place
--....
i
I
I·I
~VB<"
.PP
.~
",
-
"
V
NP
Prep.
NP
I
I
t
/ \\
/ \\
/
\\\\
~
\\
\\
I
VS t
Af
j\\J
T
N
T
I
I
I
I
I
!
Qu est.
mus <3 : dae nc
na ~uru
ci
mbu:s
mi
'---
At the first analysis of the different P.markers what appears
clearly is that in the P.marker of 12 the adverb constituent
,has as terminal symbol a du~my symbol; whereas in ~h9 P.marker
of 13 th~ adverb constituent has as terminal symbol the string
ci
~:us, mi
(adverb of Place).
This main difference is the source of the 'disciimifla-
tion betw~En full-scop8-question tYpe and local-scope-question
type.
12 and 13 ore generated from l'2a end 138 respectively.

---

194
Let Us consider first 1 3.
For 13 tile 5.0. is as follows:
#= 5 I!= -";7
.Quest
+
[,p
+
Vr-
+
!\\dv.P
1
2
3
4
that is, #5 If
--~
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
When the qUGstion transformation is applied to 13a, the segment
Quest. is replacE'd by the word ndax from the lexicon in order to
.
'---'
complete thE' terminal string given in 13a and generate 13.
Thus the P.marker of the derived sentence 13 is ElS follows:
-~ -----------------~
~ld
NP
Pd. P
I
I
I
,
I
-----~
N.!\\ st
N
VB
'"'"'.Adv.P
I
/
\\ \\
I
\\
I
Du est
V
NP
/ pp
'"
[
,/
\\ ,
/
[
\\ ,
/ \\
/ /
\\.
\\
\\
/
i
Vst
Af
N
T
Pr E' p.
~JP
!
I
i
;,
I
/
\\
N
T
j
I
I
I
I
ndax
musa:
dw -n c
~.
na
mburu
mi
ci
mbu:s
mi
~
.~
So, theSe
is as follows:
11=5 # _.:._~
Quest + NP + VP + Adv.P
trlat is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
=---..,)
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
It is understood frOm the abov~ anEllysis that, but for the
replacement of the Segment-QuBst. in the P.marker of 13a by a
word frOm the lexicon in the surfElce structure string 13, the
question ~ransformation would hElve been mE'rely El VElCUOUS
tr ans format ion.

---

195
Another po~nt is that the segment Adv.P is optional
in 13a lJherE3S {n 12a it i.s not;
for if it werE
its absence
J
~ould have blocked the qUEstion-tran8form~tionas we will see
later.
Thus it is quite possible to have a D.S.P.marksr
which is as follows:
_S _______
~
NP
,------
.
Pd.P
I
I
N•.Rst.
N
- VB.
~~
-
"-
V~
NP
/
~'"
/'-"'\\.
Vst
Af
N
T
I
I
\\
Clu est
musa~
na
mburu
mi
From this the following P.marker will be generated:
5, ..
-----
----------
---~
~------
,-
... _'"-----,
~1d
~,JP
Pd .,p
I
I
,
J
I
_-VB.
r
-------
I
"'-.....,
N./qat.
~J
/V
,NP
I
I
//~.
/
\\
I
Du est
Vst
Af
N
T
I
I
_
I
I•
ndax
mus a:
dm ne
nE)
mburu
ml

---

196
Now lEt us return to 12.
As seen above,
the 0.5. P.marker
is as
fo 11 ows :
1 2a.
------------ ''---~~
VB
Adv
n. Ast :
N
/" ------~--------
V
NP
/~~
/
~.
Vst
Af
N
T
i
I'
L:,
Quest
musa:
dae -rlc
na
mburu
mi «<.+ Place:'"
'-.../
That is the 5.0.
of 12a is
11= s #=
--~
Quest + NP + VP + Adv.Place
that is #= S I
- - 7
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
If question transformation is applied to 12a,
first
Q
copying
transformation will take place-
In this o~el'ation t·he
segment-Question will:
coPy the features of the dummy symbol
and the result will be as follows:
1 2a • 1 •
Md
N. Ast.
II
Quest
G
+ Place
musa: dE£) ne
na
mburu
mi
+ Place

---

197
At this stage only, a deletion-transformation will operate
which rGsults in generating the P.marker given below:
_ _ _ 5-......
.
~~
~ld
NP
Pd.P
I!
~
I
- - - - - -
.------
~
n. Ast
/V8......
Adv
./"
-.......~-----.
V
~NP,
/'" '"
~
~
Quest
Vst
Af
N
T
r
Pars.
+ PlacE
na
mburu
mi
Thus the dummy symbol is delGted.
This d8letion-transformatiQn
entails the removal of the segment .4dv. from the P.mari< er 12 a.2
and gives the following P.marker:
12 a. ~
n.Ast.
Quest
.~<.Pers . a f ,,>
(!, +
PIa C e >>
{( 3 Sin g • >7
musa:
na
mburu
'-- .

---

198
Once again the copying transformation will operate.
The features
o f t he:: S E' gm en t
Per s. a f.
L>J i 11
b e cop i G don
the Segment
Questio~3, re~ulting in the generation of the P.marker given
beJ;ow:
12 Q •. 4
_.S .
~~
MP
Pd.P
I
n. A st
Quest
Vst
I
: /,+
] .....
I
3
Pers .,;)/
I
("Si n g.»
J
mus Cl;
na
mburu
j;U
Once agaIn the delEtion-transfoTm~tion operates,
removing the elemEnt -na
from the treE.
This deletion transformation will entail a pruning operati~n
which will remove from the tree th~ right daughtEr of the
Segment V, if there is no occurrenc E of tense-markEr and/or
nGgation particle.
Otherwiso thE treE-pruning does not take
plaCE.

---

- 199
The result of the above trSG·'i-",-'uni'n'g is as
follows:
f1 d
Pd.~
j
I
n. As t.
N
VB
--------------
V
~
.
NP
Ou Gst
I
/
''''''',
vst
N
T
musa:
mburu
mi
'--'
Now, if the Segment-Question is replaced by a
word
from the
. 'lexicon, i t generates the
following P.marker:
12.a.6
S
~.-
Pl d
NP
--------------Pd.P
i
I
I
I
n. As t
N
~VB~.
Qu est
V
.NP
I
//.~
Vst
N
T
'" 3 Per s ))
!_
Sin 9 •
h ,
»
i
fanla
mus a:
d ae is..s
mburu
mi
'-"

---

200
\\:',
the 5 . c. is
1# 5 1/
~
QUGst + NP + VP
that is
#=S 11
.:...:..-_~
1,
+
2 +
3
We havE stated above that th8 deletion transformation entails
a pruning operation of the right daughter of the Segment V onl~
.if th~rE is no occurrence of tense-marker and /
or negation
Particle.
Failing this, the tr8e-prunning cannot take place.
In order to exemplify this', let us consider 14.
1 4.
musa:
mburu
mi
ci
mbu:s
mi
-...
,--'
musa:
had kept the bread in the bag.
If we assume now that the speaker wants to know the place whero
the bread has been kept, that will entail th8 following pre-
supposition.
--..
-
1 tla.
mus a:
dcEl nc'):nfla . mburu
mi
./}
'-"
'.
'--'
whe,ra 0,
stand
for bC"rc"p
and the qUGstion would be:
1 5.
mburu
mi
The und[,orlying P. markGr of 15 indicatGs that we
deal wi<tri' a local-scope qUEstiotl.
1 5. a
::=.5
---~-
Pld
NP
I
I
n. As t.
N
qu GS t
mu sa: d 80 nc ): n
na mburu
mi
+ Place
.~,

---

201
Thus in order to gen8rate 15 from the underlying P.marker 15a,
WE
shall, as indicated abOv2, apply thG copying transformation.
This transformation will g~n6r~t6 the intQTmediate P.marker givEn
DEI ow:
. ,
15 a.1
-5'~
~
NP
----- Pd.P
I
~
n. Ast.
N
VB
AdlJ
.----- . ----------
'V
NP
/
\\
/"'-
\\
./
~
Vst
Af
N
T
/'~~
I
!
!
TersG
Pers
marker
I
(\\
Qyest
na
mburu
ml
\\<.., Place>;-
- , '
",+PlacG,»
Wc
To 15a.1/will now .apply the deletion transformation generating
the following P.markers:
1 5a. 2
~s __________
~1 d
N P .
Pd.P
,
,
I
~V8~
n. its t
N
__________ \\i.~
/ i~ P'"
Vst
Af
N
T
_.----. !
Tense
Pers.af
I
CJu est
musa: drenc
J:n
na
mbur u'
mi
'-..-0'
'"---"
+ Place

---

202
NoticE that We havG systGmatica1ly 8PpliGO thd troe-
.fJ.rL:ning
and that this opGrntion has removed the Adv. -SegmEnt
(right Jauohter of Pd.P)
from the tre('.
f~Gxt to thesE operations, we again apply the copying
transformation.
This second application of the copying trans-
formation will genErate thG Follouing intermGdiate P-marker:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
~_5.~
nd
NP
Pd.P
I .
I
~VB~,
N
/V~
;p~
Vst
Af
N
T
------ '''-'-
TensG
Pers
I·,
:<
a f •
I
Qu eS t
mu sa:
d aa if c
J: n
na
mburu
mi
..........
r-
I <, +
I {(+
PlacG »-1
:3 PEr s ')1
I
\\<. +:.- 3 PEr S-.,.,!
! \\\\ + Sing.">, /
....
, J
I
«+",'Sing '":»
I
-
~r
Once again we will apply the dEletion transformation.
This oPEration will generate the following P-marker:

---

,
203
1 Sa. 4
s
.
.--'
~.~
nd
NP
Pd.P
I
I
VB
---------.
J'
---------~,
n. Ast.
V
NP .............
------- ~
.------
""
Vst
Af
r~
T
i
Tc=nse
QUGst
musa:
dae :nc
mburu
mi
" - '
'--"
PI
)1'-
aC E
3 Pc:rs.)
sin g .»
This timE,
due to the presencc= of the::
tEns~-marker
j:n therE is
a blockage of the prun~ng
Of the Af -
segment,
right-daughtEr
of V'.
Now if WG r~placc= thE OUGst-Segment by a word from the
leXicon}
We have the:: terminal P-markeI' 153.5 which is the
P-marker of the? surfaclO: struc-turt: s~ntencE 15.
1 Sa. 5
Pd.P
I
VB
n. ;~s t
-N
----------- .~ '"........
_____ V~
NP
I
I
------- ~.
j
Vs t
Af.
N
T
I.
I
I
(
[,Ju Est
Tense
I
[+
,
Place "-\\
I
J
{; + 3 Per s ,~)
,
~-, + 5'
I
lng",~ j
j
i
fanla
musa:
dcB '-
:nc
""J: n
mburu
mi
"--.--
---

---

The next case we arE analysing lS the local-scoPe
question uith occurrence of negation sogment in the verb
•
IF we"llJer.:eto E~mplify thG gEneration of 16 1
we would have to follow almost thE Same application-order of
transformations.
•
16.
fanla
musa:
br=yul
(Where has musa:
not CUltivated)
ThE previous examples enable us to say that 16 preSUppOSES 16a.
bGYU~ D
mus;]:' ha's not cultivated b
Where thE dummy symbol stands for b~rep (somewherc)
Thus the underlying P-markBr of 16 is as follows:-
~ ~
~ld
Ilj P
Pd. P
------
I
VB
~Adv
I
I
n. As t.
N
~v~
Vst.
I•
Neg
Pers.af
I
I
Quest
musa: bGY
ul
,0
SOt
wo apply first thE copying transformation, which
generates the following P.marker:

---

· 16a.
VB
Adv
II
V-
n.Ast
~
Vst
---------
~Af~,
~J C' g
Per s • a f
I
\\
Qu est
musa:
ul
1:
D.
G~ + Plac c=)]
i~( + 3 Pers ·)~l + Place
lv,+ Sing~?) J
Nc=xt, WE apply the dEletion transformation, rEsulting in 163.1.
1 6a .1
n.Ast.'
V
-----
Vst
~- Af.
I
~.~
P:-:'::'f; • • af
QUEst
Place"»]
muSa:
ul
I--
I /~ +
IIL'-' +

---

206
ThEn,
~G apply thE troG-pruning, generating 16a.2.
1 6a. 2
s~
r'ld
Pd.P
!
I
I
VB
I
~V'~.,.
n .A st
vst
...____Af ~
I
r~Gg.·
Persoaf
!
I
I
Qu est
mus a;
bey
ul
~
I
3 PErs.»1
S ·
I
1 n 9 • ') _;
Then)oncG again)uE apply copying transformation.
This Operation gGncratos the P.markor 'given belo~:
1 6a. 3
~s
~
Md
Np
-------------- '-d.PI
VB
I
_______ V~,
n.Ast
N
Vst
i~f~
r~ e 9 •
-Pe.r. s ... Q f
./
(
I .
'I
I
qUEst
Il1USa:
bey
ul
P
I,~~+
I
Plac e ~)l
r<, + FG r s ~~;-(
I'~
,
+ 3 ~ er S o»j
I
L,,(+
Sing.-.i!
Sing.») I
l<·, +
-.'

---

20.7
This·time a second deletion transformation will not take place.
Nou, if we replacE thG QUQst-segment by a word frOm the le~icon,
it genErates thE string -fanln ~usa: beyul ? - whose
P. marker is as
folIous:
1 6a. 4
~s
Md
NP
Pr ed. P
I
I
I
VB
I
n .• As t •
r.'
I~
_________ V~
Vs t
,'1. f
----- "'-
N~g.Part.
~erS·-.af
Qu E?st
Pl2_C e
l
' ? )
3
I~: I: S .)~
,
\\
I
Sing ..... > I
r .
-;'
fanla
mu sa:
ul
We might think that the abs~nce of thE second dde-
tion-t'ransformation has been created by the occurrenCG of
the nGQation particle in the main verb.
If it uere the Cdse thGn, how to account for thG
transfor~<3tions in the following sentences 17 and 18?
17.
fanla:
Where havE I not cultivated?
18.
beyul ?
WherE haV~ you not cultivated?
17 and 18 presuppose sGntGncGS 17a and 18a •

---

208
17a
bEyuma
£::..
I
havE: not
cultiv.3tt?d
Jj
18a
~
- • • t
• -
.-
,
"',
YDU have net cuI t ilic:lt cd
G
MerE again the? dummy symbol
U
stands for
r someW\\larc:'.
That means
the; dummy symbol has
the feature ,<., + Place '":0).
Thus,
the underlying P-markers of 17 and 18 arc
1 7a
s
~
NP
----------Pd.P
-------------
VB
~Adv
J
V
~~,~""
n .,~ st
Vst
~H
~
/
NGg
"'"
Pers.af
I
II
f
qu e?S t
man
ul
ma
D
Place. ,
)J

---

209
18a
_---~ 5
_
~1 d
NP
Pd. P
__
VB
Adv
I
~V_~
~
n.• A5 t.
Vs t
~,'J, f .~
_
Nog
Pers.af
I
I
i
i
.J
Yj w
b E"Y
ul
1 _, .
..J
•
1\\
2 Pers ~/1 G'· -
<, '
,T
PlacS
Sing'7 J .
"''Id
.In oI'dGr to generatG 17~18 WE' would apply first a copying-
(\\,oJ
transformation to the P.markers 17a~18a.
This
WO u 1 d
l' e s u 1 t i n
<
•
.,~'.I;~
..
the gGnEration of the: inte:rmc:diate P-makHs 17a.1
and 18a.1:
~
1 7a .,.1
_---~. S _______
~J P
~Pd.P ~
VB
Adv
i
n. Ast
_____ V~
Vs t
. / A f ...............
"./
...............
Neg.
PGrs.af
I
I
Qu c:- st
man
bEY
ul
ma
I,::'.
..:
+ Pl."cc
C J ·
-J
)1
1 peI's'))!1
Sing.)}
'-

---

210
1 8a.1
---Pd.P
--------
VG
I
-------Adv
V
~~---
Vs t
,.-If
/~,
NEg.
PGrs.af
I
I
Qu E?st
y)w
bey
ul
1 J:
6
. ~';+ Plac[',.;)
[d 2 Person1
' :"'1
I
"\\ +
:'
Sing 0))
G..+ PlacE '"l
J
r
Then we apply the dEletion tr~nsformation to 17a.1 and 18a01
•
)
This operation
will gen8ra.te the
following
Pomarka;;rs 178.2 and
.
_
s
.
-----~
Md
--------.-Pd.~I
VB
I
________ V
-----
~,
Vs t
_-------- K f ~"
Neg
P8rs.af
I
I
Quest
man
bEy
ul
ma,
1 PGrs')il
i

---

211
18a.2
_ _-=:::=:~~s_ _ _ _
Pd. r
l'ld
I
I
VB
I
I
_________ V~
Vst
,H'
.r:'. ;~st
----
NGg
~
PErs.af
I
1·
1"):
boy
ul
Qu (' s t
YJW
r'+ 2.perSo»l
l_<"+ S ~n 9 ."l~ .J
I~ f t Gr thes e 0 per at ion S, we rea pply t h ~ copYi n9 t r 3 n s f 0 I1TI a t ion
to 17'a.2 and 18.a.2.
This gen~ratEs 17a.3 and 18a.3 Q.i'.j"·n b[;'loLJ~
1 7a. 3
~_ _~ S _ _ _ _ _
Md
NP
Pd.P
I
I
I
!
I
VB
i
_V~
Vs t
:i f ~
Ne9
PeTs.af
I
Qu est
me n
beY
ul
ma
<,,+ Place» \\
",+ 1 Pers."»]
I
I
Sing.;,
I
~.+
5 in g.»
)
I

---

-!I~ ."'".:.
~.l'" ..,:~..,."
},
:J ~
'~,
' - ,
'
212
1 8a. 3
~_ _~"S'_______
Md
Nr
Pd.P
I
\\
VB
I
______ -V,
n,. Ast
---- "",
Vsrt
~,'~f~'
I,
I
NGg
PErs.af
I
I
I
Qu Bst
bey
ul
1 ', .
.J •
rc,,+ Place ;~
2 PGrs.;l
\\
1<.<+ ,2 Pers"t'?!
Sing.)'l i
.
I
L{(,+, Sing.)" J
ThEn we rEapply thE delstion-transformation to 17a.3 and 183.3
gEnerating thE P.mark€rs
17a.4 and 18a.4 which arE as follows~
1 7 a. 4
~JP
Pd. P
I
I
VB
~
~-~
Vst
Af
I'
I
j
N,9
man
ul

---

213
1 8 a.4
~ s ~
-----:-- -~
.
Md
NP
Pd.~
~8
r
n.Ast
----
Vst
~ ------- ,j,fI
-I
N 6g
,-
I
Qu Est
I <~
~~ i
y~lw
bey
ul
I
<', +
PlacE»
~( + 2 Per s .n
G·+ Sing. ~>-'
HErE also the trEE-pruning cannot operate, dUG to the presenc~
of the negation particlE in thG VGrb.
th~ emphatic NP SUbjECt will bE delEted from 178.4 and 18a.4.
This opEration will gsnEratE ths P.markers 17a.5 and 18ai~.
1 78.5
_---=5
- - - - .__
--::::::==:---- - - - - - - -
Md
NP
Pd.P
i
I
I
VB
!
n. {1st
__________ V
____..
'"',
Vst
Af
I
~Gg
I
i
I -
,
I
<<.
Ou GS t ':"')
11
bey
ul
<'-.+ Place·~
"-<..+
1 p'er s. ,-_
',<.+ Sing.;.?
l-.
-!.

---

214
i 8a .. 5
s
- ' ---'.~
f'ld
NP
---- Pd.PI
iI
VB
i
I
V
n .. Ast
I,I
i
------
Vst
-----.----Af
!
NI?g
I
I
I
I
ul
bey
1-'" OU F=:st ,>,>"l
o
I«+ P·l C
a
e >;.
1
1·«(+ '1 Pet's ;,',:>
....
.
I
S·lng.·, '» I
I·:~+
--"
The emphatic NP Subject
having been deleted, WE Can
s ____
.-----..------ Pd,. P
,1 -
I
.,.
I
'VG
·1j
II
I
n·. ,'l.s·l·.
"
'1
·l
r
:1
bEy
ul
:< :OUE:'st >.'
:\\
.
.
, _
,I
'<','+ ,Ptac,(?,:>-> I
,~+ ':1 :Per so.:;,:
I " .'+'
S"1'
. .
' ng
I '
1.'
/ /
•
, . » ' ,
L
---

---

. ,~
215
18a.6
s
.,-------" _-----_.-
..
nd
Pd .P
; '
i
VB
V
Vst
rif
I
,
I
I
I!
L<.
GU € st '-')::- \\
:::: GY
ul
i
« + PIa C G -~'>
i
. + 2 Per s • ; ~Ii
I <d' .S ing~. '>.~ ;
. - . ,
---J
Now, if lJI? rGplac~
the QUGst-segment by a
word
from thE
lexicon in 178.6 and 188.6,
wo generate 17 2nd 18, as shown
by
thE surfaCE P.markers 173.7 and 18a.7:
_.-----=- S ----. __
-~-----------
-----------.
r'l d
\\,
I
\\1 B
j
i
j
Ij
.~",-.
n . i1s t
V s t ' - \\ f
J
r,l c,g
I
'I
bey
ul
/ ,

---

P""17
,"
'"
216
_____ 3-
18a.7
---_.----~,.-
-~_._-----.,---,-
Ma
Pd.P
{
VB
II
i
n.Ast
.' V
----
-----------
I
Vst
,!.If
I
!,
I
\\l
b GY
ul
Thus,
it appEars that th5 blockage of thE Second d'eletion-
-
transformatio~ in the derivation of 16 is neithei dUG to the
OccurrenCE of the negation Particle nor dUE to the p~Esencc
of tense-marker.
The syntactic rEason is thut the pers -
markef _ 5egment on which tho deletion-transformation would
have Operated, is Cl zero morphem8;
a de:1Etion cannot take pL1CE'.
At the: most~ we might think of it as a Vocuous d81eti8n-
transformation.
is no negation-particle and/or no overt tense-marker occurring
in the verb (main vErb or auxiliary vErb), ,'] sEcond deletion-
transformation takes placE entailing a treE-pruning.
On thE controry, when there is occurrenCE oP Zj
n E gEl t ion - p;;1 r: t i cl e El nd/ 0 r 0 ve r t t EO n s E - mCl r !<er in t !l e v2 r b (m 2 i i-'
or;:) u x i 1 i 3 r y vEr b), the s l" cOn d d 91 Gt ion - t r Q n s for IT, a t 5. 0 n t a k cS
pla~e,
but it dOES not Gntail 0
tree-pruning.
~JEverthelos3 when the verb (main or auxili2ry) occurs w:ith
negation-ParticlE 3nd/or tense-marker, in tho environmEnt o~
deletion transformation does not operate •
. . . ,_titl. # .. e=it3)Q.')j ai;

---

217
This can bE? f,-"\\:::,mulatEd thus:,
-1
V + PErs. af -~;;Y P(?rs.a~ -'eleti~n -..=:=/t-:-ee-pruning
V + (r~Eg,•. ~articld
+ (Tense.m) +. (Per's.#-3 Sing.,)
==~
1
-=F~
tr 8e-pruning.
11.2.0,4
Prc=dicate' ~JP'•.Su~jGct .JgrEEmc:nt.
----'- . ."------=:--;--
..-.--=-._---- .._._--
In. a s~ntGnCE the Predica~G-subject rGlatian can bE
I
shown as indicatGd by Chomsky by mEans of a P•. marker.
That is
the Np· i.mmediCltely.. dominated by S is subjc:ct of thE PrEdicatE
of S.
The difforencE betweGn logic subject and surfacE
subject· is n~t relevant here, since whafever may bE the CaSS
thE NP~immEd~atsly dominated by,S is tho NP that conditions
t h 8 con cor d 0 f
the ,p red i cat E.
Our conCErn is the syntactic
subject.
For Examfill e :"
1.8.
thc= door opens
1.b.
boys op~n thE door
2. (').
2.b.
the cats arE Eating th~ meat.
The r8 1 ation betWEEn 1,a. and 1b. is a :relation of
Ergativity but thE relation between 2a and 2b is one active
c·
l···~>
is tQ bF rg~d.~s:
~n~a~ls
.is to be rEad as: dOGS not entail

---

218
Ver911S p.<Js.sive.
Let· us aSsume:: that 1b and 2b arc; the respEc-
tive d8[p structures of
la a~d 2a.
Consider the P.markGrs
of 1a, 1b,
2a and
2b.
1 • b •
5
.
---------'--
NP
------------.
.
Pd.P
' \\\\
~. JG
/
-----------~,
\\,Nu mb E r
V_.-
f\\'P
i
i
Vst
------Pers.af ----- ---..
i
. / /
I
T
N
I
i
J
I
I
{
{
I
I
I
I
boy
s
open
door
~
the
Nu mb er
v
I
i,
I
~----------
.
I
Vst
Pers.af
! .
I '.
I
!
1
I
I'
I
!
"
I
I
I
i
the
d ODr
%
opon
s
f' 3 PG1' s.»)--I
l( + Sing.,>.' j
' -

---

219
2. b.
~~,
n
1-'0 • f-' •
V8
--~ ....----._--'-
.
--
\\1
v
I\\JP
T
~ ,
I\\!
f.jumbc r
:.J E:: S • a f
i
i
I
The
C;:Jt
s
r;1
the
!
:. 3
II
1
Sing .;
~...------ ...-"...-.
s
---
-"-~-,-------
~J P
_
Pd.r::.
.
..
.------------ .,,>
/
~/
.
-------
--
,I
T
~J
.
VP
, "
.
.....
-----"i\\JUri'.ber
\\.10 ------
i\\
[
\\
~T:::JF
"
\\
./
~..
\\\\
Grc=p.
NfJ
..- ! ' .....
/
!
T
1\\1
Nu mD Er
is b cl fl ~l
8at2n
by
.L '.
t
~11G
Ca
3
"

---

220
It aPPEars from the above P.markers t~at thE NP
immediatsly dominated by S is always the NP having a Subject-
Predir2t~ concord r~lations~~, with the Predicate in a givEn
P. markGr.
y [' t,
i [0
LJ::
r c:: tu r il t o t h e: ? . 111 tW k er s ab 0 [? (0 wit h a
l,J~
different viewpoint/notice a phenomenon of rC?dundancy which
in DEEP structure as WEll as in SurfaCE structure.
occurring in the NP do~inatGd by S is repeated invariably in
thG Verb.
We are ,ilot insisting upon the r~umbc:r-SEgmEnt though
it is quitG relEvant in English.
Now let Us consider the follo~ing examples in Wolof
b eyn a;
Lj •
beyr)g:=:
'-~
You have cultivat~d
5.
b r?Yi12
,Let us assume that their co~rGsponding dGEp-structurc
~.
P.
markers arc 88 f~llo\\jS:
38.
__--- 5
,------
-------- ---
..
..
NP
Pd. ?
I
Pn
VB
V
,
man
beY
'I « 1
Pers .~,-I
1 Per::;.'",'
I
·
\\
.
I
! .•.'. .~.. S lng.
:
S l n g. i~
.J
L..
'-J

---

221
...
.,.--.:1
"----------
.. _---,-----_...- - . -
------ Pd.P
VG
Pn
v
y)W
1-;' -:- 2 !J G r s •~" \\
,
,i': .,. Sin g. ~,
L-
"
s
-~-,.
- - - -_ _ A
- ---- ----.._-.-
NP
~a. ~
IJ
VB
I'
v
i
i
p,..,
i
~
0
---
PGrso-:';--1
. ! '~', -:-
~~
I er s • >~lI
I
)
Sing.,,-, .
(
J~_L.
1 "., •
Singo,-.
I
I f
l,J l?
an nl yS G thE Cl b 0 v e ~ 0 mCl r k Er s i t a PPG Cl r s
t hat thE s a me
features of Person Gxisting in the NP Subject are ~EPGated
';'
on thE PredicatEo

---

222
H",reafter l,lC can say' that both the:: r .m2rker principle as LJEll
3S
thE sslGction8l restrictions bGtLJeen NP,SubjEct and Predicate
indicate that therG ['xists a rElation of 2QtGGmcnt betLJE'cn NP-
Subject and Predicatl?
This relation of agreement is actually conCTEtiS8d
by thE generation of a PETs.affix segment on the: trEG-di agram~
'.
11.2.0.5 PeTson.affix-Sogment TTansfo~mation
, ,
Given the: sentence 6, 7 and 8 along with the P.markGTs
....
.' ~ .
bf theiT d80p structurGS givEn bGlow, how f~ the agreement
betwesn NP-SubjGct and main Verb concretized.
man
lae:kkna:
' - - '
i
7.
lee : kkna
11
1-'
I! "
has eaten
11
r~
8.
xa18£
yi
la: :kkno~u
"
68 •.-
s --------.._.
NP----------
I,
f:d.P
/.
i
I
\\
VP
1
I
Pn
V
\\
I
\\I!
f
)
man
' / .
la? :kk
' -
I
,-
L:,1 PErs ~ Sing,';]
r:~: Prc;scnt Cl,
Per f Gct >; j
L.

---

-
't ~ .....
•
~.
~.
,-~ "
~,
223
7 a.
__----·s
~
-----~
NP
--~d.P
)
f
VP
N
v
iI
f
.I
)mar
1 CE : kk
'---"
Ba.
!
,
VP
I
N
V
I
II
xalcE
la? : kk
' - '
3 P (; r s • Piu r •))-/
!(,+ Pr GS En t";-I
I
i
d [ f. '):-
I
: ~<+ Per feet;7.!
_.1
LEt Us not~ that at this levEl us arE not givin~ any importonec
to ~h8 features likE tonse and aSPGct.
First ~[ Shall make a copying - transformation ~hich
~ill repEat th0 person-features ento the Vcrb-Segm[~t. Thus
6a-7a-88 ~ill be transformed into the following P.markGrs
6a~, 7a1, and 8al.

---

5
----
---------.-
NfJ
I\\
vP
t
1
v
j
I
:
I
i
ft
13:3 :kk
man
\\1_'. 1 P[rs .Sing .,;-1I
.
I
\\
('.
+ Pres€n-c
7>1
\\. ~,
I
+ Perfect ,,!J
5
-----------...~
NP ,
F j.p
1I
VB
v
N:
!
1 aJ : kk
---
,. rI'::
'-L_ +
,~_.
'.

---

?zt-
...
J
'-
8a. 1
_._---
- - . $ - .-~-...
------
,.---
flJf=
-- Pc!.P
I
VP
~J
V
!
I
I
I .
II
!
I
xalCB
' 1 aGo : kk
,~
r'" PGrs •Plur.?/!
3
L«. +
)~ .-I
r'd hrs.Flur. ')
I
d
. (( +
G f.
PI' es Grit ",
I
L(, + Perfect 7;; _I
Afbor this! an !iuxiliafy-Group-Segmen,.t-transformation takes
place.
This oPeration consists of thG croation of a node
lab~led ~uxiliary-group (Aux.G).
This
transformatibn results
in 6a.2,
78.2 and 8a.2 as f[jl1o~s:
68.2
--------
.f~P
IJ
v~
J
I
V
1
man
lae:kk
~
t~1 Sing.» J
U
-'I
Prcs ~nt~'
<.' ~
Per fEet :>;
7a.2
,)mor
la~:k k
---
P;r s ~ ";1
j t" 3
PET S .,·-i
S In g ••:' I
L',5ing. '.-
j
, J

---

226
8a.2
.___-5
I\\J ------
P
-'-----------,f:d.,'j
_ _ _ _ _ _ I
Au x.G
vP
N
v
I
j
J
XCllco
1. EB:kk
'---"
Plur. »)·'1.'
ThEn W~ ap~ly the Pcrson-affix-S~gmEnt transformation
on the F.markers 6a,2, 7a.2 and 8a.2, in order to genorate
6a.3,
7a.3, and 8a.3.
This oPeretirn consists of thE creation of a nodE
labE1ed Pers.af.
ThEn Cl copying transformation will transfer
thE! fEaturES of pErsons, already COpiEd onto thE verb SEgment,
The trG~~diagrams of 6a.3, 73.3, and 8a.3 arc as follows:
6a.3
Pn
J
I
I
I
Vst
I
I
man
I
I
lEB :~~.
I(I.+ I p~s.g ~'J
-1((. +
I. p. 5 9 • );.l
': + Pr c: s c:: n t " \\
!{i.+ PGiDfect )J

---

227
7a.3
s
----------- -----._- ----.....
Pd.P
VP
\\
VB
IV
IVst
(
126:12>
Jma r
',: + 3 P. S 9 • ))\\
<~ + Pr es en t -;.'.;
\\L''+ P(!r feet >' 1
8a.3.
__________ s _______
NP
Pd.P
________
I
/tu x-G
vB
IVP
1
°E'rs-af
V
~~
I
I
I
I
Vst
I
I
II
I
1
I
I
1 re : kk
XaliI
f'·3 p. Plur>, i
1(\\+
Pres Ent
I
~'> I
l«3 Plur.~~.
t/.. +
cJ co f . '>.,
l(+ Per feet '>'>)
Now, if WE apply Pers.af.shift transfcrmation, and replacE
thE PGrson-Segm~nt by a worcJ from thE lexicon in 6a.3, 7a.3,
and 8a.3, UG obtain thG following P.markers of 68.4, 7a.4 ancJ
8a.4.

---

rmnl'M J mmz ''?!
_S
-----------
NP.:
----Pd.P
I
\\
I
VP
I
I
I
Pn
v
II
~
Vst
I
man'
lEB :kk
na:
<~ + .1. Sing .'\\ "\\
-
\\,
Present~;;
<.( +
'I
'-..'-.+
f
PGrt act ), j
7a.4
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
P~.P
!
Vp
J
I
N
V
--------
Vst
~
)
')mar
ICE :kk
.......-
na
r'3 Sinq.....' -i'
«, + pr, os ant >,
1f(+ Perfoct,:-
'-

---

·'''.w.m
22~
8a.4
s
NP
Fd. P
IVP
.
f
N
v
~~
Vst
Pcrs.af
I
I.~
x8Ln
nanu
'8" 3 Plur ..~
<<. 3 PI u r ....lJ
.....
[ <."+·dc:f .... )
l«3 PIur ), -']
~ + Pr aSEnt ,;> I
('. + P or foct "'0
Now WE Can roalizQ th3t according to tho rank of tho
"JP-Subject, the Pors.m. varies.
Hare wc? I,ave the P3radigm:
-na:
':':'na
-nanu
ThOSG difforGnt morphGmcs arc obviously the syntactic exprossion
of the agroemont botwecn the vorb and tho NP-Subject.
11.2.0.6
Person-affix-shift transformation
- - - -
-~-
Let us Gonsidt'r the following srcntQneos:
1 •
damaY
daJm
r
2, -=.
I
am going ( I g'o)
2.
ma:rJgiy
dcnm
(
- - '
3.
dama
bHgg
ddJ m (
~
) -
I
want to go
cl.9. M. l-
4.
b(?~gna :
c\\a:m
, ~

---

5.
na:
let
me; gO
6.
daG mnQ:
I have gone
7.
bu:rla:
I
am.a ~ing
B.
dam ay
bu:r
(i t is becauSG)r am a king
9.
dama
sm t
I am cl can
10.
SaJtna:
I
am clean
In order to account for the distribution of the
Pcrs.af. WG must indicate how the sentence, given above arc
genGratc;d.
Consequently,
uc havc to give their deep structur~
P. markers which arl:: as follolJs:
1 D.
I
!
.
i
I
I
I
\\18
I
IJ
da:: m
r
J -
1 P.5 i ng. )"})
\\ <, + Pros ent .,~, '-'\\
l,: : Emp.,) . j
Ji<+ durativc)..,J
' - .

---

·)
231
,.Jd. P
,
J
I
VB
I
I
dCl0 m
1 P. 5 i n g • )'>~~i
Emp • .,":>
/
3a.
s
------- --~
NP
Pd.P
!
j
\\.IR
r
-------
I
V
---------NP
(
f
S -"
)
•i
I
b"Egg
daG'm
' -
r-..<.,+ 1 F.Sing';)'l
-L<<.+ -Pr Gscnt,;'j
I
_J
I
.rJ...
_
Emp.'»
)
L
48.
_ - - - - _ S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd. P
\\
VB -
(
I
-------
V
~NPI
S
II
I
f{ + 1 p.Sin g. ~~
L~" -
Emp. ',,>
J

---

232
5a.
_ 5
-----=:::=-- '
Md
NP
---------Pd.Pl
I
VB
I
I
,
V
!
I
«
+ Sel f:lf-«+ -tp,SinQ-'j-'
dca m
[
permi s ;,l'L
J
(\\
-
Ern p. ,>"
!na
6a.
_________
S ~ _
NP
Pd.P
.{
VB
I
V
dES m
r/( + Pr es ent '>~-I:
!_«.+ Perfect;.>
7a.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8
,
NP
Pd.P
\\
f\\lOfil'.P
bu:r
1
ISing"'~l
Emp ,,',
,
-'

---

__'H"f'''''.' ,-~ __
233
Ba.
s
---
~1d -----~
'NP
\\
1
y
bu:r
da
r~' + Pr es n
8
t >':-1
t'+ imm~nent >,J
9 a •
s _
Pd.P
NP
Adj. P
j
sce t
[~+ i mman ent ~~
10a.
__----5-~d.P
)
\\
sae t
f« + 1 P. Sin 9 »-1
~. + Pr" ~s en t ~;l
I <'. -
I~',+
Emp
I
Per f Get '7~._
7'
L-
.1

---

91".'
,".
2.34
So, t.P 'la -
'10a we apply the copying transformation.
This will result in 1a •.1 to 10a.1;
1 a". 1
__________5--------
NP
Pd~.P"
VB
-
1 P.Sing ,>;1
d cB m
l:: :
J
r'/( + durati v"1'
Emph»
+Preocnt8 ~,
L~+ "I -Sing. » J
2a.1.
5
~
~
NP
Pd.P
I
VB
1
J
dce m "j
e+ 1 P.S ing»J
Emph
<'- + durativ8»
(', -
)'>
F+ Present
/.( + 1 Sing,>
3a.1
------- S
NP
------Pd.P
i
)
________VB _______
V
NP
\\
S
I
b·eg 9
daeffi
' -
\\~." + 1 poSing'j
7
r
+ Pr es ent
,::-1
l~:-
,....
•
I
Emph '»
t~~ +\\ 1 Sin g."») J

---

1
1
1
1
1
1
11
1
11
235
11
I 1
1
I 1
1
1
1
1
NP
\\
1
I
1
S
1
1
I
1
b'egg
des m
1
----
, -
1
« + Present';»1
1
<J. -r
Pea::! fect '>/J
1
<.'.+
1 Sing.,)
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
1
J
l
J
I
I
1
V8
. I
I
1
!
V
1
I
1
i
1
na
1
1
C<.•. + 5, € 1 f
-\\ f{<+ 1 P •Sin g •.~ ~l
1
\\
Permissive,.l.IL';(- Emph~.
l
l _ . '
" j
" ,
1
1
f'>
.
1
-----------
;.)
1
Pd.P
1
.\\
1
VB
1
1
f
1
d CB m
1
1
t~~+ 1 P.Sihg.",,:
1
\\ (<, -
Emp h '> '>
(
1
.
.-J
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

---

23(1
~s ________
NP
Pd.P
\\
Nom. PI' pd •
\\
N
t
bu:r
8a.1
_----====::::--: 5 --------
I'id
NP
Pd.P
\\
V8 ______
----- .
V.
NP
I
da
Y
bu:r
[«+ factiv~~r~_+
l
1 posingo">'/'
F~ + PI' eS c= n t >:
l"'.
Em ph'),
.
('< + Immanent»)
L(,·+ 1 F.5 ing •."j
___________ S ____________
NP
Pd~~
I
1
Adj.Predo:.
J
)
10«·+ 1, P.Singo,»-l
l-· - Emph ..)- J
I~· + 1 P. Sing.:>)'
::.<, + I mman 8 n t ., ~ J

---

237
\\
Sce t
Present ).,-,
"<
+
~ p.5 ing. "/")l
P
u ..
+
[;1' feet."
\\
\\
u..+ 1
P.SingoJ
[mph ">
s
\\
\\<,+ PT cOGnt '>~ "'1'
t"'+ dUT8tiv8 '),
'.'
1 P .,5 in g. »
1.;.+
5_ ---~-
~~P~J'P-VP
---
\\
AUX'C
VG
da; m
l'+ duI:ative.,) l
1..' +
Pr '25 .:;nt .,~ , \\
<~ + 1 P. 5 i n 9 . ')") I
-'

---

3a-2
238
NP
AUXoG
_----VB~
v
NP
I
I
Vst
S
I
I
bog g
"-'
doo rn
Pr 8S ant '»l
1 Po S 9 ';»
42" 2
-'
NP
S-~d;1'
/
~ VB ________
v
I
Np
Vst
I
I
I
s
\\
!
b"o'g 9
........
I
dill m.
(7.:+ PrASGnt" I
I~<+ Per fsc t >J j
c<.+ 1 p.S ing '''?..J
Sa.2
i,
--------~Pd.P
I
I
./
Aux.c
I
VS
I
na
Vst
I/
r.. +
dJJ_ m
S 6lf
-I~ 1 P.Sing•,:;]
L Perrris3ivG);>
-'

---

"
'
23~
~s ________
NP
Pd.P
~ ' I
Aux. C
VB
I
Vst
I
das m
[<:(. + 1 P.S ing .,,~
7a.2
5_
~)P---------
Pd.P
_ _ _ _ _ I
Aux.G
NOm.Prcd.
J'
N.
bu:r
r-
_
1«+ Immanent "~~I
i~" + -1 P.Sing",»
'--
~
8a.2
~"'S_
NP
·Pd.P
. ~ I
Aux-C
]\\}om.Pred.
\\
J
I
bu :r
~!,
\\
+ 1 P. S g .);"\\
LZt. - Emph '-»
J
ilf,4A_d,=-:!S3N.&t:&,H.1W_E&bi

---

ft'w'Z ''lww.,.,.'.... \\,YC&IiiI.
9a.2
2~fJ
._.S~
NP
----. Pd.P
- I
Aux.G
Adjectival-pued.
l
Ad j
I
SEE t
1 p. Sin g "\\
•
I
Emp "),
J
l'-' + Immanent "')J
l( +
1 P.Sing."
10a.2
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
_________ I
I
I!
Aux.G
Adj.Pr8d.
I
\\
Ad j.
I
S cD t
1-
14+ p.cesent'?~].
i
1 (l.
+ Per f GC t »)
1(<. + 1 P.Sing.)~
l -
After this oPerat~on we apply to 18.2 - 10a.2 the
PGrs.af-St?gment trgnsformation • . T~is oporation will gon't?rntc...
thG f-.markoTs 1a.3 -
10a.3 given beloLJ.
Suppose at this stage,
we also apply the
fol~owing other Auxs-placement-transformotion,
namely
Aux-Vs and A.T.Auxs.

---

241
~ s _______
NP
-
Pd.P
I
Aux.G
VB
.--
Au x. Vs
------
I
Aux.ilfs
i
,
. P
i
81' ----"
El • a f A . T •.
V
Au xs.
Cop
/ / \\,
AsP
Tense
\\
I
da
ma
y
y1
dw m
G" + .1 Sin 9;j
f<.+
(~+
J
\\ «.+
L.
S -
_
Pd.P
~--_._---:.'\\
.!\\ux :G
_________
V
Aux·.V s
Aux.afs
I
----.:
Cop
PeI's.af
A.T.Auxs
1
------------
Rsp
tGnSG
I
\\
ma
Y
,0
dm m
[v..+ 1 P.S;ng>~ ' l<~+ 1 P.Singi~i
\\ {<..,:+
Pr ES Ent »
I
-'I
~<+
I
I
nom .."
J
Il..~ + duI' a t i v0 ~~ \\
J
\\,
14.+ 1 P. Sing .;>1
L
.-
..LLiIIiIilIIlii 1I .tt -.z:ifMLi uS!. il"~. ,&Lw -k

---

= WN'....,t'tW..W'$',,,pu·. .
3a.3
2~2
Pd.P
---~
1
AU1..G
~- -----
VB
-----.
Aux.Vs
Aux.afs
I
Cop
----i4S-P. V ---
PETs.af
---ri.T.&fs V
\\
\\
I
------""
I~SP.
TGnse
!
I
1
I ma
do
~
~
dm m
b·ogg
--I
1 P.Sin g .,,!
Pr 28 Ent '» -"\\
Nom.,.,
J
1
p.Sin g • .,>\\
intGntivc d
s
~--
NP
Pd. P
-----
---~-~-
Aux.G
VB
J
. ;
i\\u x. Vs
Aux.8fs
~
V
Peers.sf
{\\. To i4"u x S
I
-/~
I
AsP·
T Gnsc::
I
I
I
!
., )
ma
~
~
dre m
r\\~_<.+ 1
p •.Sing·_.~\\_
!:z:. + f= r G s co nOt ~ 7-\\
,
.'
I
(!.. + r~ Om
')'
i
~
,
~
PGr f ec t ?.' - ;,
-,
I
1 P .Sing. ,);

---

_"U,!'
.r
f;.
2~3
0'---------._'.
fold
NP
'Pd', .~
-----
Aux.c
------VB
I
Aux.~fs
-------
V
Par-soaf
~
I
ri.T .Auxs
.-----:-
.
~
I
Rsp
T.onss
(
I
1 P S ·
'1
•
lng~
ma
Jl1
Jl1
1 p.Sin g :>:,
J
Nom )'>
6a.3
s ~
NP
Pd .P
--~
Aux. C
-------VB
I
I
Aux.afs
V
-----
PoTs.af
-----
\\
. A~T~Auxs
I
;:'Sp
Tenso
II
I
ma
yj
dcc m
l'.+
Pr GS Ent ~}-l
\\".+ :
l
P. Sing
«+ Pc:r feet "}) I
L,+
I
'Nom )
j
(!...+
1 P • Sin 9
.1
,'.> J

---

,~ 2/ !.
,
'1 '-,
',....
.",
~
7a.3
~ _ - s _________
- -
--Pd.P
.,--
MUX.G
------._~
---------Nom. Pr cod
Aux.Vs
\\
Aux~afs
I
. -
rJ
PCTS. ------~
El f
A·. T. 'rlUXS
I
•
i
I
------. ~
j
Asp
,(
I
d'): n
ma
bu:r
1
P . Sin g '> ~ -,
\\
1
Pl'ilS c:nt >', I1I
immanent -)\\ J
8a.3
~­
.-
s ~
NP ---
PJ.p
i
1
Au -
x. C;
---
------
-----Nom.Pr cd
J-
----- ~
Aux.Vs
AUx.4fs
/~ "". ,
~~
""
Asrtl.V
, Cop
1~
:i.T.Auxs
N
I
1
,
/,~
)
j
y
me
bu:r
1 P. Sin 9 ~)-\\
Present
»
I
i
.
t '
lmmanr:n
»J

---

9a.3
_
._ _~_~--5 ________
NP
Pd. P
Aux.G
------
-~-------
Adj.Prcd
-----
Aux.Vs
-----Aux.8Fs
------
\\
---------
PGrs.af
A.T.Auxs
Ad j
~""
asp
tenSG
I
l
da
ma
J!1
J!1
SCG t
r'+ 1 P.Sing ],
1_«+ Nom -,)
10 a .3
s _________
NP
Pd.P
----
---~ ~-~~-
riux.G
f1dj.frEd
.------.
PErs.af
-------
A • T ./iu xs
Adj
j
!
ma
o
s co t
["+ 1 p.sing>~L+1 P.Sing"
F· + Present '»-\\
' .
,«.+
~Jom .)
L
L<f'+ 1 P.Sing "J

---

'
..
,
240
ThE strings generated at this level arc as follows:
1 •
damay
om m·
2.
-I(> aC)gimay
datm
~
3.
* da
b'e'gg
ma
dac m
'-'
4.
'10 t"~Q ,1
ma
d aJ m
'--'
5
f
na
ma
da; m
6.
-if
ma
dED m
7.
* dJ:n
m"
bu :r
j
8.
* daY
ma
bu:r
9.
oama
s a:::t
10.
* ITa G cD t
are ungrammatical.
The reason is that syntactically 'some
rC3rrangemont is necessary.
The oddity of the sentences given 3bove Can be
Gxplained as under:
When anqi occurs in a s.entencc the PGrs.af.
is to bc
.~_....
mov"d to its left.
when there is no Copula (da!afJgi), Pcrs.
af and
~~
t~nSE arc shiftGd ontb tho VGrb.· But when thGrE is a MOdality
«+ PErmissive» or
,,+ factivE" th8 PErs.af is
transfcred to thE
~Iodality noel",.
N~tice that Cop and Md.segment arE mutually exclusive.

---

~ t_ .....~
21 "
'j /'"
When thorc is neither Auxiliary ner Modality -
PGrmissivc
then,
the VB carries the Fcrs.af. ,and Tense.
lJe Can predict thrce patter ns:
(A)
Occurrence of Copula-Verb in S.
(B)
Occurrence of r:lOdality <".scolf Pcrmissiv13 "or ,,+ factive".
(C)
11bsencc: of both elements.
Thus in Pattern A:
-if the -Copula is da, i t prGcedGs all othGr
auxiliariEs.
-if tho -Lopula is aq'gi,it follotils
the Pcrs.af which
in turn beeomGSthc left-most member Clf flux.G.
In Pattern 6:
-the Pers.af.
is alwaYS attaehcd,to this
Mod~lity-
node as its right-daughter.
In PattErn C:
.:there is neiHer Cop nor Md.node.
The Predicate,
nominal or vEr~cal, precedes'the Pers. af. ~ T=s'E-iQ.
But
,>c'
,
'
,
thk,sjZ afPixce rem,3insas lEft sister of the: verb, i f the
sentence is of this structure;
' i t is 1; SUbjECt + who + VF.'
For
Example:
fi:a:
1_ 'k'
...l..dot.
r,
gan~:r
gi
Pers.af~ Vst~ N~.obj, it is(I)who ate thG chicken.
In order to completG thG derivation of 2-8 and
10, we have to apply affix-hopping transformation.
This
will generate the following P,markGr~, namely 2a.4, 3a.4,

---

=
. . , ·"".zmn"h( "G'!Y'
,:,.;,. ..... ,"
2a.4
5
-------
~
NP-
Pd.P
Aux.G
------VB
------
~ux.V
'--------Aux.af
-----~
---------..
Per.af.
COP
i";.SP
!\\.T.f-l.ux
V
1
\\.
I'
I
I
I
ma
angi
y
}6
da2 m
'-='--
Pr c?s cnt » ~-\\
durativG ""> \\
1 P.Sing "j
3a.4
5
-
------Pd.P~
-----
;.\\ux.G
VB
---------~-
MUX.V
~ux.~f
~_.----- ~
I.
!-\\. T Aux
v
------.....
Cop
Pers.af asp.V.
asp
tense
j
( I
da
ma
%
%
dEE m
PrEsent
-1
.
~? I
in t G n t i VG,» (
1 P
5 ·
I
•
lng»!

---

6a.4
s _.--------.
_.~~
NP
Pd.P
I
I·
VB
I
V
--------- ~ ..:
Vst
.Aux.~f
I
~'---
Pcrs.af
A.T.Aux
!I \\J1
7a.4
s ___________
NI"
Pd. P
\\
I
.
i
Nom. Pr ed
_.
.-~~---~-- f
J
N
Hux.G
rlux.V
Aux.J¥f
I
I
i
1
.------.....
Pers.af
A.T.Aux
I
j
,
/ ' --------,
Cop
I
,iSP
TEnse
f
I
I
I
I
J
I
1
-I
I
I
!
1
\\
p
. !
I
bu :r
d J: n
ma
1 .P.Sing»-j
~t+ 1.r:.Sing ..;'1
I'. +
Pr EO G G nit" I
l<,~+ Nom ~-.' j
immanent"i

---

'2~'O
"'.'. --
8a.4
~ S _ _ _ _ _
------
N~
~Pd.P
-------~--~
;.l,u x. G
NOm •. P,r rod
.-----
.
I~UX. VS . --
Aux.4f
.-----.. I ~
I
Cop
PErs.af asP.V
i1 • T. iJ u XZ
\\
asP
N
)
l
\\
da
ma
y
~
bu:r
~ + 1 p. sing f~\\
\\.:~+ Prl?sent·" )
l~+ immanGnt>
1 Oa -.1
,5
___
---~----
flip
Pd.P
I
Ad j. Pred
--------._----- .----..
Adj.
Aux.C
'I
!
~ux.lHs
I
-----~~ .............
-
Pr-rs.af
i"~'. L
Auxs.
!\\
lA S
I
I
\\
----
p
---T.ensE
!
;
]
Sd3 t
ma
~
Y'
ri' +
L
\\.~., + .~rEsont>j!"+ 1 p,Sing,],
L« + 1. p. Sing,)((<+ Nom '-'
""';1-

---

to. J
.\\;"
Yet, it would still be an Oddity to QGnorats strings like
4"',5 11 ,6[1,7"
and 10 1'.
-4-
,.-.
~
b·eg gma
d [£' rn
"-'
5"
~
.--
nam a
dElJ en
611
* dm mma
7 11
* bu:rma
1 0"
"*'
saG tma
Now,' if Wo aSSUiTle that all other requir8d transformations,' such
as morphophonemic rule transformations haVE been applied, wc
obtain the following P.markGrs which are thG surface structure
tr8e-~iaCJrams of 4, 5, 6 and 7.
s _________
~Jp
Pd.P
,,----~------~ --------
/:"ux. C
VB
-----
aux.V
-------
aux.afs
,
I
--------~
\\
Pers.af
,'1.T·.i\\uxs
III
J
I
!
.1
Ina:
da= :m
(-'+ Pr eSGnt '~I
1
P.Sin~(,+ PGr f Get.,;!
I
[<.~ 1 P.s g. ,;'\\
I
1 Sin g
L'+
J.J

---

252
..""~.,'
--------------Pd.P
f'ld
~ux.G
----
------._~
VB
\\ '
,.l,ux.afs
~--- ~----..
PE~s.af
;\\.T.AuX3
~"'"
I
i~SP
Te nS8
f
I
\\
II
\\
'\\
J
da3 m
, na
91
,0
G{+ P2rmissivE~~
62.5
s ________
NP
Pd.P
·VB
,
.
V
Vst -------------- -----
)-\\ux.~ f s
~J
----
Pers:~f
---.'
A.T~Aux
//~
\\I
dc:e m
n a:
~
Pr CS cnt y:-\\
p. 5 ing:,;\\\\<:+ Per Eccb;;~~ Pr ES ent>;J
---I L
_'L..
'.A + PGr fGct~, J
'J. + 1
P.Sing.>

---

7a .5
25.]
S __ ~__________
MP
rid. f:
j
PI1
\\fem. Fr 2d,
- - - - - -
~
f
N
I,
"
,
;; u x• El f'
---- '-"':'
f
.---
""
/
I
;~. r.I~UXs
~~
I
J
rlSp
TGno rc
fif
iI
nU:r
la:
1
"S'
r
.r.
lfig ~.~.!
- - -
"S "".
NP
~
~
~d.r
f!
I
I
j
I
.~iJ,j.Prod.
I
---- '"',
I
---"
"\\
/4ux.~f
I
-.~
P Gr s. a f
I
I
Cl. LAuxs
i
)
.~-'\\
I
j~ S IJ
r Ufls~
If
I
"
.sF(; t .
r; + Pr 2S Gn L, "": ~~ + 1 p. Sing'-"i
I '
l-.
..J
Ic.+ FpI'f e"t >' I
!,I,+ 1 p .. Sin9 •.,)

---

"*'"!'-.r en,.,,,,,,.,,,,,
~
. /
254
" c;" r :.
•
"
ill·
... :
r
II.2.D.7
Fli~- Fl..9-f-.E-ul (:' _~E..a n~.for ma ti o~
A VGrb may c8rry diff8rent syntactic aspect markers at
onc r=, for G x i'1 mp1 e,
(.-<"
non - pG r fee t .,.') and
<" ha bit u a 1» •
Tense and asp~ct markers ~ay be attach~d to th~ main
verb as ~~ll as to thG ~uxiliary group in Surface structurG.
The a:,:;Pect « -perfGct";» is indicated by the presEnce
of
y
or its aliomorph di •
The aspect .('. + per feet ,,)
is unmarked.
Th G" asp set <<. + habitual~ is marked by means of
.
1
addition of
«( -perfect"),;
to the morpheme of futurG.
All theSE markeTS of fen:.:;e Or aspect arc placed in
Au x ~ Gin d e G p s t r u c we
, pr ec e din 9 V.
In surface structure they
may bG moved around the V by way of transfor8ation.
The trans-
,
formation that moves these affixes around the V or sometimes
rearrange the order amidst the Aux.G is known as Flip-Flop rule
tr ans for mat i:m.
Consider the f8llowing sentencGS:
1 .'
~·mar
da fay
dm m
"}mar
is going
2.
') maT
da fad'): n
dcv m
)mar
was going
- - - ' - ..-,--_.-.__._----_.- -~-- ,-~-------~----------
1. Future is syntactically signalized by morphophonemic trans-
formati:m which brings ultE3ration of the Pers.af •.

---

,.
~
255
.
"
~
.., ~,-
'- .... "
3.
~)mar
danay
daJ m
,mar
Q08S .(usually)
4.
Jmar
d anad.J: n
cl aB m
'lmar
uSBdto go
5.
)mar
dana
d;::1G rn
)ma r
will
go
6. > Jmar
da fa
dae m
)mar
has gOne
7.
-jmar
ciaG mna
Jmar
has
gone
B.
-)mar
da fa
dae m"):n
")mar
had
gone
9.
::>m a r
da3 m.~~ nna
)mar
had gonE
If WE cOmpare 7 and 9,
both have '.'.+ PerfBct n .
ThG
diffGrence is that 7 is <,'+ present» whereas 9 is <,,+ past ,).
This is sho~n by the formativG J: ~hich is inserted in the
VB dc£ mna.
Frescnt-tsnse marker is a zero
mo rphBmG, 'whGrEaS
Past-tcinsE marker .is
):n.
I'Ja w,
comparG 1 and 2.
WE can assBrt that the
structures of 1 and
2 aro rEsPectively a.s
follows:
1.
:;mar + dafay + PrGSBnt
.+ diB m
2.
')mar + dafadi + 'past + dacm
contrary to 7 and 9,
1 and 2 arc <<.- pGrfect».
This
featur c
is indicated by
the prGsenCE' 0 F thB
formatives y and di (i"otc
that y and di arc allomorphs of
PerfEct _ aspect morpheme.

---

256
• v
This GnablGs us to say that
1 and 3 h8vG both
We Can ,rGprGs[nt this as undor:
1.
)mar
+ d a
+d33m
3.
mar
+ da
+ .habitual+PGrs.af - PErfEct + PrGscnt
+drom
On
thG othGr hand, 1st us comfars
3 and
5.
At thG structure-levEl, they contrast by the abSEncE
of non~pGrfEct-aSpGct- marker.
'NevGrthe18ss,
thG absencE of y in 5 dOGS not imply
that
5 has <.:.. + PerfEct».
How arE:
theSE fcatuDl;,'S handlod in sUrfaCG structure?
. L G t
us
con si d er r Q spec t i vr:o 1 y1'- 9 a lr Gad y 9 i von ab 0 vd:
1
)mar
dafay
daE:' m
~
)mar
is going
Wc assume that this ssntcncc has the following underlying
P.markGr 1a.
1 a.
_ - - - - - - - - - - - -
5 '_________.
N P '
Pd.P
Au x-.'C
-----VI="
d a£? m
PresGnt J
P or feet :,J

---

257
To 1 a WG apply what WG r~fcr to as AspGct-T~nso-Auxiliary
transformation.
This transfprmatiDn consists of creating 2
sogment which will account for all syntactic features of tense
and aSPect.
This will generate 1b givEn belOW:
1 b
_ _ _-. S -_______
----~
---~-
NP
Pd. P
---------~- ----
-
Aux.G
---.Vp
___---~
I
,4 u x. V
,\\ u)t. a f
V8
\\
1
A.T.aux
V
---------
Asp
-------
Tense
Ii
, 1
I
'jmar
da
dae m
Frcsent »'-1
Per fect /~ J
The next StEP is a copying transformation.
This OPeration
transfers all f~8turGs of tensE and aspect .of ths verb onto
,Ci.T.aux Segment.
If we assume that the lexical pass has
OpGratc:d,
this will give 1c.
1 c
_~_~_ _ 5 - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
I
------ Pd.P
~---
------_.
Aux.G
.----
vP
I
Aux.V
-------
.
Aux.af
---"
V ,
PETs:;f
------
~~T.EluX
I
-------.'-......
I
J
I
rlS P
TGnsG
\\
\\.
)mar
da
fa
y
~
r"
\\
Prosent '):
( .
+
I
I
!
j«. -
PG r fee t ',; i

---

258
dafadJ:n
da?
m
=
jmar
~aS going
In thE 8amB ~ay, ~B assume that ths undG~lying
P.mark~r of 2 is 21a.
2a.
s ----------
\\
NP
Pd.P
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I
Au x. C
VP
\\
I
N
riux.V
V
\\
)ma r
da
.dm m
f<:, + Pas t » -\\
t..: - Fer foct ,J
The=' application of ;.'••.T.
Auxs
.
transfOrmation will
gEn~ratc 2b.
2b·.
-----Pd.P
Aux.G
---
..--'--
-----
---~
.
Vp
.'-- -~
I
.------
Aux.V
. "Aux.afs
VB
,~-~,~
Psrs.af
A.T.af
1
. V' .
.-" ~
.....
\\
Asp
. TGnsc
. \\
I
·)mar
da
I<C+ Pas t // ~-1
\\ . .
\\
I (/\\,-
PGrfGcb> i
"--
-'

---

259
Then by tho Same procedure of copying-transformation and
lexical paSS we generate 2c.
2c.
s ~--------------......_---- Pd.P
----.--.~.---"-'~I
VP
)
i
---.~--------"""-~
PeT s .·a f A . T. Au x
VB
(.
._______- I.
i
) .
As P
Ten se I.
f!
I\\
I
\\, V
' \\
da
3.
.:;mar
danay
d ffi -: rh
= ')m a r
9 0 e s (u sUa 11 y )
given the underlying P.marker of 3 which follows ~
3a.
[·JP
Pd.P
- ' 1
I
Au x. C
VP
I
\\
Aux.V
.
\\
Jmar
da
dae m
,< + Pr es ent :> '-'1
I
''''+ habi tual 'J

---

. 260
..
lIo ...
l. }.
We apply A.T.Auxs-transformation in order to genera~8 3b
wh i ch f 0110 ws ;
3b.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5
NP
--------Pd.P
~ I
--
Aux.G .
VB
-----
Aux.V
------Aux.af
V
-----"'"
liJers .af . A. T.af
.---''''-
Asp
Tense
jmar
da
des m
I<f+ p~esent>'J
t" + habit':»
Then to 3b, we apply the copying-transformation.
This
operation will generate 3c.
3c
5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd. P
A -------
u x . G ·
---------VP
-----~
\\
Aux.V
Aux.afs
VB
.-------~
I
Pers.af
A.T.Aux.
----------- .
Asp
Tense
I. .,r
hablt» \\1+ presentJ
process~t·-'

---

261
Finally, roplacing the segments ,by
words
from
the lexicon
we 9 en 8 rat 8 3 f .
3 f.
s ._____.--------Pd.P
--_._------ ---........,-----
Aux:C-
VP
-----
Aux.V
Aux.afs
-1
----------
VB
-----~
Pers.af
A.T.Auxs
)
~"'"
Asp
Tense
V
!I
Jmar
da
na
y.
-
l'<+ 3 fl.Sg'lr habi-:
J<f+
1.-
rprBSen~(-!{-;- present)~~1
«+ habi hJ!
tual :>;
1«+
1
habi tuaL:.J
proc8ss'3
l..
4.
jmar
danad):n dae f'ft)
= :;nlar
used to go
4 will
di ffer
from :3 simply in the Sense that the
Then its terminal P.marker
would be 4a.
4a.
___--;--~--s ._______
NP
Pd.P
I
_ ~ _ _ _ _ _
,o,ux".C
VP
---:----.. --------
I
Aux.V
Aux.afs
/
VB
~. er --
s,. a f A -----------.
. T • Au xs •
II
----'----
,flsp
Tens8
1
I
-:;mar
da
na
d
):n
I
'....,
1--::" +
3 p • S g~)1 <'.+ habit ~, ....,'(-+ Pas b: '\\ \\ (~+ Past >.' I
_I
"-
"
I
I
\\
i
L«· + habit ,) J /1+ proc'e? s;;J
It'
I
.('T'
habit;>!'
L.
.'

---

262
5.
)mar
dana
da:::m·,:
= Jmar
will go
We assume that the underlying P.marksr of 5 is Sa.
5 a.
s .__________
Pd.P
P.ux~G
-----.
.---
---
.
----.Vp·
I
N
V
\\
-=:-mar
da
dEEr: ,11
.......
F', + fu ture·,; -1
I
.
,
I1(1,+
c_
3 P.Singo'»)J
To Sa ~e apply A.T.Aux-segment transformation.
This operation
generat:~5b.
5bo
s ________
NP
Pd. P
._---------~----------
I
Aux.G
VP
I
J
!
~
~"~
~I
Aux.V
:\\ u x .4:ll.fs
V
------..~
.-
!
Pers.af
A.ToAuxs
I
.-/'~~
\\
Asp
Tense
j
Ir
1
da
das", m
.......

---

263
Thsn,
we apply to 5b the Aspeet-Tense-eopying transformation.
,
This operat{o~ generates 5e.
5e.
.
_------5 -------
i~ P -------
Pd.P
.~------- ----------..
Aux. G
Vp
-------
:;ux.V
-----Aux.afs
\\
V
N
-----
Pars.af
--------
A.T.Aux
\\
\\
~
Asp
Tense
II
I
. ]
I
:::mar
da
r(. 3 Per s~)lr(-:+
'-
59:J-
r:+ Fu tu re";-1
iIt- Past,., J
The next transformation to be app~ied is the lexical pass.
This
oPeration generates Sf.
_ _ _ 5
5f.
NP:~--
.
--------------Pd.P
---------
Aux.G
------Vp
I
!
I
r-.ux.v
.;ux.flfs
V.
!
~-------
Pers'af
A.T.auxs
I
~ . _ ~
I
1
i1sp
TenSE!
j
I
\\
!
J
':mar
da
na
,0
'"1
d<J.> ·m
\\.<<.+ Futur e ~:
i1·>,- Past ',~
1-

---

dafa
daB m
=
:)mar has' gone.
Now, consider the sentence 6.
We assume that its underlyin·g
P~ma rk er is 6a:
6a.
.~
- - - - 5
_
~J P
Pd.P
------
riux.G
----VP"j
N
VB
IV'
I
)mar
da
dcsr-m
--
Present ).~l
Perfect..,,)
We will apply the Aux.af-segment transformation to 6a In
order to generate.6b.
6b.
~_ _---_s -------
NP
Pd.P
._---- ------
:1UX. G
----
VP
I
.;ux.V
------,qux.dfs•
VB
..----- ------
Pers .'af.
g. T.Aux
J
V
-:',mar
d3
f« + Pr E'S en t ',) ",II
It. +
Per fect '> I

---

265
To 6b We apply now the Aspect-tense-copying transfcrmation.
This OPeration will generate the P.markers 6c givEn below:
6c.
_-.---------------- S ___________
NP
Pd.P
\\
,'=Iux.G·
I
-----
---------VP1
Aux.V
-----------Aux.~fs
-~------ ~.
\\18
1
I
Pers.sf
A.T.~uxs
..--------~
Asp
tensG
II
]mar
da
l:"·+ PerfectJ~ Presentj
In order to qenRr~tp 6, we have to replace the segments Pers-ar,
11sP8ct and ,TsnsB by words. from the lexicon.,.
This generates Dd.
6d.
fliP
i~U x. C
-----------
Aux.V
----------fAUx.afs
VB
I
-------~.
I
Pers.af
l~ T . I~
•
U xs "
V
}
~.~
I
o's p
Tense
IJ
,/
i
") mar
da
fa
y1
y1
,......
dac' -m
"'-'"

---

266
7.
)mar
= 'Jmar has left
Let us assume that the unddrlying P.markcr of 7 is 7a.
7a.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _-
S . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
r
Au x • G
- - - - ------ vP
I
j
11
N
VB
i
V
j
I
)mar
dEB'm
Pr es en t .,;l
'Per
J
feet
J <"~ +
'0»
J_.
To 7a we apply the Aux.af-segment transFormation, 'generating 7b.
7b.
___----~ S
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
l
-~.-----
Aux.C
VP
\\
I
I'J
Aux~af'
VB
.-~
P er s • a f
-------}-\\.T•Aux'
.,------- '~
~sp
T8nse
)mar
\\ ~(+ Present '>:--1
I
i
l(~+ Perfeet)~ I
-:
I
" «( + 3 Pe r S. 'n /
1_ <", "t S g. '»
_!

---

267
Then WE' :,pply'thG ,-spect-tEnse-:c.opying transformation to 7b.
This 0pEr2tion generates 7c.
7c
____-- _..
oS .._--
~JP
---~--
I
--------
__ ------.- - Pd. P -----
!', u x~--(;_=_--- ------ --
-~--9P
I
,
I
!I,
hux.afs
VB
._---.-.
-._----
[~
Pers~-~-;f
A.J.£':ux
.--~-
',sp
T e 118 E
!
.
I
I <.d Per f E'ct .;..;:
k<..+ Pr ES ent-..~~:
d(e m
'-
' . -J
f ",+ Pr es Enh-:i
\\ 1.',+
P8TfECt·~,'1
\\':'..+ 3 p.S g.-'.' j
-
~~~
ThiJ
time,
wc havE to C':pply
Flip-Flop rule transform;:tion. ThEn
~pplying lexical p0SS, we QEner8te finally 7d.
7d
_ _ _ _:--- S
NP
Pd.P
i
I
\\JP
.!
I
VB
I
I
r
~
- ' - V
_
'r~
Vst
~-~ u x. ~ fs
~.T.Ruxs
----
--~-'
Pers.~f
. i
----~-----
-----
,
I
Asp
Te'ns8
I
f
i
.
I
d::-8 m
[.1
na
1-1(+ Present >:'>-1
I~"+ Per feet·", !
L~ + 3 P. S 9 '" i
8
:.:IJT1."" r
h :.\\d
1 eft
SentencE 8 would haVE: the SamE derivation like 6, with 3 differ-
enCE that in 8, thE
Flip-Flop transforoation dOes
not mOVE the
Per s . a f •
I t G t er mi n alP mi'; r k er WO u 1 d b s rat h <3 r
ea·
Bc:
__- - - - - - - - - - .. s -.. _--.-._.--
. .
NP
__Pd. p-_~_
!
--"~u x-:-G
VP
-
- - -
I
:-.u x. V
Au x. A f
__ --~-~V8
_
I
V
A.T.Aux
j
,
I
Pers.i1f
Vst
I
,
Tense
,
fa
. d:-;;13 m
::: n

---

268
Similarly, 9 would have the same derivation like 7,
except the
differenCE of tense-marker·.
Its· terminal P.marker would be 9a.
9a·
S
--~- -----.------
NP ------
Pd.P
\\
VP
\\
VB
V------ ------
Aux.afs
.----'
A.T.Auxs
--Pers.af
~
\\l.I
Asp
Tense
I
I
~mar
dEB m
~
'):n
na
Past '>~ l[+ Per fectJl.:.+ Past }~J
Per f elft)
~
After this analYsis,
it appears that the following
conclusion can be arrived at:
Concerning the placement of aspect-marker and tense-
marker, two possibilities Can be identified:
~ .• ' Occurrence of r:luxiliary in the sentence
B.
i-Ibsenc12 of Auxilia'ry in the sentence.
In eith~i Case, aspect-marker always precedes
tense-marker.
In 8~ aspect-marker and tense-marker are suffixed to the verb.
In A, two possibilities exist:
A1
the sent ence has '-:'. + Per fect ~~ . feature
,.).2
the sentence dOes not have ~(. + Perfect )) feature.

---

•
I'~ ~-"\\
269
.:-.
I
!j .
In ~1 the aspect-marker and. the tens.e';marker are suffixed to
the main
verb.
Notic[' that «+. Perfect"
~s well as <~;!" Present -"
are markod by zero m<JrphemQ..
In A2,
both aspect-marker and
tense-marker are suffixed to
Auxiliary.
An ,~2:-case,
if the sentenCE has«'+ habitual~) feature, tense-
marker maY indifferently prEcede or follow aspect-markErs.
Note that i t is the only case in which tense-marker
precedes
as pect-marker.
11.2.0.8
Flip-Flop rule in Env
adu-place and /
or
.!:.E-0nominalized NP Objec_~
In the next
stage to be analyz6d,
we envisage the
occurrencE of Adverb of place and /
or Pronominalized NP-Object
in thE sentence.
Let us consider the
following sentence 10-12.
10.
xalEE
yi
danud:,:n
,fe'~'e't
garap
ca
da:ra
ja
the children uere planting tree at the school
11.
xalae
yi
danufad~:n
jembet
garap
~,.
the children were planting there tree
12.
xalae
yi
danuk :.fad·):n
j'emb'e"t
the children werc pl<Jnting i t there'
1 ').12
arc underlined by the P.marker lO-a.

---

270
10a.
s .________
NP
----Pd.P
-----._-
__
.......---._.:--------_.
._---. --......~---...
"\\.
}
AUK.G
VP"
I \\
--"-
.
------pp
,. ,
\\
;'
I \\
Aux.V
·VB -----:.
i
V
I ----
NP
I
/\\
r
N
\\
I
\\
f
- - - . J . .
\\
\\
'xa.Lae yi
da
:fBmboe·t
garap
ca da: raja
i('. + Past" ""\\
i . ( -
Per :ec t"">;
(, + 3 perso"J
l
",_1Plur ..,.~
L
.10 and 11 are related by a substitution of an adverb of place
far the Prepositional phrase:
ca
da:ra
ja
fa.
11 and 12 ara related by a pronominalization of the NP-Object
It appears that in 11 the adverb has be8n inserted in the Aux.C.
Simi~~rly, in 12, the pronominalized Object has been inserted
in the Aux.C.
We
mention that Object precedes Ad v•
Notice that in 10b. and 10c given bElow,
the strings
generated are ungrammatical sentencEs.

---

1 Ob •.
_ ~.s -.:.-..
.
f I l
-------
P " - - - ·
-------Pd.P
/'
-----
i\\ux.C
VP -------- -------Adv
r
VB
J
.----- -------:
f
V
NP
I
.)
I
\\
.
I
xa 1:<!Je y i
IJ
da
jemb'Ett
garap
- '
-
I«~.: P.ast:» -"'\\
'-
Perfect>·~
~.+
I,
+- 3 Pers ')')
I .
....
L. ('. "-I PIu r ,.") J
* x3L!C' yi d .... d
.•• b· O.j...
anu
J:n
Jt:m
e ....
gar ap fa
, /
10 c.
s __________..
NP
Pd.P
.,
'.------7-- ------
1\\
-------
ilux:G
vp'
--------
, /
j~dv
)
I~U X ~ V
VB
//~
V
NP
I
I
\\
I
xa1ae yi
da
k)
fa
jemb·t!t
+
1 - ' "
Pas t I.'
l'1
t.! -
Per feet »)j
i '.',+ 3 Per s . »)
l ,,,Plur. " j

---

272 .
').
~
(.
! '..I
* xalEJG
yl
dt.:nud~):n
j"dmb"'8't
k')
fa
" -
In order to generate 12, a rearrangement-transformatIon is
necessary .•
This will attach ~dv and Obj to Aux.C in different steps.
y~t
if the P.marker QenEratc~sfrings like 12a-b, it liould be
ungrammatical.
12":a * xalce
yi
12-b ~ xalaJ yl
danud--.:n
Fa
k~)
Je~.·e·t
The rearrangement-transformation should insert these elements
in front of asp~ct and tensE markers, whilG keeping their
original order given in the und~rlying
P.marker.
Thus we would have the P.marker 12c.
1 2c.
s~
~--------
-------
NP
pd.p
.--------
~ux.C
--------VP
t
-----
.~
..
,~uE • V
;J, u x • ~ f s .
!
.!
I - - - -
I
I
Per s. a f
.
Cas e
,1. T • .iu XS
VB
\\
i
/ \\
\\
Nfl
;l,dv
i~s p
Tens 8
V
\\\\I
I
\\
J
I
.\\
\\I
! '
!
: I
I
1
',.
xalCD :. yi
da
nu
k)
fa
d
):n
jemb·e·t
----
t<,. Past]
Plac~l~Per
Past»
.~
f cc~
r,': Porf L:ct .,.,!
J
>+
I
3 Pers. >;i
( '-'- -t Plur ';0- )
l.
.J
,

---

273
Consider now the following-sentence 13-15:
the children
had planted a ~reG in the school
Xalae
y i
j~·mbe·t..:J:nnanu k~) Ca
da=ra
----
Ja
the children had planted i t at the schuol
15.
xalce
yi
j"e·~~et~:nnanu kj
fa
the children had planted it thero
13-15, 'likG 10-12, are relatEd by adverb-substitution-transfor_
mation and NP-Objset pron~min'lization-transformation.
"The differoncG betwEen 10-12 and 13-15 is that in
the latter Case the~e is~+ PGrfoct~) aSPect.
If we compare the initial P.marker 15a and thG
terminal P.marker 15b of the derivation of 15, it aPPears
that whEn there is<<,+ Perfoct»
aspect and if thero is advGrb-
substitution and objGct pronominalization, therE is rGarrango-
mon t 0 f
t hG two bra n ch os 0 f Po u x. a f s; a f b:>r MU x. a f. h0 pp in 9
has takEn plac:=.•
Initial P~marker 15a.
'/\\
IL \\'.,
xal;:p yi

---

274
torminal-P.markcr
1 5b.
~,
_-------5 - _____
r~p
Pd~P
VP--------
---------Adv
1\\
. I
____________ VB _~
I
V
NP
I
--------
Vst
Mux.af
I
i
\\
----- ~
I
A.T.P.uxs
PGrs. a f Fn
I
I
I
----~ .~
I
I
Asp
Tense
l ,
i
I
I
I
--,-__I
I
i
xal$ y i
.'. b .et
J1
]:n
r.w nu
k .-)
f.a
JGm G
'--'
At
Wc can now restate the conclusion arrived above.
~
Regarding thc placement of aspect-markGr and tensQ-
marker two possibil~tiGS can bc predicted:
A-
An Auxiliary occurs in the SGntenDC
B-
ThGre is no. Auxiliary in the sentGncG
For :-. two possibilitiGS arc' prcdic.tabla:·
;4-1.
thE verb h8s <..'.+ Per fc:ct~, foatur e
A":' 2.
t h G VG r b d 0 c;s not ha v c ~..'. + P er f GC t ) f Gat ur E
If the caSe is ~-1, thl aspect-marker and thG tEnse-marker, as
said previously, arG immcdi~tely sUffixed to thG Main-Verb,
except when the: vorb has(~--,nGgativG~) fGature, in which casc
t h GY b e c 0 mG rig ht m0 s t
cl cm Gnt s 0 f the vcr b •
l.J eke e pin mind
that f< + Per fect»
and -:<. + Prcs c nt '»
ar c ma rk ed by ~ero -me rphemc::.
If the case is ~-2, wc may have two structural descriptions:

---

275
,-' ."
A-2.1
.aspect-m~Tkcr and tGnso-m~rkcr follow the Pers.af
as usual.
But if thGre is the OCCl1<;t'Gnce of adverb of place
and jQr prono~inalized,objcct, aSPGct ~nd tensG-mark~rs givE
up their place to thes~ elements and follow them.
A-2.2
if the verb has <', + habitual" feature,
aspect-marker and t~nso-markcr may have the distribution
indieatod in A-2.1.
If not, the tensco-marku is inscorted
right after copula-verb.
Then ·thE aspEet-ma;eke!; remains ·in its
placG, or follows adJerb of place and/or pronomInalized object
to which it gives its place whcn theY occur.
But if thG verb has<'"ncgativG »
featur2, asPect and tenso
markers arc precGded by the negation particle, 1tself inserted
adverb
.
before fOf place ancl pronominalizod object whGn thF.'y occur.
In Case 8 also)two ;possibilities arE predictablo:
81.
verb has «tP·~s·itive,» fC2,ture
In 81, aspcct-marker and tense-marker foll:low
immediately thG verb-stem.
In 82, aspeet-maflls'er and tenso-marker al:'e tho
rightmost constituonts of the Vcrb-segmGnt regardless of the
occurrence or absenec of adverb J of place and/or pronominali-
zod NP':object.
These analyscos can be; prescntcod as
follows:
NI' + Cop + Pers + V ,qPorfccbd (Neg) + Dircct Pn)
+ (Adv Place)
-----~
NP+Cop+Pers +(Dir Pn)+(AdvPI)+V+(NGg)+Aspect+Tenso

---

277
Its F.mark~r is as follows:
__ ~
s~
NP
Pd.P
.-----------
_.__
'\\
~UX.G
VP
./ \\
I
I
\\
N
/
\\
l_~
, Jmar
dafay
We Can ~pply thE pronominalization-transformatiGn to
this SGnt8nc~.
(WE shall later dEal with pronominalization-
t ran s for ma t i ~ n) •
LG t u s t a k ,e i t
f or 9ran t Gd t hat t his 0 p8rat ion
will QEnf?rato 2.
2.
m):m
dafay
safJgu
" -
(hifil is taking bath)
the P.markc:r of 2 is as follows:
,
S
r'J P
Pd. P
I'
':~ux.G
VP
Fn
I,
m_"): m
l_~
!
I
I
dafay
sangu
Now i f tilE,' 9 pp1 y t h G S 0.- call Gd NP- Sub j E' Ct
d G1 Gt ion t ran s f or I na _
tion, it gGneratGs 3.

---

_ _.11·'_·..91'.....
278
'~f1 ,
,.'
~"
3
( h ? )
is t ak in 9 bat h
the P.maTkEr of 3 is as follows:
s .-____...
----~---------
-----------
NP -----
l
..------------------
.
I
Au x.. C
vr
;
1
Pn
/
Let Us considGr 2 and 3.
CiVEn thE above derivation 2 and 3 are undorlined by thG
string 1.
Obviously thGn, there would br:o no diffl?Tcnce in
~ontrary to this BXPGctation, 2 and 3 arc felt as conveying
di ffer ent. values.
~ctually 2 is perc2ivGd as convGying an ~mphasis
locatEd on the: constituent m:::;:m (f\\JP-Subjcct).
In othEr words,
m.:l:m
d,Jfay
sallgu
If!Cans:,
he (r:cmphasis) is bathing - whoreas,
' - "
he is bthing -, without any 8m~hasi3.
Such interprEtation;
no doubt, is against Chomsky's 5t~ndard theory.
And if wc were
,
to keEp on advocating thE abovG interpretation wc would bE
forced to justify the relation botwDl2n 2 and 3.

---

. .81W G t_M"gu 'f'
279
V
'-\\,
~\\
t
" ,
The possible answer to this problom should bo as
follows:
In order to conform to Chomsky's accuratG assertion,
we must think
that at first,
2 and
3 arc not und2rlin~d by
a :common P.marke:r;
scocond the dorivation (1-2-3) is misleading.
1 •
Jmar
dafay
saQ9u
- - /
2.
m):m
dafay
sa1]9 u
---'
3.
dafaY
sa~gu
',~
What should be the alternative oxplanation?
Lpt Us roconsidcr :. This time} assume that thr. pronominalization-
transformation goner8tcs the follo~,g
P.marker
.
1 rl.
~
s ~
f\\iP
Pd. P
.--------1
Aux.G
VF
Pn
r->-: + Pn
-,
~+ 3 ~ing \\
dafay
SafJQ U,;
\\,.::. Emphas isA .
.J
It foi lows that thE -reading of Pn offe:-s two possibilities:
·1 a. 1
Pn «-Emphasis'> + ( dafay S8119 u
_. )
1 Cl. 2
Pn <{-I- tm'phasis» + ( dafaY sangu)

---

280
r', C ':
1 a". 1
s-_~
-----
NP
Pd.P
I
<
~- I
Aux.G
VP
Pn
I'
f \\
i~--j
~+
Pr
~'>
daf ay
«+ 3 Sin 9 >}
« -
emphasis ...;]
and
12.2 will have the spocific. p.marker giv~n below:
NP
1\\
Pn
i
\\
/ -
.~
I
C<.+ f=n
-7
">'.
dEl fay
s al)9U
---
.... <
+ :3 Sing. n
E'mphas is ~~!
~J 0 W i F w£; rep 1 ;:J C co t hoP:n- s cgm c nt s by WO r ds fro m the 1 Gxi con
1
l'
WE
hav~ 18.1
and 1a.2 •
1
1 a .1
s _________
NP
Pd.P
- - - \\
Vf=
Pn
\\
p
sar:Jg u
tt1iAtailtiliL 3l illN&iUbilfd'l? .!ELrii&' SB22!i MC JZ: .

---

281
1
1 a .2
--_.~ --------
--~
-------,.~
Pd.P
,
--------- I
---- \\
Aux.G
UP
rn
/\\
/ \\
(
)
I
;\\
m-;,: m
---
daf 3 y
s a~ gu
~-'
It.apP~ars then, that the NP-SubjEct oGlction transformation
appliEs only if tho ~H' SUbject has'th8 foaturc~- Gmphasis.')).
In thi~3 Case, since the Pn is Cl ZErO mOrptwmE, WG may cons'idcr
tho NP-Subjcct-dclGti~n tr~nsformation as a vacuous
transformation.
tt aPpoars that-m~):m dafay s3flgu-and
dufay saf)gu -
arr: not
"'-..-
.~
from the same derivations.
L~t Us givG sOme mora oxamples for illustration.
4.
1 re ; kk
. ----
I (emphasis)
Gat
5.
ma ~ g5~i y
133 : k k
I C8t
6.
ja :I]g
you (omphasis)
study
7.
y::J : 2]i y
j a : 09
You study.
are
I
~I
4 and
sjundcrlinC?o by
the P.markor ri
given below:
1,1,\\'
~;~i;~c,i

---

282
4 \\
'....
,.r--..",
~.~. j
)
A
5 ~----------Pd.P
________~i
----
Aux.G
VP
i\\
I
/ \\
t.:-t+
sp GaK er »
i \\
<<: +
1 ? Gr s•..,-,
f
\\1
/,(.
-\\-
Sing. -.'>
ma:fJgiy
1 CB : KK
----.
' -
<:<. +/-
Gmph
'»
Pronominalization -
transforrllation . Was aPplied to P..
-----... --------
NP
Pd.P
l:J.ux.G
---------
.--
\\
VP
/\\
1
I
\\
!i \\
I ,"-. + Pn ~ '" --. I
\\
j
---->-
<'< + 1
PGrs::.)1
ma:fJQiy
'--"
<... + Sing »
<<.. +
Emph >J

---

"
.
283
5.
is
oonoratcd and rGpres~ntcd .in A2 after proncminalization-
transfar,ation, was appliEd to A.
~2
.~_ _--~s --------_..~
NP
Pd. P
I
li.u x. G
VP
J
r-
!
J-v.+ Pn >">
I
/~
I
I
ma:r:giy
iCE : kk
'--
I~+ 1 POT S '»
I
<% + Sing »
L<~ - Et'hph ">'> -'
6 and 7 arG underlined by ths P.marker giv2n bGlnw:
B
- S
/
1
!
/
1
I
r
1 <. <.... + h car G r ;> ~ -1
ya:lJgiy
Ja: [} g
----
'--
k.... + Sing >."?
I
1_'( +/-
_~
Emph "

---

'-......
~i'
284
i'\\ -,
•
.' .... \\
~ ~ _.. ~"
AftGr Pronominalization transformation, the follo~ing
1
P.markGr 8
is gcn8ra~~d and 6 is obtainEd.
S
--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
.
---------I
I
---------------
I
,
Aux.C
VP
I
/\\
I
1
\\
ya:fJgiy
j-a : rl 9
Pn
»
'-1
' -
2 PGrs.Sing -;..>
I
,I
~,
Similarly, thG fOllowing P.markGr 8 2 is QenGratGd and 7 is
obtainEd.
_--5
---
.".--" -~.-
----------'--------
,
Pd.P
_____---------,l '
I
hUX.C
VP
/\\
I
I
/
!
/
I
\\
J
i
I
!,"
\\-.l
I
Pn
...,:,
'--1
ya : 1J gi y
ja : rj 9
I
~-'
2 Per s •Sin 9 '> >1
Emph
I
>,=,
~

---

'pwz:"bf't'.,,-.",-.......,...'·,_w··z' -'N_'9 -_71""=-'5""
285
" 0 '
,;, l) b '
J'
..
11.2.0.10 The NP-Subj"ect dEletion £iaris~ormation:
SUPPOSe wc ar~ ask~d to interprets 8.
B.
Cop + Fers.af.1!3 P.Plur + M.V
we/ they""
seat = (WC/thEY ore
SEated)
lIS
it i5, in surfacG structure:,
therE is no accuratE way to
,- .
1.'
"";'-
Or
..
j
.'.
..
<:..c.. +
3 P.Plur '»
In fact,
the underly.ing sE:"ntenco could be 8a as well as Bb
,8a
Bb
t): k
If WE draw their F.mark@rs it aPP~ars that da~u in
Ba and d~nu in Bb arc differEnt regarding their ranks.
8a
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
NP
Pd.P
I
Aux.C
VF
),~ + 2 Fers '';>J 1
f« +
L « ... "
Plur »
I
,I. ~
-I
L.l." -
. .,=c::tlwlOSm C~IJ~ uea $ / u l _ . ;nlSihz LP

---

286
'~
~8 ..~
'"
.
, I
':Q~
0 . '
•
, ••.J
(
8b
.-----S
NP
.\\
/\\ .
LJ
da"ilu
3 Fers. >;'1
Pi ur >")11
Emph ?)
~G can state that
danu
has two readings.
Unless w~ know
with whi~h NP it is matching~ we. cannot. give the right intGr-
pr4tation.
If we apply thG NP - SUbjEct delEtion-transformation
to 8a and Bb, WG will be: able to diffc:rr.;nciatG 8a.1
from 8b-1
S
NP ------- ~!
~ u x. G A d j . Pr c d
/\\
)
. '
\\,{<. + 1 Per s. Pi ur >~ I
L«, "7 Emph --)
J

---

287
?, R,'1
8 b. 1
_.
_ - S
--------
[\\JP
----
Pd.P
- - - - -
I
;\\ u x --
,.G
.
.~ d j . Pr Ed
f\\
U
danu
3 PErs.Plur ?)l
J
Emph >:;>
It gOGS without saying, that bGforE this deletion tTansforma-
tion takes plac'e, the copying-transform;::tion and thc= Pc:rs.af-
Failffing this operation
';.J
we could generate such an odd derivation as t~E following onG:
NP
Pd.F
t,ux.G
Po d j. Pr ['d
da
\\\\- ". + 1 Per S._ Plur " i
1
+ 3 ~ersJ'lur,>,»
1,..-:/
L(/.- Em ph -'-,
I
_J

---

288
. Intrlrrncdiate P.marker
5
NP
------ -------_.
--------
-------- Pd.P
l
.--
.------..
..--------- )
I
.
Pn
Aux.G
Adj.PrGd
\\
I
11
da
f<-' + 1 .Per s.of] ur "11
t1.( + 3 Pers.Plur'J> f
l( +
Pn
i
'?'>
j
i,
-
(\\
Emph '>',
J
T er mi n81
P • ma l' k er:
s ._____________
---------
NP ------
Pd.P
I'
~(
.----
~ux.G
Adj.Pred
f
II
II
de
t;:k
It would bE impossible to any idEal Wolof speaker-hearer to
traCG thG undGrlying structure of such Oddity.
The reasqn
is that in th~ above terminal P.markEr th~ Features of thE
~P-Subj~ct ar~ not TEcovorable.

---

289
. "-
A verb m8Y havE a dirGct Qbject along with an
indirEct object.
This is thE CaSE whDn we EXpress in a
sentence that X has sold Y to Z or the other way around)X has
sold to
iZ Y •
EithEr form exprEssrcs the same idea without
making any difference wheth~r
Y
precedEs or eollows Z.
Traditionally Z is known as indirEct object, whereas
Y is known as direct object.
In somG languagES, like French or English, it is EaSY
to diffGrenci8te the indirect obje~t from the direct ObjECt.
This is made
possiblE? by the ,Jresence of a preposition matching
thE indirGct objGct at IGast in DeEp structure.
For Examplo:
,
1"
j'ai
VGndu
ma
VoiturG
a
2.
I haVE? sold my car to Peter.
In
as well ,,5 in'2 thG respectivE prepositions
indicatGthat PierrE? and PetEr arE th<e respEctiuE indirect
ObjEctS.
Evcn if the other way around were takGn,
wc would not
haue beEn confuscG.
Thus 1a and 2a arE not ambiguous.
,
1 a
J'ai
vendu
a
PiErrE
ma
voiturG
2a
I haVE sond ~eter my Car.
Obviously,
fOr 22,
WE? haVE in mind that dGIEtion has takEn
plaCE.

---

:;
290
Now let Us discuss the samB problem in Wolof.
LEt Us consid"r 3 which is Cl translation of 1 and 2.
3
ja:yna:
sama
w:>t)
Pa3 .: r
The SamB idEa, without the sl£ghtest semantic differEnce
is GxpressGd in 4.
4
pS? : r
sama
Contrary to Frendh or English)
in Wolof ~here is no structural
ele~~nt to make the difference betWEEn indirect and dirGct
object.
The situation in the decl~nsion languagEs like
Latin,
Tamil, etc. may crClatG."thcimpression that the order
in the interpretation of thE sEntence whErE they occur.
This would be an erroneous impression based on a
superficial analysis.
A careful approach will show that tll~rE
is a primary order which should bc prcforej in grouping
indirEct and dirEct object.
Consider the followi~g sontences.
xar
mi 1
5b)
')mar
dafa
ja:y
xor
rni
,~i'.la;-.l:'i_,
'::' mar has sold the shGep (to)
UUo
children.
In Sa the oroJer IS
Ind obj' + Dir obj.
But
in 5b it is
Dir obj + Ind obj.
Now let Us apply to Sa the Pronominalization transformotion.
This,will generate the derivation given below:

---

291
"r-'
I 1',
.
,-.~
c)
* daFa ja:y 18e :n
B.E.---&
cl)
* claF8 ja:y la:: :n b
As it is, the derivation ends In 8n ungrammatical string.
Here, i t is necessary to operate onc more transformation,
n8mely, inversion-transformation.
'This opciration will move tho
NP objects round the Verb, and generate the gfamm8tical string (0)
0)
daFa
1 Et? :n
j' a: y
We note; th8t the ordel is hEre
Ind obj + Dir ob,iect.
"
Let us illustrate this through the P.markers of the above
historical derivation.
We assume that (e') is the undErlying
structure.
_~~ ---------- S _~
NP
Pd.P
- - - - - -
j
I
Au x.-
G
____________V8~
I
~ V'
NP
~
------
Nfl
Nfl
J\\
LJ
D. ~
daFa
ja:y
xalaoyi
xar mi
5.0.=
1
2
3
4
5

---

292
· Np
I
~~
.~_~
~~. fJ
~U9~G
/
I
________
Vt·,
Pn
/
v
J
f1
Ja:y
I
v-
/i
I
i
I
':---.1
!
dafC]
je: y

---

293
? q.:
:
,
.~ f
~
d1
_.s
----~--
NP
( ---
--------Pd.P
~ I
Al~.G
vB .
~ ~"
\\I:
NP
i
~ .-------
I-
~JP
NP
!
.
\\
Pn
Pn
.-:n
I
\\
I
9S
ja:y
la:::: :n
k:.,
1 Pn ))1
Sing );.1
[mph >,>j
01
NP
(\\
--------. -------
r~F
Vr
I \\
I
I
i I:
I!
pn
I
Pn
I I
~
d fi fa
ja:y
r.,
1
\\ ,,+ Pn
)'
I" +
I
3ing"
i-,,( - Emph }':J'
s. C. 1 +2+]+£;.-:-5
-----~
~--~-7
·2 .
5
3
;f.
i.
1
I·
"

---

294
Wo'apply nOw to 5b the pronomin31ization transformation
This opcrution will gcnGratc thG follouing d-rivation:
f)
)mar
dafo
ja:y
xar
mi
xal~~~
g)
dafCl
:l a: y
X0r
mi
xa1g;
yi
h)
~
dClfa
j Cl :y
:: ~...
k,)
xala2
t~_
------
i)
-.f.
da fa
j-a:Y -~}
lED : n
- - - - .........
Similarly for the: derivation a1-c1,
this derivation ends in
an ungr':Jmmatical string •.
This SGcms to ind1catc that an Inv6rsion-transformation
,
is to be applied.
If this is tho case,
wc 9ancratc then
J
:
j)
* dafa k~
la?:n
.
But still J appears to be ungrammatical.
Here, wc have to apply on~ morG ~ormutation
tranSformCl-
tion.
TOis operation, which consists of rcv~rsing the order of
the daughters of onc nOde, wiil generate th~ grammatical string k.
k)
d a f a
lED: n
k')
j-a : Y
Once again uc note.: that the order is Ind.
Obj + Dir. Obj.
Let Us considor thG caSe of a pronominalization trans-
formation affecting either the Ind.Obj or the Dir.Obj"
but onc
at a time.
First lc;t it
be the Ind.Objcct.
The derivation \\,Jould
be then either L-N or L1-N1.
I)
tiafa
ja": y

---

295
he has sold the children the sheep
n)
~ dElfa
ja:y
l~.:n __x~!:._mi
·he has sold th~'2!.......!l'e shoe~_..
11)
:;mElr
dafa
la:y
~I'__mi_ XElIED-YL
m1 )
d a f Cl
dEl ; Y
2@E.......__ Illi.
x§.l E£... tL
h G has
sOld~," she<ep to thf? __E.~ild!:.£~
n 1) * d a fa
Ja : y
-"!J.L.-. mi
1§.~_!l-
he has
sold the sheop to thGm
In <eithor case thG terminal strings
arG ungrammatical.
Nand
N1
require rearrangem<:nt.
Here a5ain wc will. apply a
permutation
transformation.
This will move the pronominaliz<:d NP Object
round the vQrb and genorato 0 i;!nd 01.
0)
dafa
lEe: n
.ia:y· xar
mi
he has sold them the sheep
01)
dafa
laJ:n
3a: y
xar
mi
Wc notice that
the Ind.Obj; ·oceurs bofore the Dir.Obj.
Consider now that the Oireet.obj.
is
the onc affeetecl by
the pronominalization tr~nsformation.
Tho derivation would·
be
eithn P-R or P1
.
R 1
p)
:,mar
d(lfa
la:y
xala'
yi
xar
mi
>mar has
sol~the child ren the shG"p
q)
dafa
X3r
mi
----_._-
hG has sold the ehildrGn the sheep

---

. ., ., rrcz ='r'F'i""'NR'U_-m"!"'fIWI"illm'""",,"HM
296
r)
* dafa
ja:y
h c has sol d t h 0 ._~~lJ.:.d r~~. .! t
)mar .has sold the shoep to the childr~n
q1)
dafa
ja:y
xar
m~._ xalaG__-"'y-~.__
ha has sold tho sh~~:.2._to t.b.~~~i~_~_~~..r2
r 1)
* d El fa j a: y . k)
xal§?__ti
he has sold it to thG children
Hc,rc again the terminal strings rand r1
arc
ungrrammatica l and requiro to undergo a p~rrnutation transforma-
tion.
This oPEration will move the pronominalizod object in
front of the verb.
Thus, wc obtain Sand S1
$)
dafa
k-:;
ja:y
xalaJ
y i
hc; h3 s sold it to th8 childrc:n
dafa
k':l
ja:y
xalaJ
yi
At this stage wc can arrive at a Partial conclusion:
That is, when Ind-objG~t is the only pronomina~izcd NP.objcet,
it occurs b~for[ Oir~Obj.
~h[n Oir.Object is thG only pronominalized NP.Obj~ct
it occurs bc:;forc Ind.
Object.
When both' Ind~Obj.· and Dir.Obj. arc simultanoously pronomi-
nali2Gd,
Ind.Obj.
occurs before oir.Obj.
Thus in ambiguous sent2nCGS like
6
6.
)mar
LJaxna
k;
k")
)mar has told (rn..obj.l1 + Pn.Obj.(2)

---

r'"
"',
l
297
? " ~ .
t hC a b ovc
~
GX,~P1 .1 f'lea t .lon ona b"l CS US to s tat co~ that ob J' .(1) 1"S
Ind.Obj. and Obj~2)is Di~cct ~bj.
Before: going to the next point, it is proPer to give: thG
1-0
ILmarkGrs of the dc:rivations of f-k;!11 .... 01;
p-s and p1-s:l.
1.
( f)
s ________
NP
.
Pd.P
--\\
Aux.G
vB
i
I
------- '-.....
v~
" N P
------
NP
. --------NP
\\
/ I
/\\
-I
I
//
\\
dafa
ja:y
xar
:11i
xEl1m y i
(g)
s ___________
Pd.P
__________ I
MU x. G
~I B
v,-----------
~NP
Pn
I
i
-------~.
I .
NP
NP
I
!
\\
I
L! IIiI
ii f\\)I\\
------.i.
>0
dafCl
"ja:y
xar mi
'xa1ao
yi
[<+ 3 Sing.,,/
<'-:.. -
Emp h -..)
_I

---

I
I
..
I
,
298
-;;:: I
:(h-I
NP
I
~3~---Z]:r
1
I
,
I
AUx.G
uS
I '
I I
i
,-------- ~
Pn
V.
' \\ .
1 I
I!
(
"
' "
1
I
~O
I
/ \\
I I
I
I
/-.'ll
/~+ 3 Sing'''j
xolm
yi
L«- (rnpn »
I
.'
.
Cl)
I I
_ _ _ .. s~
I I
- -
~
NP
po.P
----,I
I I
-
--
AUx.G
I!
I I
P,.,
NP
.~~
I I
NP
PIP
/
I
I
j1
Pn
Pn
I
I
I
I
'0-+ 3 Sing.,,/
L'- tmph;, J
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

---

299
/
. \\'
-
( j)
---
5 ____________
------------.-
NP
Pd.P
---------
Aux~G
)
v'B
~ .-..:.......~
/ NP
V.
./~.
Pn
r~p
NP
I
"
f
i
I ' Pn
Pn
I
~
I
!if
da fa
kj
la? : n
j-a: y
~'{ +
"1
3 Sin 9
<z -
Emph >::>
-.1
(k)
S~_
NP
Pd. P
I
___________ I
r
j·\\u Y. G
_______ ~.- VB _____
J
I
l
NP
V,,
I\\ I/'~
Pn
NP
NP
/ I IJ
)
I Pn
Pn
'l, I
1
fJ
dafa
la:; :n·
k J
ja.: y
['+
9 'J
3.Sin
(...(..... -
Emph "7-)

---

,.
300'
.'
..
IT. 1 ... 0
derivation'-:
·~
- - - s --
NP. .-
-------Pd.P
-------I
Aux.G
VB
------
v·
~
N
NP
~
NP
------ NP
I_~
1\\
j a : y
Xala; yi
Xar
mi
s
NP
Pd.P
_______ -I
Aux.G
VB
,i\\
---------
v·
~f\\Jp
\\
J
Pn
/~.
,
N'P
NP
\\
I
\\ /\\\\
\\
f·
/ \\
\\
.
dafa
ja:y
~ar mi
f.... + 3 ~i n 9 »l
GL - Emph
J
7::>

---

•
~ l
301·
,
... • ~I'~
1
:> (; '2
( n)
.
I
I
L-.J
dafa
ja :y
la:; : n
3 5 in 9 »1
J
Emph ;»
( 0)
i~P
j
liu x. G
VB
I~UX.C
NP .
.'~
------- -----
/ /
I
. /
.~
v'
NP
Pn
Pn
/\\
I
I ' \\
1-~.
la) : n
ja :y
xar mi
l<~+ 3 sing·>l
La, - Emph ~> J

---

",
302
.
~
~J n
j
'}••
,..~: }~ ~"
-------
I
Aux.G
1\\I\\
I
LJ
(
I
YT!ar
dafa
xar rni
xalEL'
yi
( m1 )
S --- .~
NP
Pd.P
I
I~ u X • G
v'B
[
~ ~
f
v
NP
I
·Pn
I
I
~ ~
I NP
NP
'\\
/
I
I
LJ
\\
,e1
dafa
fa:y
xaT mi
/1
xal ao
yi
3 Sin g)-[
[" +
( : ' -
Emp, n
.J
. . . . . .,i&ai AiiiRilhf&iNIHlill,5UCfiltiittaii1iUUm$ .._.....J
de
c
_

---

303
_ ___------------ s
. _
NP
Pd.P
J
AUX.~--}a
----------- "'-------
V'
NP
Pn
/~.
NP
NP
I'
pn
(
;\\
I
r
i
f
\\
!
!.--
\\.
,0
dafa
ja:y
xar mi
lco :n
r+ 3 Sin9 ~>~J
\\""-
Emph "')
(01 )
NP
Pd. p.
______- - - - - - f
1
-"
Aux.G
VB
/~
~~~~
Aux.C
NP
NP
1
\\
)\\
Pn
A
Pn
I \\
I
! '
.
\\
I/\\
I
l
I
..-------.1
I
\\.
I
dara
lED : n
ja :y
Xar rr.l

---

'.; ,
"
I V•
P -
s
d or i v Cl ti on
-----._----
( p)
s
____------~
NP
Pd.P
I
I
-----------
I~UX. G
Ve
------ ~
I V
NP
/~ ~
NP
NP
I{
~
/\\
I
'
/\\
/.--.l.
daFa
j-a : y
xala:; yi
xar mi
( q)
_ - - - - - - - - - - - S _.~
NP
Pd.F
I
I
-
Aux. G
v:B
1\\
------------- ~
"
J
I
V'
NP
II
Pn
I
~ ~
I
NP
\\
NP
!
I
i
1\\
I
I
I
;1
I
I
. !
/ \\ L J
%
da Fa
jCl:Y
xa1m
yi
xar mi
r-
1<-;+
"l
3 5 in 9
L<'< -
Emph
J
0 )

---

rnl'·.'...
'nmpmwctz"w"SP"'.
M'. . . . ."II• •. . ,
305
~
NP
i
..~u x. C
/
I1
j
Pn
j\\IP
NP
l
.1\\
Pn
: I
I \\
L-----J
~
I
da fa
la: Y
xalEP
Yi
( s)
NP
Pd. P
\\I
Aux. C
VB
~ ~
~ ~
,1 U x. G
NP
V'
NP
I'
\\
Pn
Pn
I
I
\\
i
I
\\\\
!
~
1-
...........:\\
%
dafs
. k ')
ja : y
xalo:
yi
lZ.... + 3 sinQ)l
I[;~'- Emph) J
_ _"lW'lilzaa'b'.'i-.Ii(+±'fBii,ifjFQ'Q4.Wg:-~;a
19.. £.__ j]

---

306
...
, , ,
V.
p.1
to 5.1
derivation
------- - - - - -----------
( P1 )
S ---..
NP
Pd. P
~~"I
--------
\\
Au;.G
vB
1\\
\\
----------
v-
~NP
,II!
I'
/~
/
N'P
NP
II I
L - ,
/
.
/\\
~~
)mar
dafa
ja:y
xar m~
xaL:13
y i
( q.1 )
s
Pd.P
- ~ I
-----
'
\\
~ux.C
V~
~
f\\
~NP
I
V
Pn
I /\\
~jP
NP
!
Lt
/\\. ,/\\
I
,i
dafa
ftl : Y
xar mi
xalaJ
yi
'l<\\+ 3 Sin9"-1'
<" -
Emph ~~ -'

---

307
~.
~----------..-
NP
~d.~
i
._____---- \\
---
Aux.C
v8
/
"~
v;
NP
//~
NP
NP
\\
. '\\
Pn
Pn
i
/
\\
\\
.~~'l
I
L
J
rLf
dafa
18: y
k]
xalac
yi
tr-;~+ 3 5ing>-Jo'l
<~- Emph>.~·
(5.1)
5
NP-------------
~-------------...Pd.P
....----~l
t~uJll.G
vB
"
~"~
/
/
{\\u x. G
'NP
"-,
./
I
I
'..
Pn
Pn
V'
NP
\\
i
/\\
1_ _
1
I
/""
/
/ \\\\
,0
dafa
ja :y
xa1aJ
yi

---

't!f'o/n-
t·Z'·mMiC"" . ....,.,'il,,,.,.!WIm,......
!
3UE
So far
wc hevG' bGcn working with sontGncGs
having
5
.~
NP + 14 U x • G + VP
[k- now considor sentGncos ha'v inq thE' follow:f2r19
structurG:
S
~
NP + VP, such as 7a.
7a.
)mar
Ja:yna
x81ac
yi
xar mi
I
)mar has sold the childr en the shoep
Vc k~o~ that 7b conveys the: same meaning as 7a.
7b.
)ffi a r
Ja : y na
x a r
mi
x a 1 EJJ
Yi
)mar has solcJ thu shcGp (to)
th'c children.
Similar to Sa and Su,
let Us apply thG ~ronominaliza-
tion-transformation to 7a and 7b.
At the first stage,
this
opGration ~ill apply to 7a. 1
first,
affecting
Ind.
Obj. 1 then Oir.
Obj.;
and finnlly both.
iJ.t the second stage this operation will apply to 7b,
in the abolle ord6r.
Ind.Obj.Pronominalizcd.
-
-----.--~
---.... -.._......--
'
~-
, t)
'_'mar
' 1 ·
Ja : yne
2S9_~.Q..._Y.!.. ~!2E._r:n}.
:Jffiar has
sold the chi~~.E....~ th~.. sh9ce..
u)
ja:yna
~~--l! xar
mi
(he)
has sold iD.f:. childr si!. ~hq. sh~£E.
v)
j a : y n a
1 aJ ~ ~
~§.~_mi
(hG)
has sold thc~ ibQ'~~£~~

---

30~l
t)
Jmar
iE!:yna
y,aL:D
yi
xar mi
Jmar ha s sold the children the sheep
u)
ja:yna
xal"EIJ
yi
xar mi
( hc) has sol d t hc' childr2n tho shc;op
v1)
* .:ia:ynEl
xala:
yi
k")
(hd
has sold the childr en it
Ind. 9J?j~!?J1d Dir. Obj. Pronominalized:
t)
~)mar
.:ia:yna
xEl1aJ
yi
xar
mi
Jm Cl r has sol d t hoc hi 1 d r 8 nth [J s h 013P
u)
:tCl:yno
xalcD
yi
Xar mi
Ohc) has sold t~c chIldren the sheep
v)
ja:yna
laC':n
xarmi
(he)
has sold thorn the ShGGD
w)
ja:yna
larr:n
k~)
"he has sold them it
~~cond stagr: : ZQ
Oir. Obj. Pronomina1{zc;d:
x)jmaI'
ja :yna
xar_.rni." x.Q.~~J~
JffiaI' has sold the shc;l3~ (to) tho childron
y)
aa :yna xar mi xalcn yi
(hc) has sold the shoc~ to tho childrGn
z)
ja : yna
~2 xa ~ce_ l.i
(hc;) has sold i t (to) tho childrGn

---

_e" ("'i6'W"f'M["G'tUjf'd'.'§P
'."!I!IIljl"ljlHIIB!JIUrMlDIIUIIII!III
310
31J
OiI'.
Obj.
PI'Dnamina'lized:
--- ...
------
~._--
x)
JmaI
ja:yna
~E.. rni xaL3:J Yl
Jmar has sold the sheep (to) the children
y )
j a : y n a
xa I' .. ad x all-F----1i.
(he)
Sas sold ..L~LshQ.gp (to) i.~~_.~~ldrc~.
z 1)* ga :yna
25,ar mi .J:E :n
-)maI'
j-8 : yna
xaI' mi
xala:
li
y)
Ja:yna
xar m5
--'~._-
Qhc:)
has
sole .~he;_~hG~p' (to) the childre;m
_'9
Z )
Ja : y n Cl
x o_~,P __yl
( h c)
has sol d i t (- to) 't h C?~ chi 1 d I' en
.
leD· n
L:.:-_
It apPGars that v , z1
and z2
cannot be 113ft at tilis
1
stage.
ThGY nGcd to undergo a permutation transformation,
which will gc;nEratc the: gr~amm!lltical strings V1
8,
z1 ~~ and z2'o
Ja:yna
k")
xalffi
yi
(he;) has sold it to the; children
. Z1· a)
ja:yna
lED :n
xar
mi
(ill?) has sold thGm the shGep
ja:yna
la:: :n
k -)
(ho)
has sold thGm i t

---

311
/ ' '-"
.,
,
I
/
~ ~ ')
"-.J0 •
__
Thus
tho Case of S -->::;,.
NP + vr also corroborates
Our provious partial c0nclusion.
8cforo coming tD our
final
conclusion, i t is worth
giving the P.markc:rs of tho dc:iivatLm of t,.;.v; .t-v1·ai t-w;
( t )
________ IS
NP
Pd.P
I
I
vS
-------- .,
V"
--------NP
.--------- ~
NP
.
NP
I /\\
//~
/"\\
L
~
j-a: y na
XEll cc
y i
XClr
mi
(u)
________ s ~
~JP
.
Pd.f-l
I,
vS
v
-------- NP
/\\
~~
f ,
NF
NP
/1\\\\
/\\ / \\l
I /\\....
j-a : y n d
xalal3
y i
xar mi
-i
3 Sing~)
[mph '>:.'

---

312
~i "1· ';!
NP
--------
.---
Pd. P
I
I
_________ VB ~
V
NP
~.~~
NP
NP
I
Pn
Pn
/
ja:yna.
183 :1'1
/\\
xar lT1i
I~( + 3 Sing '>;r
~<. - Emph)) J
u-1
~_ _
~_ _ S ________
Pd.P
I
VB
---------- ~
v·
NP
Pm
/~ ~
NP
NP
/\\
j,:J:yna
xala3
yi
xar mi
1-< + 3 Sing)~
L:< - Emph >; J

---

313
N P - - - - - - - S
I
Fn
NP
I
Pn
I
)
Ja ;yna
xa1co
yi
k)
t<.+. 3'Sln9 --,»I
<,,";'
"::»
J
Emph
.
NP~S ------------ .Pr!.P
I
_ _ v~
u
.
~.
~:~----N~
/ \\
------NP
I-----J
,I-
ja:y na
k')
/\\
xalEE
y i

---

I
v
Pn
I
~
ja:yna
- I
1«+ 3 Sing ;»1
\\
I ~~­
Emph :»
J
' -
IV.
x-z
derivation
-". -,._._--_... - ....... ~~~.
x
VB .
v --------
.
~ NF
-----
NP
-------
..
NF
!/\\\\
~
/i~
/~,.
~mar
ja:yna
XaT mi
xa1a::
yi

---

315
. y)
_ _ s
_____
NP
Pd. P
,
\\
V9-.
.------------- ~
V',
~JP
Pn
~'~,
NP
NP
/\\
/ \\
I
/\\
U
xar mi
xalaJ 'yi
,
!i
r;+ 3 Sing;-;t
~- ~mPh» ']
v~;
-------------- ~.~
V
NP
~~
NP
NP
f
/ \\
I
I
}
I
Pn
\\
I.
ja:yna
xe1a;
yi

---

nz",I",__
'
IlMlI"'MIUBlIIIIW'·
316
V
x -
o
Z 1°0
d ori vati~n '\\
or
x
y
S GC abovo.
Z 1
NP
Pn
/
rII
ILJ,
1\\
ja : y no
xar mi
Z 1°a
Pn
Il
\\
/\\
/
1
/_\\
I
~
}a:yna

---

_'raM·.··
317
y
z
SOG' abovo
Z2
s ___
NP
-----Pr1.Fr
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ v's'
I
V_.
'
---------
N~_NP""---____.
Pn
I
NP
~n
I
1\\.\\
Pn
l
yj
y~a
ja'
Ik~
leD : n
r« + 3 Sing -;",-/
1_« -
E h , , )
mp
))
.-J
Z2a
I
I
_ - - - - - - - r~F
Pn
i
Pn
I
!
la:; :n
-<'<+,
3 Sin 9 ~~'l
\\_
1·,- Emph
1
/1
)
.J
aam,r1tS ~..a"ilt',.U"!5iatiiiEBit .-..UCiiSiIf]UhUE_ Lin_

---

318
.J .i :.
We can now formulate the final remarks which are as follows:
A
-WhQn the Ind.Obj.is thF only NP being pronominalized:
(a)
i t 'precedes Direct - Obj., and both Direst and Indirect
objects are preceded by the main .v",rb, i f there is
no
Au xil iary.
(b)
by hopping transformation i t becomes right daughter of
the Auxiliary-group,
if an Aux.
occur~.
B
-When the Oir.
Object is
the only NP being pronominalized:
~3)
i t prccedes Ind.Obj.,
and both Dir2ct and
Indirect
objects are preceded by
the main verb, i f there is nO
Auxiliary.
(b)
If an Aux.
occurs,
then,
by hopping transformation
the Oir.
Obj.
becOmes right daughter of the kUX.
C
~When both Ind. Obj. and Dir. Obj. are pronominalized
(a)
if there is no Aux;,
they both follow the main verb,
an,,' the
Ind.Obj.
preced~s the Dh. Obj.
(b)
If there is an !lux.,
both Ind.
Obj.
and Dir.
Obij.
become right
daughters of the Aux.
and Ind.Obj.
precedes
Dir.Dbj.
Thus our conclusion, obviously, is that in
Wolo f,
even though the DeeP structure is not that· much
helpful to determine the natural order of occurrence of
Ind.
Obj.
and Dir. Obj.,
the pronominalization-test seems
to show that this order should be as
follows:-
+ Ind. -Obj. + Dir.-Obj.

---

,. .znl' ~If:?l'n= \\.CI . ._n"....",.jJtI'ffiF'Ippul",,'. . . . .
319
Let us now summarize the abDve eXQmplifications in a fDrmal dGvic(
, 1
-
Ind.
NP/Pn.T/+Oir. NP ---':::-7
Ind. Pn.
+ Oir.
NP. in [nu.
~
,.. - _.
MV +._-+ - -
Ind.
NP +Dir .NP/PneT I ----~
Dir.· Pn.
+ Ind.
NP in [nv.
MV + - +
Ind.NP/Pn.T/+ Dtr NP/Pn.T/ ----~
Ind.Pn.
+ Oir Pn.
in
[nv. MV + - + -
;:::
OiL
NP/Pn.T/+lnd.NP -----). Oir.Pr,.
+ Ind.
NP in Env.
MV + - + -
'~_,:.:::;
Oir.
NP + Illd NP/PnJ/ ----~ Ind. Pn. + Oir. NP in Env.
MV + -
+
.
c:
Oir.
~JP/Pn:r.1 + Ind r~P/PnJ1---'7 Ind Pn + Dir. Pn in,
.,
Env.
MV +
+ - - -
--
.
..
-{nd.
NP.,'+ Oir.
NP/?nT! ---:;..
Ind.
NO + Di·r. pn. in,E.nv.
-
.
~
~;
I.
Aux+ MV + --- + ~--
Aux.
+ MV+
Ind.
~JP + Oir. Pn. --_..:.~
Aux + Dir.Pn
+
~1 V + In d • NP•
.- ,
In d •
r~ P/ PnT/ + 0 i r . MP / PnT/ ~ - - - ?>
I r d • P n.
+ 0 i r. . Pn 1 n
[nv.
Aux.
+ MV + - +
Aux. + M\\! + Tnd.Pn + Oir. Pn. ':::--.:;>
Aux.
+ Ind. Pn +
oi r. Pn. + I"H1
Ind.
NP/PnT/+Dir.~JP ---7'-,.
Ind.Pn.
+ Oir. NP in Env.
Aux. + MV. + --- + ----
'"~"'
Au x • + M. V.
+ I n d. Pn. + 0 i r • NP. - - - - ~
Au x • + In d.
Pn .
;
of
+ M'J + Dir.NP·
1 -
~. r: :
Oir.
NP/PnT/+lnd.NP ----~ Oir.Pn + Ind.NP in [nv.
I
" _of
Aux + MV + --- + ---
1.
/Pn. T/
indicates that tl-IG element i t immediately Fo 11.oU)J
undergoes pronominalization Transformation.

---

320
"
Aux,
+ MV + Dir.Pn.
+ Ind.r'Jp ----> Aux t Dir.Pn. +
MV + Ind.
~IP
.. - '- ~
Dir.NP/PnT/+Ind. NP/PnT/ ----~
Dir.Pn.
+ Ind.Pn.in
Env.
Aux.
+ MV +--+--,
•
Aux • • ~lV + Dir.Pn ....
Ind .Fn ----.:;>
Aux + Ind Pn +
Dir Pn + MV
,',~:
Dir NP + Ind NP/PnT/ ---?='
Dir
NP +
Ind Pn.
in Env.
Aux.
+ MV +
+ ---
Aux .... MV + Dir NP + Ind Pn --'-'~
Aux.
+ Ind Pn. +
II\\v + Dir NP
Let us consider 8 -
15
for
a deepening of our
analysis:
8.
dab a
dafay
suxxil
bu:na
ay
gana: r
'--"
daba plucks
chic kens
( fo r) bu :na~
9.
daba
suxxilna
bu:na
ay
gana: r
~'
dab'a
has
pIu ck ed chicKens for
bu:na
10.
daba
dafay
su xxiI
ay
gana:r
bu:na
~
d8ba
plucks
chick ens ( for)
bu:na
nit
ddba
su xxiI na
ay
g2f1a:r
bu:na
'--"
d aba
has
plucked chi ckens
for
b u : na '
1 2.
d aba
da fay
suxxil
bu:na
ay
gana:ram
~
daba
plucks
for
bu :na his chickGns
1 3.
daba
suxxiln8
bu: na
ay
gana:ram
~
daba
has
plucked
fa r
bu:na his chi ck ens
14.
daba
dafay
suxxil
ay
gana :raITl
bu :na
-..........
15.
daba
suxxilna
ay
gana': r am
bu:na
,-..
In 8 -
11
if WE mean that daba is
plucking chickGns,
an~ that
tho fact that daba is
plucking chickGns is done for bu :na,

---

321
"
r\\ ')'
- .... '.-
then tho permutation aFFecting t~e Ind-Obj and the Dir.Dbj.
dOes not aFFect the meaning throughout 8 -
11.
SuppOse now we add the genitive-case-aFFix to Llir.
Obj.
We Can no more apply
~ermutation without changing the
meaning.
This is aHested by
the sentenccs 12 -
15.
In one
way (12-13) we are saying that:
a)
bu:na has chickEns
b)
daba is
plucking/has
pluckcd thos e chickens
For 6u:na as well a5
cl
d aba has chi cken s
d)
daba is
plucking/has pIu ck cd those chickens
for
bu:na.
Let us
notice that this ambiguity necd not be considered at
,
In the othGr way"
('J 4-15),
the permutation -
trans-
formation
changes the mea nine
(a-b)
and :restricts it to (c-d).
Thus,
since the permutation-transformation has
affected the double interprotation of 12-13 where the order
is
Ind.Dbj. + Dir.Obj.,
wc find
it reAsonablo to assume again
that
Ind. Dbj.
+ Dir. Obj. is the natural order.
We may have sentencos like 16-18 '
16.
nd EG W
dafaY
lo:ttal s~'xha
j:, gJP
~
ndae w
braids
jjg;p on behalf of S) xna
~/
,
17.
~9ao w d a fay
jamal'
S)Xna
j)g Jp
ndaew
is doing, a gum-make up to
j)g:p on
bohal f of s:Jxna

---

322
18.
m1n8:n
dafay
mmyal
Q.Sl0:r
.d):f:lam
jabar
l')~c·.l'"
.-v
ffi1na: n
i9 nrranging on b8ha1f of mu..s-ar for his
son a uife:)-
First of all wc remind tho diffsrcncc betuOGn 8en-I
and Ben-D.
For this p'urposG,
let us compare 19 with 16.
ndaJw
dafay
s']xna
~
ndd3 w is bathing j"J9.)P on behal f of s)xna .
......
In 19 j)g)P is diroct objoct~
What is being waShGd
ndcc w is bathing j')g~p on behalf of s)xna,
.........
whcr88s
in 16 we hav~ a rhEtorical figurE known as Sync:cdoch12.
Actually Q.933W is braiding the hair; not. jJg~Jp herself'.
Thus 16
moans that nda3w is braiding the hair on bEhalf of s)xna (Ben-O) •
.........
Th o hairs that arc: boing braided arE j~g)pIS (Ben-I).
In tho same uay.as for 16, s~xna and ~gO:r on the on~ hand, and
"-
j:Jg:Jp and d):mam.
on
tho othGr hand arc rGspGctiv~ly Bon-O and
Bon-i in S~17-18.
HG~G the understood constituont ci:nam and
~ jabar I .3rC Dir. Obj.
16a.
n d;:p w
de fay
IG:tta l
j~ g'") p
s:)xna
'---'
,,-
17 a.
ndao w
da fay
jama l
j'Jg~p
s:;xna
.........
18;0\\ •
mina:h
dafay
mm yal
d"~): rram
noo:r·
jabar
.~
"
moves
WG have appliod a Permutation transformation which/tha
BGn-I bofore the Bcn-O throughout
16a-18a _
ThG result of this
oporation is that:
.. ;iAt.2.~.Aii-,.

---

323
~~'f)/'
,_I ~
't.,
-in 160, ndaew is pcrforming an action on the hair
'--"
of s)xna on behal f
of j~g:,P.
':in 17a,
ndro w pGrforms tho action on s'Jxna's
jaw"
~
-in 18a, mina:n is giving a bridc to Qgo:r
on behalf
of his "0 wn son,
where a s i n 1 8 fl g 0 ;r 's son is t h" 0 n G who t a k c s
~
advantage of the action
pcrformed by mina:n on behalf of ngo:r.
Thereforc",
whilo rovGrsing the prcvious order 8cn-O +
8en-1 Wc change" at once the meaning of thc sentencc.
Such"
oporation convcrts Gcn-I into 8cn-O and
Bcn-O
into Ben-I.
Wc now concludc by stating that
when Ind.Obj.
is
fOrmcd
by two Ben which arc net eonjdJinod but rathGT
have
a
relationship of inner and outer bcncfactive with the vorb,
the Ben-O
prGeedos tho Bcn-l
Now,
considcr anothor
aspect of thc behaviou!ll: of
NP Objoet, Uj,rough s Gntcnccs like 20 and
21
whore wo have
at once Gen.O and
Ben.I
r,
"1
,
, "
20.
mii"la:n
ja:yalna
ngo:r
--
mbam
mi
xal EO ""
yi
~
mlna:n
has sold fOr
flgo:r the donkey to thc
chi I dr 0 n.
21.
mi'na:n
ja:yalna
Ilgo:r
d'):mam
mbam
mi
xalw yi
~
mlna:n
has so'1d on behlaf of Ilgo:r
for
his
~
son thc donkey to thc child~en.
The order hcrQ is Ben-O + Aec ..- Bl1n-I and Ben-O +
Ben-O + Ace + Ben-I.

---

Z1@'i-!M""-'M'rtl" 1R'~"P"V_••t'I""lUIUIlJWnql!
324
If we assume that_ the order is free/then we would
generate the following sentences:
20a * mfna:n
ja:yalna
mbam
-
xaloo yi •
mina:n has sold for the donkey ~go:r to the
chil::ren •
20b
• -v
m~na: n
xal33
yi
mba:m
mi
I")Qo:r
----
"'--'
."- .
mlna:n
has sold on behal:- of the children
the donkey to fJgo:r.
' - -
20c '* mi:na : n ja:yalna lJQo:r xal EEl yi mba:m mi
----
'--'
. mina:n'has sold on behal f of 'fjgo:r the
children to the donk ey ..
20d "* mina:n
.la :ya.1 ila
mba ~m
mi
Xa l C8
yi
---'"
mfila: n has S lJ 1 don b eh:'"' 1 f
0 f
the don k ey the
children to ~go:r •
20e *
• "'V
mlna~n
ja:yalna
xala3
yi
fJQo:r
mba:m
Iili
~
~
mina:n has sold on b ohal f of the children 1)go:r
----
to the donk ey.
21a
mi~a:n
ja:yalna
d~:rnam
~go:r
mb a:m
mi
~
xalae yi
•
mina:n
has sold on beha1f
of his son fOr
Q90:r
the donkey to the children:\\
But it a~pears that 20a, C-sare ungrammatical for
the lack of selectional restriction, while 2Gb and 21a imply
a change of meaning.
This finally corrOborates our previous
5 tatem en ts.
-

---

The P.markers Of 20, 20b, 21
and 21a giv~n below will
help to point out the different relationships between the consti-
tutents before and after the permutation-transform~tion~
20.
v
I
.fa :y
mba:m mi
rJgo:r
'--
xalCB
yi
. -
l/-:<+
---
1· Si ng "'-1
l:>+ Ace )J C~+ Ben-O »-t o
J.
+ BEl n- I » J
<-..+
Ben-D
'>')
-'
mina:n
to sell
the donkey
for n~O:r
to the children
2Gb
_____ s ~--------
NP-----
Pd.P
I
VP
\\
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ VB ~
V
________. NP~
I
\\I
NP
NP
,.\\
~~
/ .
NP
NP
mina:n
i ./ \\ I/~
J
ja:y
mba:m mi·
xalce
yi
n,go:r
Ben":'O ';>'l
~(+ Ace ).,] t~+ ·8 (3n- 0 .,~ J t + 8en- I n J
Ben-I
")
1 Sing'» J
, '"
mlna:n
to sell
the donkey
for the
to IJgo:r
~ .
chi ~ dr en

---

326
21 •
- 5 _
J
------ .~
.NP
Pd.P
VP
I
VB
v
-------- ----- NP
-----I
.-
NP
NP
/\\
.-------
NP
--------
/
NP
\\
f .
\\
NP
NP
j \\
---- --------
I
\\
/
\\
.'"
/
\\
(
~
/
\\
mlna:n
mba :m, rili
rJQo:r
d ';.
"'---'
:mam
xalCE
y i
I~(+J.<+"'+
21 a
5
________
NP ------
lP d. P
I
_ _- - - - V8
_
v
.NP
I\\JP- - - - - - - - I
.
NP
1\\,
----
r~p
---------NP
N~
~~ /i\\
/
\\
------. P
/
'~
\\
\\
/ '''\\
\\
/\\L·\\
1 \\
.~
mina :n
ja:y
~a:m: mi
;):mam..
~_~o:r
xalm
yi
1
-:
Ben.~,) I
BEn 2-0)}
I

---

327
I I. 2.0 . 1 7
Nominalization Transformation
-----_._-..._---_. ---_.._--_.._._--
In this Chapter our aim is }not to giV8 the different
types of nominalization such 3S gerun~lvE nominal, adjectivaliza
tions,
r:tc.
OUf ai~ is only to show the process of nominaliza-
tion transformation through s0itable GxamplQs.
Nominalization ttansformation is the process by
h
t t,,"
•
w ich a syn agm acqUlres the statu? of nominal catogory.
Neverthsless,'whGn a verb is transformed into a noun, t~o result
1S
simply 'callod v8i~al noun.
This special case of derivation
is not understood as nominalization transformation becausG
it occurs mer13ly at the LJord lEvel.
Contrary to this word-
level derivation, nominalization transformation OPerates at the
sentGncG levlE'l.
The string which results from a nominalization
transformation assumES the samo function of the syntagm for
which it stands.
Thus it may be an NP SUbjECt~
an NP ObjEct,
or an EmboddGd sentencE.
Let Us considGr the following sentencES 1-5
1 •
clED III
u
)mar
boo Una
musa:
'-'
the departure of Jmar surpris~d musa.:
2.
ca wartm
:imar
bEJ3; nnla
........
thG enthusiasm of jmar is unique.
3.
xumbna
'-
(the ploug~ing of the fiGld of the childIGn Was
livcly)thr: fiGld-ploughing by the children
was livc:ly)

---

328
') "; ':
, I
J
4.
xar
u
)mar
dafa
re:r
the sheeP of ')mar
is lost
5.
fas
wu
s::.. x)r
af}gi
ci
wanaK
wi
'-"""
a
vicious hOrs E is in thci back -y ar d
ThE SpeakEr may not be aware of the propositions
which arc understood in the intGrprrtation of 1-5.
Actually
were asked to trace back
thE propo~itions inv&lved
rcosPEctivEly in 1-,5, he would have drawn out the 'following
ssts of propositions:
1a.
)mar
dCE mna
..
)mar
has
gonG
1b. /1 bm:ttna
musa:
= J1 has surprisGd musa:
'-...J
2a.
) mar
sawarna
=
)mar is
enthusiastic
2b. J.j b 33: n n I a
=
1:1 is unique
3a 1 •
x a 1 CO
Yi
a mn an u t ' ) :l
:::
t hoc f! i I dr c:n ha (1 G a
field
3a2.
diwn):m
aogiy
bGY
t):l
u
Xalm
yi
:::
'---
Someone is
ploughing the field
of the childrEn
3b. 6 xu~na
:::
fj
is li VGl Y
4a.
'] mar
affina
xar
':)mar has a shsGp
4b. Jj da fa
re: r
==
fj is lost
Sa.
aw fas
dafa
s;x)r
a hors c is vie ious
5b.6
a fJ (~i
ci
~,
wana k
wi
= .6 '.is in th E' back-y3rd
The dummy symbol stands
for /dara/ (som~thing)

---

·329
..r ~.;
We notic8 that the (a) parts of thE abOvq sets'
are ~ikely to undergo transformation'in ordor to bG substitutEd
for the dummy symbol ~
•
Thus in ~.a, a Participle-nominal transformation
wil~takc: place. This oPeration convGrts the; Participle Id.a; m/
into El noun and moves it as the- left-most elEment of LNP, s_: .
A prGposition I u I is addGd, prGccding the original NP ()mar).
This Can be illustratod in the following trG~-
-
~iagrams :
OOl?P Structure
Pd. P
,
1\\
s
j\\
/
/ \\
NP
Pd.P
/I
:)mar
dm m
ba::=ttna mUSE!:
,.'
go
surpris2d musE!:

---

330
I ·
- , , , \\
..' )
'"1
'
".
~
)
ParticiplG-nominal tra~sformation.
Pd.P
/\\
N
{liP
/\\
L
\\
j83 m
go
sur pri s Gd mus a :
Pr~positiGn-insGrtion transf~rmation.
;\\
N
(
/
r~
,
I
I
I
i ,,/
\\ \\
dce m
u
)mar
b ao : t t n a mu Sa:
'-'
That is,
S 0
( NP + Po. p) .
ES
ES
1
. 2
se
1 •
2
::::::E:=)
2 + u + 1

---

331
...., .(
It should bE noted that hGfc wc arc; mainly
concc;rned wi th E.5 domin8t ~ by
NP, S
•
In 2a an 8djEctivc-nomin~1 tr8nsformation has taken placG.
This t ran s for ma tic n 0 p E' f 3 t cs i Il the s amQ wa y asp art i ci plc -
nominl:\\l dOes.
::mar
saWaI'na
-->
cawarta;
jmar
Thus
SO
(NP. + Pd.P)
ES
ES
1
2
se
1 + 2
3>
2 + 1
Some may argue that hGrc nO preposition insertion
~takl?s place.
But actually,
it takcs plaCE.
DUG
to .some
morphophonemic rulos the
proposition
u
has bc~n delated.
In fact somG sposkefS do utter cauartCB
LJ
')ffiClr.
Wc could rc;placG ,cawarta::;
by !!!.9ax (goddnoss)
to
sho~ that
u
has simply becn d~l8tcd.
ror example;:
~;m a r
b a : x n a
~a:x
u }mar
=
thE goodness
of ~mar.
Considor now the following sentcnc~ 4
4.
xar
U
)fi1ar
dafa
re :r
th~ shc8p of ~ffiar
is lost
I

---

.,
332
J
~• .... \\0 '.
'-:
.'
Th~ d~ep structure of this sentence has tho following P.markcr:
~JP
\\
E.S •
Au x. C
adj.Prod
/
i\\
i
NP
VP
\\l
I
/~
V
NP
I
I
I
!
!I
I
i
.)mar
am
xar
daf2
r 0: r
Wl?
wil~ refeL' to as Cc:nitivc-cJ.au312··transformation.
By applying
Chomsky-adjunctillon, wo move the NP. object of E.S., in ordor to
make it tho'left-sister of[r.,:P, E.:D .•
This gGnerat8s the

---

' I
"\\
" .: 't
4. b •.
E. S •
NP
VP
Au x. G
, / ~~
\\ .
i
NP
NP
v
\\
J
xar
Jmar
am
dafa
r C: r
Thc:n a delQtion
transformation will rEmOVG thE
VP. of ~.-S-.'
This
producGs 4c.
Finally an insertion
transformation will
attach the preposition
u
to the NP· right daughtor
of
[!JP, s]
gc:nGrating 4d.
The: application of .a],.l those:: difforont oPe:rations
constitut8s what ~~ ca~l horc ge:nitive-clauso transformation.
4c.
Fd; p .
NP
------------
.
\\
NP
Aux.G
acij.Prc:d
.\\
/\\
~'
Xar
Jmar
dafa
r G: r

---

33ir
4d.
Pr ep
NP
Aux.G
adj.Prl?d
lI
1\\
I
1
~J
1\\
! \\
(
)
Xar
u
da fa
r~:r
The: historical dGrivation of 4a Can be prcscntc=d
as undc:r.
.
5D .
(
(
(.
(r~ P) + (
( V) + I, ~JP) ) )
) + \\
(Aux) +
( V)
)
)
11 5 NP E5 NP NP
vP V
V
NP NP VP E5 NP PdP Aux
Aux
V V PdP 5 =l
1 +
2
+
3
+
4
+ 5
se ..
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 -
Y 3 + u + 1 + Lj + 5
The QcnitivG-clausc transformation may be j~scribcd
in another way when th~ cmbGddcd sGntcncb has an NP which is
LGt Us consider thG follOwing SentcncGS 1, rn, n given
below:

---

-,. .,,,!.?, •.••::. ·\\rl1, ..
•
0· ~~
.;,..~:.~
I
., .," ,r:; ;','!r'"
. ~ I
"
... ~~~~
, , '
1.
5ama
XElr
dafE!
l.Jm:x
my shcGp is whitG.
m.
Sa
xar
dafa
nu:l
your (sing) shGOP is black.
n.
X8Tam
dafa
his s h c Gp i 5
"b la c k •
1, m, and n
arc
rGspcctivc1y undErlincj by la, ma
and na
which arG as follows.
5
~
NP
~Pd.P
~
E.S.
/\\
/~
\\
NP
VP
Aux.C
adj.Prcd
"
/ \\
v
NP
J
I
I 1
!
!
i
xar
d a fa
'.JaG: x
1 Pors .5ing ,;/
Pass '>'>
)
« + ~'n »
, « - Emph
L
)';1
:

---

336
0' ,.) '"
t ~~ .',
~
.-~----,~---~5 --~---.~-_.-
NP
-
Pd.P
I
E~S
-
______ - - - - - 1
- -- -
--'-.~--
.-..--~
,
NP
,.--VP"
Aux~>G
adj.Pred
J
y'~
"r\\~p
;'/ \\
I
!
1
_"-,', 't.
P
am
xar
dafa
nu:l
,
1<: + 2 PSi n 9 c')
,'<!,+P'ss""
j
('-.+
Pn .'.'
,
ilJ,.'-
E:rrp h ....')
!
.
~'- -'--- S
NP
!
[~S •
.- --"
--------.~
,
(JP
VP~
Au~. G
ad j. Pr ed
v
~JP
I I
I
./\\
.
p
am
xar
d afa
nu:1
! <.",+ 3 P. 5 ~ ng ",: I
.)" + Pas s ."
i
: t,+ Pn >~
i
Empl-"',~
- , j
By upply~ng Chomsky~adjuhction
tran~~ormation,
we generatE
l.b, m.b and n.b
givEn below:
_.:....----- S---~_._
_.--
.Ed oP
~-~~---
--'
..
Rux.G
adj.Pred
U,a3 : X
i
(
, ,;,+ 1 psi ng>,:
.;}+ Pn
I
7 '
t;~ Genit -;, i
Em ph;,
.
_--1
. '
..

---

33' _
mb.
5
NP~-----------
lE.5
. / '~"UP
Au x. C
\\
,',
[,JP
NP
v
/\\
/
\\
)
/
\\
i
I
\\
- - - '
Xar
am
d a fE]
nu:l
nb.
5
.-----------
NP
Pd.P
(
I
[.S
I
/~
----
I
NP
vP
H.ux.G
ad j . Pr Gd
/~
I
. /
.
I
i
j'
~JP
NP
V
\\
/
/
I
\\
1
j
\\
xar
Ji1
am
dafa
~u :1
'.,
[( + 3 P Grs.S ingo»)
(', + Goni t "»
I
« + Fn ::»
I·
I
Em ph .,.,
I
L~' -
J

---

Th~n a dGlotion transformation ~ill
g~ncratG l.c.,
I
m. c, and n.c.
l.c •
.~s
PcI.P
NP
!jP
Au x. G
ad j . Pr Gd
l
./\\
\\
L~'
xar
('
dafa
Wffi : X
+ 1 Pers.Sing},1
rI(+ GC?nit ")0)
l{(+ Pn ">'>
t./.,-
Em ph ">'>
m.c.
-----------Pd.P
---------------..\\
. r'JP
NP
~u ----
'
Xv ~
ad j . Pr od
1\\
\\II
i
/\\..
xar
J!1
daf3
-'l
2 Per s •Sin 9 ))\\
, I
« + Pos s .'>}
/
.
z{ .+ . Pn
."
j
~-<;...;. Emph
~'
.1
")0')
,

---

33S
"
':'
f
n
',,' 't 1.1
n. c.
s
Pd. P
Au x. G
ad j -Pr cd.
j\\
1
L~
Xar
dafQ
nU:l
e+ 3 Pcrs.Sing;)
<, + Pn -')
AftGr this 6PGration wo substitute: thG corrosponding
POSSGsslivc adjcctivo
for the NP ,0 sogmcnt.
lJe
genorate 'ld,
m.d, and n.d
rGspoc~ively.
1. d.
_. S '.
---------
NP,
Pd.P
/~
~I
NP
Adj
Aux.C
adj.Prcd
\\\\
/\\
II
/ ~
- -
xar
%
cl Cl f3
WaJ :x
-I
1 pcrs.sin 9 ,-,)-1
POss ;.:
I
I
ad j
~~'
J

---

3.40
m.d"
NP
.( ,
---'Pd.P
., '/:"< ',.
/\\"
NP
Adj
Aux.C
Adj.Prc:d
. \\. ,.
--:- -
./\\
:.'
,~\\. .
".
T.· .
I ','
\\ '
, .
D'
.~.' ...
XClr
d afci
, ,
.~.
.:
L
". . \\ •
.(,{ + 2 PGrs OSi:n9"')
<.1.
Poss~>
: '
+
..
,"+ Ad j '''7:'>
J
n. d.
~S
.' Pd. P
r~P
/~
N9
NP
.~
\\
r
I
'? ';'. j,
\\I
;\\
------
. ~
,--,J
Xar
d a fa
nu: 1 " . i. : f ...
«+:.3 ·PG~s.5ing»:li
'-.1... +
Pass »
'_I
j .
,_'I. + .ad j
::>:;
. '
Now, ":'i f
W(Oi1~ r;pla~c the Cldj-no de by words from the 1 cxicon
wc will gcnorafe the strings given below:
..... '",
~ .
..
.J ~.

---

m.1
n.1
sheep his(hGr) is black.
In common spcech 1.1 and m.1 arc not. used in Wolof.
An optional permutation-transformation is to be appliGd. This
oporation will shift the Poss-adj as left sistGr of NP dnminated
by
NP, 5
and genorates thG more grammatically accePtable
strings 1.2 and m.2 given belou:
1.2
sama
liar
dafa
wa: :x
my shoep is white.
m.2
Sa
xa :r
dafa
nl,J:l
her/his sheep is black
We notice that· this optional ~ermutatiDn-transformation
does not WOrk for n.1.
If it does, it would produc~ n2.
n.2.
am
xar
dafa
nu :1
"7
.
in which Case am is no longer a~ possessive adjective but
rather 'as indefinite article.
Thus n.2 •. meons
a certain sheep is black (any sheep).
Thus am in n.1
and am in n.2 arG two different morphemes.
This optional pGrmutat.ion-transformation WOrks fOr all porsons
except for 3 Pot's. Sing;

---

Wc Can now state that when the gcriitivo-cl~~sE-
transformation is applied to a sent8nce where NP is
Pn
tho rul~ lS as follo~s:
5 . 0 . (
«,Pn)
+
«(V) + (NP)
) ) )
VP
V
r~p
NP vr 5 r~ P
1
+
3
,
s.
\\
C.
; ~'2+3
-~ ->:.(1 p ors. P os s-a d
+
,
I
~
t Sing i Piu!": 1+ ?'.)
.
I .
' :I
!
\\) 2 Pcrs. Pass-ad j + '," 5i ng; Plur~ )
I
,
J
I
I
,
)
;
(
'\\ .. \\
;
,
ilGrs. Poss-adj
fJlural
l\\:
+
I
..~..
I
i
+ Pers.Poss-adj + Si I}Q
i
!
/
Wc turn n~w to a more com~lex case found in the
In 3 there arc two nominalizatiGns:
The first ~no, callEd G~nitivc-nomina~isatiDn, cc~vErt5
xala:;
yi
"V
amnanLJ
':::
the chi 1 d r c n ha v C Cl f i cl d
into
t ~) : 1
u
x a 1 a:
y i
::;
t ha f i to 1 d 0 f
t h c chi 1 d r c n
The NP dominatc:d by VP becomes tf-J c leftmost consti tUGnt of. S.•
By Chomsky-adjune~~on
it h~cOm8s left~sister of
Xalac yL
Then Cl preposition insertion takc:s' place ancJ
conv:::rts [(I,JP, S··linto PP.
Th;::: sccond nominalization will
convert :3a2.
3a2
diwn::;:m
ar:Jgiy
bey
t-):l
u
xaLOG
yi
into
~cy
um
t):l
u
Xalcc
yi

---

Here an action-nominalizati~n-transformation converts
V into NP.
It should be no+cd that thG V ~~vcs along with the
NP dominatod by
VP if any.
Though the surface structurG mbcy um t-j:l u xalaJ
yi
' - /
is ambiguous, a reference to the underlying structure will ma~s
X a 1 aB
y i •
lJ hat G V er i t
mCl y bc, wc; 3 r {? not d Cd 1 in Q LJ i t h s u c h
problem at this stage.
Thus the ~ction nominal moves VB as
lcft~~st Gl~mcnt of S changing it into NP.
The NP object shifted along with V becomes p~ by the
insGrtion of the preposition um.
ThE. initial ~JP diw is then
Hnc LJG assume thnt the underlying P.marker of 3 is A
given bGlow:
A
- S
_ _ _
.
NP
VP
I -----------
5
------
NP
------VP
{
\\
V8
f
------
V
----r~p
I
I
~ S_____..
\\
i
I
NP
VP
II
\\
~VB~
I
J
I
V
NP
i
\\
I
\\
diw
bey xaL::c
am
t-j:l
xumb
~

---

q
.: I~·
.. r
J
\\ . )
I
~J
If,
following the transfOrmational cyclG as defincid
by ChOmSky~1)WG apply the abOvB fucntionBd transformatlons:-
b-~.~~\\i;'cl'\\()""'\\I'\\<i\\-Q..f1d '0\\...(. r..:..~ con no m5. na l., we ge n[?l· ate the sur fa c e
string 3, WhOSE P.m::Hker is
as follows:
8 .
VP
\\\\
pp
N
\\,I
\\I
1
\\
II
J
\\
I.
i
I
I[
!
J
\\
I
. I
II!
\\
I \\
'_-----::.
~ 8Y
u m
t :> : l u x a1 cB
yi
xumbna
,_.
An important probl~m arisGs now, and should bG
discussBd.
In thE GxamplG of 3 we have Cl gsnitivE nomillal
embEdded in an action nominal~
WE have noticed that the lGft-
most MP in thG deep sttucturc P.markcr A has bEGn delEtEd in
the surface structure romarker 8.
Is it always the caSG that th~ leftmost NP in the deep
structurE should be:> delsted?
Let us reconsidsr th( surfaCE structurE 3.
We have
already Said that it can· hav2 A as dGEp structure~
It may as
well haVE two othsr
different meanings.
That is it may bo
undGrlined by two other different P.markcrs:
1. S e to t Th G S 6u nd Pat t er n 0 fEn g 1 ish r,
N. Ch 0 msky and r'1. Hall G
1968, pp 15-4/1.

---

'-
,,', '{ !, 1"
~, . )
In fact th~ .intE::rprc:tation could b:e 3 c
3c
xalao
yi
amnanu
t~): l-xala:=
yi
bt:yna'nu
t":J: 1 .•••
the children have: a field-the rh~\\drEn havE ploughed
fi dd ••
a s wc +1 as 3d
3d
d i lJ
a mIl at::, : 1 - x a 1 C£l
Yi
b c yn an u
SomeOne has 'field-children have ploughGd
fiGld ....
Let u s 9 i vet hG r Gpr t: s (;' n t El t ion .0 r 3 Can d 3d ~ n P. ma r kG r s
.
AC and AD resPectively.
AC
s
NP
VP
I
E.5.1
/~
NP
VP
~ --~
V
r'JP
\\
E.5.2
'.----
~JP
---'-JP
/ ' /
~
I V
NP
I
I
xalae
bc:y
XalED
am
XU~

---

3~6
AD
,
J
I!II
bey
diw
am
xumb
IF i t wn~ truE; that thE leftmost NP in the dGep strcutul'G is
o fAd
WO u1 d b ~
3 a •
3a
may mean
. (1)
d
-lW
amna t J:'l- diJ1) bcyna t):l
.•
o'
(J )
(somEonJ1) h~s fl~ld-somconG
ploughGd
as well as
diw(1) amnEl t):l- diJ2) bcynEl t'):l ••
(somGon~(J) has fidd,;.,somConGC2} ploughed field)
Or-

---

"l '
~.
0!10
. (V
,
t
'
. (1)
1
d1.w
arilna
j : 1-
d1.v,
beyna tj:
•• ;
(2)
(~)
(SomEone
has field - SomeonE ploughed field)
In the long run this would reveal a vicious circle. So,
what
happens is that, in thc case of A.0, instroad of deieting thE
,
leftmost NP of the deEP structure; wc will delete the NP which
constitutes thE hoad noun of E.5.2.
(E.S.2
diw am Q:l)i then
we delete the V of the s aml2
se ntence.
~Jow , we apply the acfiQn-
nominal.
This will mO VG the V of [vP,
. "1
E.S 1,Ja l on g wit!; the
r esic1lJal ~JP of E.5. 2 to the 1 (:ptmost part of the SEntEnce 115 I·
FinalLy a preposi tiCln_ insertiCln takes place. ~I\\ 1"Il'8P11l18..i:ki~
i:1ll11Klillj, ...",
liBkIlll< P\\i.ll8D<~
A preposition um is insertEd between
mbey and t):l and a preposition u is inserted bEtwEen t~:l and
xalae yi.
It appears that the initial NP is not deleted as we
could have expected it.
A deeper analysis shows that the deletion depEnds on
which nominalization is given mOre importance.
In other words,
if the interpretation dePonds more on the Genitive, then the
initial ~IP (which hapPens to be agent) is deleted.
But if the
interpretation depends,more on the action porformed by an agont,
then the initial NI=' is not dc!l2ted.
In this case the genitive
NP undergoes the deletion.
Thus when a 1J01of spepker comes across sentences like
3-y he knows that in 3 the agent of the action is unspecifi'd
and understands that the importance is given to whOm the field
/
t):l/ belongs;
whereas in Y he knows that the relation 3cticJn-
actor is the clement which prevails~

---

" , .
I) /
r ....
,
"'. .
t.)
3
um
sama
t";:l
bel
the ploughinJ of my Fi~ld
y
Sama
mbeY
um
t'):l
ba
my ploughing of the Field
This analysis can be pr 8S ent ed as undEr:
FOr A
S.D.
(
( Np) + ( V + [,P + V + NP) ) ;
)
NP
<,
.~
NP NP VP
vp 5
NP
3
5
S • C.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
====~
2 + um
+ 5.. u + 3
Forf<.C
5 • D.
(
(
(N P
) + ( IJ + NP + V + Np)
) )
NrS NP
NP
VP
VP
S
MP
1
2
3
4
5
5.C.
1 + 2 + :5 + 3 + 5 =====;
2 + urn + 5 + u +1..1 ;3 )
For A. D.
5.D.· ((
(~! p) + ( V + Np) + V + N)
) )
N!=S
I, F'
NP VP
VF
S
NP
1
2
:3
4
5
5. C.
1
+2+ 3 +4 +5
===~
2 + urn + 5+ u + 1
This can b~ 6xpresscd in a rnorG general way as under:
5 • D.
(
(
(N P)
+
(
V )
+ I'! P + V + Np)
) )
NP5
NP NP
VP
1
2
3
4
5
5.C.
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + §
====r
2 + urn + 5 + u + {-I; 3}

---

We turn now to anothEr Gxampl e wi th 5.
5.
fas .' wu
s )X)r
alJgi
ci
wanak
wi
' - - '
a v ic"i DUS hors E is in the beck.-yard.
This sEntEncE lS underlined by thE P.marker 5a given bclou.
5a.
~Pd.P
~ - ~
VP
pp
,,~-~.'
Pr cp
[\\Jp
/~"\\
N
T
I ,
I
I
I ·
I
\\1) F
(2)
1 .
Fas
as
a~gi
ci
UanaK
Wl
First of all, WE havE to notiCG that fas(1)
3nd fas(2)
are
coreferential.
If' we want to generate 5 from 5a we have to
apply a rElative-rulE-transformation.
This oPEration will
con VG r t
thE LN P, E.S -J fa sin to a r to 1 a t i vG pro n0 un.
Thus we
obtain the following P.markGr S.b:

---

·
I
'.)
~\\~
S.b
i
I!
f as
WU
ci
wanak
Wl
(. + Pn »
-II
<, + <EL, i
Si no ),)1
- ~
This type of nominalizatisn is what is callEd adjectiyalization.
AdjEctivalization should nst b~ mi~takGn with relativ~-claus~
tr El ns format ion.
has nGCESsDri1)y th" feDture (',+ adjEctivE~) whereas LVP' E.Sl
in I' [;1 2 t i vc: cIa us G has the FE" a t u r (;; « + V"')~.
also a typE of nominalization.
Thus thE rUle; for aoj0ctiv~lization is as foll08s:
...
, "
S .0.
(
(
( ,\\~ )
( ( "NP )
( Adlj )
)
+
j
i-JF
UP
flJP
s rJ P
NP
VP
V p"'
S r~F
1
2
3
s. C.
1 + 2 + 3
~==:::;:~
1 + 2 (RGletivized)
+ ::3

---

.'
351
~
r-
~
pO'"
,: ...... _},
\\, d ;',•.
6.
.~mar
b·cggn a
ja:iJg
)mar wants to study
7.
Jmar
b·sggna
musa:
ja:f')g
...-'
)mar
ltJa nts mus a: to study
How do wc generate 6 and 7, giv~n that 6a and 7 a
ar~ thEir
rospoctivc unde:rlying P.markErs?
5 _____________
~JP ---------
.
Pd. P
\\
VB
V ------ ---.NFI
£.5
~
I .
I /\\
NP
I
,
----VP\\
biiggna
;")mar
jEl : IJ 9
---
7.a.
_________ S ___________
NP
Pd.P
V --------- ------NPI
(,S'
---'
NP,
------VP
I
.
\\
I
I
')mar
b·og gn a
musa:
""-..,-
Wc noticE that in 6a. as wEll as in 7a, a sentence: has beEn
ombedded in the main sentence and functions
as VP complement.

---

3S:L
That is to say these embEdded 'Sentences hav~ bc~n nominalized.
In 'fElct, wc Can repiace thEm by any word which' belongs to the:!
cate::gory N.'
Now let us consider 63.
rt aPPGars that both ,mars arE corGr.erEntial. In ord er
to generate 6 from 6a, ~c have to apply what is known as Equi~_.·
NP dEletion.
This operation will simply delete thE sscond NP
which is. [NP, GmbGdded sl.
Thus WE gEnGrate the P.lnarkeI' 6b
.
......J
which is the rEpr~sentation of 6.
6b.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
~JP
Pd.P
I
VP
--------
VB
-------.~JP
I ,
I
I /
\\.\\
I
...
..
-
)mar
bOGg ~Ina
ConsidEring 7a
thE two NPs happen to be Jiffcircnt
1
NPs °
In t his cas EO, t h G ECl ui - ~J P- d cl Et ion Can no 10 n ger b 0
applied •.
Thus thG embedded sGntenCG-musa: ja:ng, as a whole
~.
functions as NP.
Once again, we can say that any word from
N category Can be substituted for the' t../holo sentr:nce. _ Ttiis
tYPe of nominalization is known as infinitival nom~nal.
So Wc can state that whEn a SGntencE undGrgocs
infini tival npmina1 the rule;' is as follows:

---

S.c. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
in Env-+-+
3 + 4
11.2.0.12 Pronominalization transformation
Pronominalization transformation is the oPeration
which replaces an NP~~-Pn")., by an r~P.« + Pn~) • . This substi~uting
element is traditionally known ~s ~ronoun.
Strictly speaking the Pronoun dOES not always replace
an NP already ml::::ntioned.
Tile referent may be,
for instance, the
speaker or th6 hearer.
In some instances the pronoun itself
is a vacuous element.
Consider the following sentences.
1 •
-:;mar
dafa
saf)C]U
--
)mar
has taken a bath
2.
dafa
salJQU
( he)
ha s taken a bath
Assume that 1a is the P.ma~ker of the deer structure
from which WE derive 1 and 2.
1 8
s
NP
Pcl.P
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
!
Aux~C
V
\\
J
)mar
da
SE!1J9 U
-
[{< + [~ ")
i
\\\\ + I I I 5 i n 9 ,. i
1
._{~-EmPh y.,
I
-

---

35lt-
If we want
to generate 2,
we will
first apply a
verb ccpying-tr?nsformation on 1a.
This op=ration gives
the following P.marker 1b.
1 b.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ S
--
------------
.
NP
Pd.P
________
l
- - - -
I
I
V
N
1
Aux.V
)mar
da
<.' +. Present >:}
1
<i+ 3 Pers. Sing '>,
\\.
P S ·
,
l..'·~
<, + 3
el's .•
lng ;>'?j
Emph '>')
1 /.(,+ Pe!' fect ..,.';
,
-
-J
\\loll!
Then to 1b{must ~pply the Aux.afs-segment-transforma-
tion.
This operation Iconsists of creating a nOde Aux.afs which
will become right daug~ter of Aux.G.
Now I,J8
have 1 c.
~ - s - ________
NP
.
Pd.P
i
._-
- \\
N
Aux.G
V
/~
.~ux~V
Aux.af
:)mar
da
s af)gu
--
-.,
N -')
-,
Presant~:
'.
3 Pers.Sing~·>1
[:::
3 perS.Sin g »)/!
I
<<.-
Em p h .~;.
~
_,
Per feet ;}
I

---

.
35;
..
') ;'.:'
~) : •• J
Then, we apply the Aux.afs-copying-transformation.
Here this operation will tr'ansfer step by step the verbal
features of Person,
tense and aspect onto the Aux.afs-segment.
,At this stage, we are int~rested in thQ copy~ng the
features of Person only.
Now we have 1d.
1 d •
_________ S
NP
Pd.P
- - - - '
I
__- - - - - - - -
1
Aux.G
V
I
~'~
N
Aux.V
Aux.Afs
I
Jma r
, da
s al)9U
' - "
N
Present '))
-)
',,>
'
-'\\
3 Per s • Sin g))) .
3 Pers.Sinq),,1
I
Emph -,.,
I
Perfect y~
J
-l
If we replace now the segment refs.af by the
corresponding morpheme from the lexicon we generate 1e.
1 e.
s
NP
l --------
,
N
Aux.G
-----
Aux.V
--------
Aux.P.fs
i
I
Pers.af
I
I
Jrnar
da
fa
Pn
....)
-~I
\\7<+ present»J'
(( + 3 PG r s . Sin g, ~ .
t",+ Perfect»)
Emph»
!

---

356
, .
No~, in order to generate 2 WE have to ,apply
Pronomillalizat ion-transform3tion on 1 e.
Thus we haVE the
P.marker givEn be~ow:
.
5
(\\JP .---------
Pd.P
~ - - l
- -
I
-----
Aux.G
VP
-----
Aux.V
Aux.Afs
I
Pn
Pers.af
\\
%
da
fa
5 at] gu
.
-/(+ Pn -" -1
3 Per s ..;'] F' +. Pr e5 e nt '7--~
i.~+ 3 Pers.Sing)j
Singo'~! l{(+ per.t>P'aet,:»!
r
L ..
.,
l
..J
(,1... -
Emph"'"
_i
The F.marker 1f indicates that in the SEntence 2 the
Pn is a zero~morpheme.
AS5.ume nOiIJJ that the NP in 1a had the
The P.marker will be then 1-a-1
given below:
1a .1
s '-
NP
Pd. P
\\
~--------
I
.
I
I
VP
I
Au>c.G
I
i
Jt\\ux. V
\\
")mar
cla
S ai)gu
-
r-
)Jl
""'+ N
1
y .
Pr es ant
r(~+ 3 Pars.Sing•.,.1
Per feet :nJ
, (-. + Emph ~';
I
-'

---

35"
By applying the same transformations, we Can generate the
P.marker. ~iven below:
1 a~ 2
5
___________
NP
Pd. P
l'i
-----
~
.
--
Aux.C
VP
~
j
Aux.V
Pn
Pers.afs
Ii
\\
cia
fa
« + Pn:,,;
-1
Pr os on t »-1
1.<..+
3 Per .Sing ~)J
Perfect '>., ,
<~. + Emph ...-.,
J
This time we notice that the Pronoun 18 not a zero-
. morphems but a word which 5tands for )mar.
Consider now ssntences-3
3.
jmar
dafa
sarJ9
b"):PPam
'--=-
"'-~
')
()mar
has bathed himself)
Assume that the underlying structure of 3 is the P.m3rker A
A
5
NP -------
Pd'. P
..
- - - I
~-
'
I
Aux.G
V9
i.
~.\\~
Aux ~ V
~
-
V
NP
::;mar
da
Sa~g
Present n
N )'>
.
.,....
I
)::.: ~ ~:'ers. Sing »-1
Perfect ,>
li~+cc+ Pers•,:J}-n9;~I
~
I
-..
L
Reflexive,,)
)
.....
.+
~

---

,
35?,
'-
If we apply verb-copying transformation, then Aux.Afs-5egment-
Transfo:mation and Aux.Afs-copying-transfo~ation. We generate
3a.
(-\\)
(~ )
3a
* )mar daf2 sa~? :)m ,::Jr
( 1)
( 1>
Jmar
has bathed )mar
It happens that 38 is -not grammaiical.
The reason is
that in 3a ')mar (r~p) and ')mar (Obj) are both in the same simple
sentence and arE coreferential.
In such case a pronomi naliz3tion
transformation is a must.
This operation will consist of the
replacement Or the NP-Object by a prono\\-Jn with which it h3s
concord.
Thus WE obtain the P.marker 3b which describes 3.
3b.
NP
_Pd. P
\\
N
Aux.V
A1I X • Af s
\\j f.
NP
I
I
! -
I
Pers.af
Pn
I
l
:Jmar
da
fa
1";''- + N -;'Y
'l
1'0 +_Pn '?>
- \\
\\::.+ 3 Pers.Sing>,!
~(+ 3 Pers. Sing J,
..J
-
I,
1
-.'>
,i
L~~" + R e f e x i v e

---

358
I
"
Now,fet us analyse another aspect through the sentence 4.
ja:yna:
s"'"' a
b)s
I"have sold mine
Given that 4 is underlined by 4a, how is 4 g~nerated?
4a.
ja:yna:
same
xar
I have sold my sheep
",
Following the derivation already given, the P.marker of 4a
will be B given bel Owl
B
_ _ - S ~ "
NP --------
----------PO.P
_________ I
'Aux.G
VP
IVB
/
~\\\\
Aux .<Hs
V
NP
Pn
/
,
i
/
I
. //
\\
\\
Pars. El f "
oet
N
I
I
i
I
I
Pos.Adj
I
)
,
,
I
I
!I
I
fi1
ma
ja:y
sama
xar
,-
' ",+ 3 Pers. Sing
1'" +
>~7
~n .,~
\\
1,·< + 1 Pars .Sing ,>,1
(',+
GenitivE»
I
"
I
i
I:.J<- Emph"
J

---

369
" ;:.,""l-~.
,; I) '': .
If we assume that b')s (4) stands for
xar (4a), it moans
that Cl pronominalization transformation has tak&n place, chanQi~g
B into C.
Notice that affix~hopping transformation has moved the Pers.af
as right~daughter of V.
c
s.___________
Pd. P
I
vP
l
VB
~" .
Ni?
.-//~
.
Pn
Vst
Aux.Af
Det
~
1
\\
f
Pers .~f
Pos.Adj.
Pn
\\I
I
,0
ja:y
na:
5 ama
b)s
I-i( + P n ) ~
I
\\"" + Pn
I
\\
\\-:.. -
(~ +-
~mph~;
Genitiiv87'!
I~,+-1. Pers.Sing~j
L.+
1
.
We may' also come .acroSE; a sentence where the NP Ob~oct is
plur:8 1 number,
for exam~le.5 :
5.
ja:yna:
samay
xar
I
have sold my sheep

---

It goes without saying that 4a and 5 differ only
regarding the number feature. on the segment N.P. Object.
Thus
the P.marker ca which describes 5 will be the counterpart of
P • ma r ~ er - C•
~s~
~---
NP
Pd.P
vp
ii
VB '~
NP
////~
Pn
Vst
Aux.af
Oet
/'\\
\\
Per s.
d et
Pn
II
\\
I
r
Pos.adj
i
I
I
iI
ja:y
na:
sama
~ ')s
<-.+Pn>;>·
I!.
i
,,- Emph '>
!'."+ Geni tiVE :".;
r
i
!
!
". + 1 Pers. Sing >J
i<+ Plur '.~
~

---

rI.2.D.13
RELATIVE CLAUSE
-_._.._-------
At this stage we want to exemplify the procedure of
relativization Or relative transformation.
Relative transforma-
tion is the device by which a sentence is transfQrmed into the
determiner of an I'JP.
By the same togken, this sentence becomes
a constituent of the constitute NP which it Qetermines.
Before going further in this
task,
we feel that it is
at
important to clarif y an asPect
which'; both formal arid syntactic
levels could imply sOme confusion as to the recognition of r'.5la-
tive pronoun on the one hand, and article on the other hand.
Consider the sentences ~iven below:
1.
fas
wi
ga:wna
(horse the fast)
«'.Present »)
the horse is fast
2.
aw
fas
ga:wila
(a horse fast)
«<.Present»)
a horse is fast
3.
fas
wi
:,mar
ja:y
ga:wna
(horse uhich 'Jmar sold fast)
( <,Ptsspnt,,)
the horse which ,mar has sold is fast
aw
faw
wu
~,mar
ja: y
ga:wna
(a hOrse which ~mar
~old fast)
a horse which )mar has.sOwd.is
fast

---

\\
363
~i f"' ,
.-~ fl d
If we assume that wi in 1 is 8n artic18, considering 3
we may be naturally tempted to say that the head-noun of NP is -
fas wi -.
Then consequently we would conclude that the relative
clau~e - )mar ja:y - is directly introduced under domination of
~P, 5J without any operator, say Rel.Pn., at least as far as
the surface structure is concerned.
For the sake of our eXGffiplification.
We purposely
ignore the other alternative which would have been to consider
that a deletion .of the assumed operator might have taken place~
Comparing
2 with 4 now, we notice that the relative
clause - ·wu ')mar
0a:y - is introduced by the Pn - wu - which
is coreferential with the head-noun of [NP, 5J - aW,·fas -
•
Reconsidering 5-3, we Dould envHlage -
wi -
fUrJcL.onlng
as relative pronoun in~tead of article.
We could also assume that - ui - had a double function
of article and relative pronoun as well, and assign it a
status like, saY, re18tive art~cle.
The·ambiguity in 5-3 is dUe to two major f2cts; one
is syntactic, the other is morphological.
The fOrmer is that
in Wolof,
definite article follows noun.
The latter is that
relative pronoun and article are .homonyms when the head-noun is
"..(.+ derinit~ ;,,) ..
Thus it seems that in 5-3 the usage of article
would be redundant.

---

·
36~
.,
'-_
I I
.~,
GI) --
I~evertheless we may have sentence like 3a.
3a.
fas
wi
)mar
ja:y
wi
ga:wna
_(horse LJhich )mar sold the fast)
( «Present»)
the horse which )mar sold is fast
where
the seCOrD
-
wi -
is an article and as
predictable occurs
aFter the -nOU,l
fas
wi
)mar
ja :y
N
N
We should bear in mind that
the first -wi -
in the string 3a
belongs
to the claus6! embedded mn 11
S· 11
fas
wi
ga :wn~ and
that the second -
wi -
is an
element
of the discontinuous
constituent
fas --~-- wi.
The occurrence o.F S like 3a is attested in Dr •. Pathe
Diagne's
Cramrnaire de !Jolof rnoderne
:
a
Oans
Cor gi:
mu andi l' e:nonce'
mu andi
'dE tuna
eXPansion de Cor gi.
gl ~ (sic) valeur ~ronominale
." 1 2
et
es t
aPPos e 'El .;Jar: gor gi mu a.nd i gl.
'
Let us
turn now to another aspect of relative
transformation.
Consider the sentences 5-8 givEn below:
5.
gana:r
gi
jmar
j-a:y
ba:xul
(Chicken which Jmar
to sell
Pr.Perf 900d
Present
not)
the chicken which 7nar has sold is not good ..
--_.._-------------.. - - - - - - -
.._ - - - - - - -
1. Cf.
Pathe Diagne,
1971, I?' 181; notE' -
2.
2.
TranslaticJn
"in Corgi: l)lu andi the clause mu andi is an
expansi8n of gOr gi.
gi has* a pronominal value and is apposed
to
,
.
gor: gor gl mu andi
g-i,
-,!
We assume that
WE' should read
a inst-ead of El in the
French
quotation.•

---

36~
6.
gana;r
gi
)mar
Ua:y
gi
ba:xul
(chickens which )mar to sell «Pr.Per&,.
the good
Pr es ent'
not)
the chicken which ~mar has sold is not good
7.
ap
gana:r
gu Jmar
ja:y
ba:xul
(a
chicken which )mar to sell
Present
good
Present
not)
a chick en which
)mar s ells is
not good
8.
gana:r
gu
)mar
ja:y
ba:xul
(Chicken
which )mar to sBll
gOOd
PreSEnt.·
not)
a chicken whlch )mar sells is not good.
If we compare 5 with b we notice that in 5 there is
no occurrence of articles,
whereas in 6 there is.
At
this
stage,
this is not a problem,
becaus e we have alreadv"e)(!"lCliTie4;'
this
(
Cf.note 1 PaQe 363':4). Nevertheless i t is worth repeating
that th~ + definiteness of 1.ne head-noun gana:r is
eas"j ly
retraceable from the surface structure
•
We saw in the subcategorlzation rules that
)' def. Rel.
Pn
(
R el.
Pn.
---';>
\\
)"
+ number
(indef. R El. Pn.
since deL ReLPn. is gi (and its allomorphs) , i t is ob vious"
that the NP gana:r
is «.d"f" •
Thus
the occurrence of the article gi
which syntacti~
cally determines
the detiniteness of garia:r is redundant.

---

366
...../ I.) J
The Same argument
could do
fOr
the absence of
articl ~ in 8.
Actually gu is
coined as irjef. ReI.
Pn.
This is sUf.ficient to inform us
about the feature"'::definife>,
. no/·
of gana:r in 7.
There is/point of considering. gu as a
relative article given that 7 attests
the distinct occurrence
of articl8 and relative pronoun.
Sentence like 7 is
quite
common in lJolo f.
Let us
examine now how a sentehce is turned into a
clause which determines
an NP.
Consider sentences ~ike, 9 and 10
9.
cm ku
bUy
wax
ba:xuI
Parrot + which~progressive + talk + good.
not
<,
Present~>
A Parrot which talks is
not gOOd
10.
Caeku
bi
Jl1ar
gis
ba:xul
Par rot.,. whi ch+) mar+ see z, Pr. P~PJ f.,,, good not
("p res ent »
(the)
parrot whirhl)ffiiJf
has seen is not good.
Sentence 8 has the following
prQPositions:
9a.
Ca3 ku
wax
( embedded)
PalrI"ot falks
9b.
Caeku
ba:xuI
(r~atrix)
Parrot is not good

---

36f
\\ .
-'
5 ent enc e 10 has
the 'following pra pOs iti ons:
10a.
~)mar
gisna
cae ku
)m~r
has seen Parrot
1'Jb.
Caeku
b a:xul
Parrot
is not
good.
This enables us
to represent below,the respective underlying
P.markers of 9 an,1 1'J
IJhich are 9.1 and 10.1
:
9.1
s
----------
rJ P
/~
Adj.Pred
NP
,/s~
I
(
NP
VP
I
\\,
N
N
v
j
.'\\
:' ' \\
'j
iI
\\
i
I 1
Cae ku
C83 ku
y lJax
ba:xul
,-
,
-,
«+ N >,
~. N -JI II
~~: def') Y. - def" I
Sing);!
! (, +
Sing.))!
L .'
1
-

---

36~
. 10.1
1
·1
J1.dj.
NP
PrE!d.i=
V
NP
I
\\
\\
\\.
._~l
CcB ku
:'ffi ar
gis
Cre ku
ba:xul
/-
-,
~
i(+
f'oJ
':»
1<"+' N »)
..< +
de f,;-)
<;-:+ ds f)}
~<+ S ing?~
".+ Sin 9 '»)!.J
We assumE that the two N'ps Cee ku in 9 as well as in
10 refer to the Same reality in each 5e ntence.
We
notice that in 9 as well as in 10, the first NP
Cae ku i s eN P ,S ."1 ~
But) whi 1 e the s 8 con d NP C33 ku i siN P, E.5 -,
in 9, the second NP (CEku in 10 is [NP,L vp,.(~sJJ.
This diffErence of syntactic behaviour is relevant
for their respective procedures of generation.
~irst let us consider the derivation of 9.
The relative rule transformation will generate 9.2
;

---

36B
__________ 5
. - -
_ _ _ _ _
_
NP
_
Pd.P
NP
E.S
~ ''---------..
NP
VP
\\
1
,
1
Adj
N
V
/\\
-'-
.:..
Cee ku
Cae ku
y
uax
b a: xu 1
I
r+ f'J »)
-, I>~ r~
:>')
•
,<+ indef ..»
',+ lnd e f.»), I
-
~<+
Pn »
\\""+ r 81'»
c.
Then we apply to 9.2 the article-s8gment transf~rmQ-
tion.
This operation will generate the P~Marker 9.3 :
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ S - - -
_
NP
Pd.P
/ /
~ -
NP_________
E.S
T
N
NP
---
/
-----
~
Pd.P
Ad j
I
/----...
i·
\\
T
N
I,
I,
I '
\\
V
/
\\
/
\\
,/'-"
i
L - - '
.L~
,0
tee ku
Coo ku
y
wax
ba:xul
r
« +
ind ef)~
'" + 5 ing
.','+
'»)J
r+ N»"II'+'
·-11--
-1
l"+
r ' .
aT l
"~
af t )
I .. ~..L.
N ..,>
:
indef>l! ",+ Ind8f'r
I nd,lt: Pn:>;
'<+ Pn )',
.-';
r 81;..) 11."+ ReI >; _.'
,~+
/

---

...~ .... '.
Ws have no~ to replace the article segments by ~ords
from the lexicon.
The resuJ ting string ~ill be 9- a.:
9 a.
~ apcre I<u
bu
cre ku
y
~ax
ba: xul
But 9.a.
for
tJolof native spea'ksr is ungrarnmatical.
One more transformation is s t i l l
to be applied,
that is ths
relativizsd·,noun-deletion transformation.
T:',is operation ~ill
generate the grammatical surface structure P.marker 9.:4
9.4
------5
NP --------
Pd.P
~
NP
E.5 .
/
.~,
/
~
T
N
NP
pd.P
Ad j
\\V
1\\
~,
/'-
ap
Cas ku
bu
y
~ax
ba:xul
given that the r e1.
Pn.
bu has
the feature" +ind,,>,~
an optional article-deletion transformation
~ill take place.
This ~ill delete the article of the head-noun of 5 and
generate the string -
9
:
9.
CCB ku
buy
Wax
ba:xul
Consider 18 1 no~;
The application of relative rule h'ansformation
~ill generate
the P.marker 10 2.

---

371
,
~.
r.l"· 1-
o
,
,~
1 O. 2.
s ,.-------. ---.
------
~r~p~
Pd.P
NP
E.S.
f\\JP ------
~Pd .'P
I
I
_________ vp__________
Adj
V
NP
Coo ku
Jmar
CCB K..U
ba:xul
<, + N »
-/
<., + de f)
I
<c, + Sing ,,' I
,,\\ + : Pn »
J
lu + r 81 -,:;. J
Contrary to 9r2
we have to apply a moveffient transfor-
fi1ation.
This Operation
will m01.!8 l NP l VP, E.;~J to -:he front
of C.S.
The resulting P.marker will be 10.3 givEn b<Jlow.
10.3
1
S
NP ____
Pd.P
------
-------..
N P '
E.S
_ _ _ _ _ 1
________
NP
NP
Pd.P
\\
Adj.
i
vP
!
)
I
V
!
I
ere ku
CCB ku
.gis
ba:xul

---

37!b
After this ~e can no~ apply respectively article-
segment. transformation and relativized-noun-deletion
transformation
to 10.3.
This
operation generates the string 11]-a:
10 .1.
Cm ku
bi
bi
,mar
gis
ba:xul
Yet 10-1
is not
grammatical,
because def.T
has to be
placed after the N constituont (Cf.
PagE ·~3). This will
generatl? the
following P.markers
10~4 by the applic3tion of
article~movement transformation.
1 O~ 4.
_______ . S
NP ---
.
Pd. P
~- I -___________
,
]
N
Eo.S
T
/I~~
I,
I,
NP
NP
Pd.-P
I
i
I
Adj
\\
I
I
I
V
,
J
I
I
i
i
/\\
CEl3 ku bi
)mar
gis
bi
ba=xLil
The generated ,string is then quite grammatical as
we have alreadY sel?n i t .
(Cf.
Note
1 Page , . "
364\\.
But,
from a statistical
point
of viel" one more trans.,.
formation has to take place,
that is
the article-deletion-
transformation.

---

373
,. .
'_ I,;
We haVE already seEn that this optional transformation
is motivatEd by the fact that in lJolof the relative pronoun,
itself, giVES all the sEmantic features which the article
uould gi ve.
Thus the sentenCE which is lJeneratEd ~s 10
10.
Caeku
bi :>mar
gis
ba:xul
We can now state the following rules:
In a relative clause transformation,
when the
identical NP ist~·IP, E.5-1
we have :
(T)
+
(N)
( T)
+
(N)
5.0. ( ( (tN). +
( T ) ) + ( (
(N)
+
( T)
, , ) + (Vp)) ) + (Vp) )
.. 5
~f NI'N N
T
T
IIf
f.~"1'
.1\\1
N
1111'
Ill'
~f f.5 liP Y~I'. fJ.r
!> ~.
,
c.
-. = ...... ,.
~
': "
. ,-
-.~
-, /t
+
4
+
5
6
s.c.
WhEn the identical
5.0.
( (
(\\(N)
.
:tI ~ tlf »\\'. l CT)
1 ,j, 2
+
3
+
4
+
5 + 6
+
7
S:C'{1
+3+4+5+6+7
====~
1 + 6 + 3 + 4 + (2)
+ 7l
1
{ (1) + 2+ 5 +3 + 4 + 7
)

---

37~
f", "'*.
- \\
"
.
1I _.2 .,0 •.14
R EFL EXI VI ZAT ION
The ProcEss of reflExivization is a syntactic
ph8nomE~on that consIsts of deleting an NP object when it ls
identical with thE ~p subject in a Same ;imple sentencE)or
r:eplacing it by its. corresponding anaphotic ·reflexive.
Let us consider the foJ.lowing sentences:
1 •
)mar
dafay
w:"tlJ
]mar is shaving
Assume that 1 is der.ived from thE underlying string 2 given below:
(1;
(1)
2. * jmar
dafaY wJt )mar
(,,)
.
(..1)
jmar Shaves )mar
where the two NPs are correferential and identical.
2. is ungrammatical and requires
the application of reflexive
transformation.
This tran:::fJrmationwill change it into th"e
surface string 1 which is a grammaticall one.
•
Given that the P.marker of 2 is A prese~ied below, we hav~ to
apply first an idEntical-NP deletiD~ transformation.
This
generates the P.mafker 8:
A
s ___________
-
NP
'-
Pd P
--
Aux. G
.---
--
. \\
VP
I
!
1\\
VB ---...
V-----
NP
I(1
I
)
:)mar
. I
J
(1 \\
'
defay
w~t
)mar

---

37~
".
B
________--.---
S
~-------
NP
----------- Pd:P
-------_. \\
__ - - - -
I
.- -
Aux.C
VP
1\\
, \\.
VB
j \\
, \\
v
I
\\
i
\\
i
'!
I
i
Jma r
dafay
To
B
WE
apply now a tran2formation that we will ca~l
u-reflexivizlng transformation.
This operation will attach
thE formative -u to the verb.
Thus the P.marker C reprEsenting
1 is QEnerated.
Notice that we have inserted directly the
Aux.C.
C
_ _ _ _ _-5
.----
NP
-------Pd.P
~~----
Aux.
I
c.
--.IVP
I
I
J
j\\
VB
I
I
1\\
i \\
I
I
( \\
\\
I
\\
~.
I
Vst
af
II
J
f
\\
I
\\
1
i
j
,
-"mar
dafay
u

---

376
, ~
, (
At their surface level
i t couJ,d appear
that syntactically
. there is no difference bet~'~en reflexive sontence and a
pasSlve sentence.
Now,
how to
identify whether" sentence is
PassL,)£: or reflexive?
:;n application of refl exive-pronoun
test can help.
For
examplE;1
is
a reflexive sentence i f we Can have 1-a;
1 •
:Jmar
dafay
W)t u
1a. ')mar
dafay
:,mar
shaves himself.
Suppose we apply
thE Same test .to 3 underlined by
4:
3.
')mar
d a fay
Wjtu
4.
I)go:1'
d a fay
w')t :lmar
"-'
)
ogo:r s ha v es .:-mar.
~
IJe cann ot reCOver 3a.
dafay
w.it
b ~pam
'-'
So the test doSE, not
work.
lJe
conclude that
3 is not a
Passive sEntence.
The rEflexivization can be formalized
thus;
, )
5 • D. .
( (
I'J p'1 )
(
(Aux.)
( V) + ) ( N~1)) ) )
s rJP
NP
Pd.P
Pd.P 5
1
2
3
4
5 • c.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
~=''=-='?>
1 + 2 + 3 + u
(Rea rr a n gem8 nt
affecting Aux.C.
m2Y take plac~.)

---

37.,
,.
If)
. '.' l ~:
11.2.0 15
IMPERATIVE TRANSFORMATION
I
Tha imperative trdnsf6rmation is a device by which
a sentence" syntactically speaking, carries the feature
<..:.
+ Comma n d.)..,
5 aY, 1 and 2
eat
2.
bullae :kk
~
don't eat
The underlying structure of 1 and 2 are respectively 1 a a nd2a.
1a
Ice :kk
«< + Comd '"1 ! ",:' 2 Pers .Sing >,'[
l<d Posit':j L,"- :::mph >.>
I
2 a
~
- - -
-::,5 -
____
~ld
NP
,
Pd. fJ
I
\\
Pn
V
II
i
I
12£ :kk
~
Pers .3il1g,-", I
Emph '"'>
I

---

..... .Jr. I
37'6
,.,
".{ :<: 11
, J
U
•
J
If we comnare the above underlying P.markers
with thE follow-
ing surface structure P.markers 1b. and
Zb which corrssplJnd
r 8.s PE' c t i 'j e 1 y to 1 and Z,
lJ G
not ice t hat
~J hen a n I mp 8 rat i ve
s [m ten c 8
i s t,'., + P 0 sit.,),
thE' S Yn t act i e s t r u et u r o t 0
con v E y
the ~ld L.-' ImP ,;, is the forlllation Pers-af suffixed to the V.
But
WhEn an imperat:tvE sentence is (..... + 1\\18g >;,
ths syntactic
s t rue t u r 8
t 0 con v e y the Md ~ d rTI P >') i s thE Au x. G (b +u + Per S.' a f)
preceding the V.
1b
S
I
NP
Pr ed. P
I
...V6____
~,---..
r
Vst
Pers.af
.I
I
.~
lae : kk
a 1
,-,<,' + Sing '>, '1
\\ « -:.
Comma nd ;':> I
'./.t".J..
D
"
L ' ,
. 0 S l r. .';'"
J
2b
_ _ _-5
.---------._ _._-------
..
Pd.P
~-~--~- 1
i
r·
J
-----
Aux.G
VB
-------.~~..
' - - ~
I
Md .
Aux.af
I
I
I
..-'~. ------_.~.
\\
I
Imp.
Nag
Pers.af
I
Vs t.-,
marker
I
i
j
!
I
!
!
b
u
lEE :kk
.'
..........
r'
I (' + 2 P8rs.sing~':1
i"
)
+
IIl<.,,+
,-

---

37.1
:j :'; t
The gen8rat~on of 1b will differ from that of 2b,
dUe
to the difference of a feature «:. Posit~).
In order to
generate 2b,
we first
apply
verb-copyin g
transformation 'which will generate concord between V.and NP.
Then,
we have to apply
one more
verb copying-transformation
whi.ch tJill attribute to
V all
the features of Pid.
After this
operation,
we apply resPectiJvely
Aux. G. Segr'lent
tr a ns forma-
tion,
Pers.af.segment
'
transformation,
and Pld.
movement tra~s-
fOrmation.
Th~s latter operation moves Md as left dau~hter of
Aux.G.
Finally NP and the initial Md
are deleLed, and their
nodes removed from the tree.
Now,
Pers.af.
i:Opying trar.sforma-
tion and Md.copying transformation are
apPlied.
~Jow, in orde:r to generate, 1b, we apply verb_copying transforma-
tion uhich will
generate concord betweEn V and
NP.
Then,
ue
have to aPPly one more verb-copying transformation which will
attribute to V all
the features
of Pid • .After
this operation, we
apply respectively .Aux.G.Segment transformation and Pers.af.seg;,
trans/
ri.na:"ly NP is deleted and its node removed
frOm
the tree.
Now, we perform Pers.Ejf-copying fransfOrmation.
Her 13,
the
affix-hopping transformation takes place.
This
operation
~Iings th~ nOde Aux.G. round the V,and rearrangement rules
c:an apply.
Now,
let us consider
the (<llowing paradigm.
4 '.
na~
dEl? m
let me gO
3.
naf)ga'
das m
go (singular)
-- ..
-~--.'---.
_'--_.~._.
1.
Person_affix-segment Transformation~

---

3?JO
5.
na
da3 m
let him
(she,~ t) gO
6.
nanu
daJ m
go
(plural)
8.
nanu
dae m
1 et them go
SuppOse we want
to generate 3,
from
the P.marker 3a given be.low:
3a.
----- Pd.p
---------'I·
,,------ .
.
Aux.G·
VP
\\
PeTs.af
I
\\
I
I
na
rj ga
Comma n d "i \\'" +2 Pers .Si,n g,~l
I
Posit"
J L"·- Emph"
J
First,
l.'e have to .apply NP-deletion transformation, 8nd then
a movem ent-transformation which will attach the node AlJx.G.
to
Md as right-daughter.
Thus,
we obtiJin 3b which is
the
P.marker
of 3.
3b.
s
~ ------
Md
Pd.P
--------
~ld
--------
Aux.G
VP
i
iI
na
dae m

---

381
,
;
'.
The P.marksrs
4a-8a given below, represEnting the
OeBP structure of 4-8 respectively,
show that all
the sentences
of this
paradigm bear ~n overt imperative-marker and also
they ar E all .(<- + Pos it _>
_--- ,S
-------------.~
r0d
NP
I
na:
r((
d CB m
+ COmma nd-J 1~!+1 Si n gI
L('.+ Posit j b- EmPhJ
5a.
na
\\~(' +3Sing ",
dE£' m
r~+ Comman --,~ I I~' - Emph;.>
t~·+ Po s~.t >'-' J
63.
~s.
.
-
~/
r'ld
N P
------Pd.P
\\
\\
I
n a
r~+1P1 u T. ~:'--,
dE£! m
I (~ +
I
COmmand )-)-/
i~':- Emph ~-', j
I~'. + Posit 7> .I
7 a.-
------== S
_.----
~~
Nd
NP
\\
\\
--------Pd.PI
n'a
\\-".+ZPlur ·,~l
dre m
L~-Emph >>.._1

---

3S~
...---8
--
--
.
---------~----------
,
--
Md
Pd·.. P
na
d2G m
I
r~" ~ 3 f'~n. Pt ,;-:
_J
1~:+ command~··"i
.;' + DO.s i t -,."
J
The syntactic difference between 18 and 4a corrEsponds to an
interpretive difference.
~ctually the structure of 1a is used
only in dirGct speEch ~nd the NP should have the fe~ture
..(-,2
P.Sing:;.) 01'··,_2 P. Plur ",;..
Oil
the contrary thE structure of
4a is used in direct speEch as well 8S in indirect speech, and
NP may be ~J p.~~.2 Rli,~3 P~{<-8in~(~blu~ ..
NOli, IJe turn to another aspect found in 9-12 and 9a-12a.
9
dae :m~~l
ca
je
ba
9a
dCB m
fa
. _ - ~ - - .....-- -- --
~o (5 Q)
to market
gO (s g) ther e
10
O(J3 :mJ.ae:o
Ca "jE ba
1°ct
dae : m
lee :m
fa
-._---
go (PI) to market
ego (PIuI') t h er p-
11
l~ :kk;:1
C;:E
_.__
'. __ J
:fJ
bi
11 a
l~ :kk
k)
._-- -
'\\'_0 1
Qat (5 g) thE rice
eat (5 g)
it
1 2
l~ : k.~lcs :n
Ca? : p
bi
128
ICf):kklae:n
kJ
-.~
eat (PI)
the rice
eat ( PI ) "it
hJe call note th8t 9 and 98 are related by the substitution of
an adv for a PP.
fa. rEplace's
cajebCl.
On the othEr hand
11
is r ~L\\t ed to 11& by a pronominalization of the NP. Ob j ect .
kJ l' E'plClc ES C3' : p bi.
Th e same r 81~:~tionship is found

---

382>
betwEen 10 and .1 'J a , and 12 and 12a.
a
In thE DbovG oper~tion~/rEmarkable
syntactic pheno-
menon occurs.
It is as fo11o\\ots:
In imperativE sentences like 1Q, in which the VB has as its
1'i 9 ht s i s t e r 6 i the r Cl PPO!' anN P ,. t hG sub s tit uti 0 n 0 fan
adv for pp or the substitution of Pn for NP.obj.
will entDil
a
dElEtion transfOrmation which IJi11 affect the Pers.af.
if
1
9i
_ - - - - . 3
NP ----
.
Pd. ~ P
VP
\\
--------- ----------pp
I
I
--------------- .
V
Pers.af
I,
\\
J
i/\\
.1I
_ .'.
J
91"
a1
Ca
jE ba
9ii
--------
NP
.--------- -............_--
\\
V
Per-s.af
I
i
!
\\
da= m
a l
fa
9iii
s\\
r~p
Pd'~
---- p...~
---
--------
,
t
VP
Adv
\\
\\
dEB m
fa

---

10 i
381t
'j (\\;,
I
~ ..' !!
. _ - - . - 5
I
, -
j
/
~-
I
~
Us t
I
Pers.D,f
j
!
ji5
I
183 :kk
--
al
10 i.i
- - - - - . 5
NP-
I
j
Po.P
I
I
VP
I.
i
.
Vi3 ______
f(,
!
-----
-----NP
Pn
I!
k )
10 iii
s;
[lJP
i
Pd. P
I
VP
.
1
V9"
.
J
--...-~
~~.~.
---.
~.~
V
NP
l
I
Vst
P
I
1
ao
n
1
:kk.
'-~
k::>

---

385
Let us now analyse one morE Case with the form ka:Y.
This verb is' exclus ivEly. uSEd in imperative and
esPEcially in dir~ct speech.
It is nEver used for ,J. pars.>; and
In thE caSE of ka:Y,
ther& 1S no overt person-marker,
fOr singular.
~loreovE'r, ka:y cannot occur with the fGature<lJleg >~.
Thus we havE 11 - "12.
11
ka:y
ComE (Sing)
12
ka:yl8€:n
Come (plur)
So how clo "J" ganerate 11
?
If we assume that its underlying P.marker lS 11A,
we apply a vErb-copying-transformation in two stagEs:
first,
the VErb will copy thE featurE of pErson and numb~r
existinc: ice NiJ.
SEe 11 b.
Next it copies the fEature of the SEgment· Md. SEE 11c.
AftEr this seriEs of verb-coDying transformations,
we delete
NP-segmEnt, thEn ~1d.sEgment, and 11e is thus genErateo 'l<Ihich
represents thE surfaCe structur e '11.
1 la
q.
---
------
----?
----
/ ' -'- ----
Md
NP
Pd.F'
,
.~ . J
\\
(.-::-: + command)~i ,.+ Sing.,'!
ka:y
Il~< + Posib>_iU<- Emph ;.~J

---

;,
386
11
b
___ S .
---
-------
..
--~
_-------~......
~
_.~
----------
Md
NP
Pd.P
\\
\\
I~"+ Command~~j~ Sing
i
">'"'
ka:y
•
(".+
Pos 1 t ."
J'I.
. -'
'1
i ~~.
1
r;:, + Sing -;>)-
'-
Emph
I
. I
-
~-
") :~
.I
L:c - Emph :'>.J
11
c
_...__..~-
.. 5 ---'"__~__ .
Md
NP
Pd.P
f
ka=y
Sing)'}-j-
\\"&:+ Sing -J/ -1
I,{-
Emph
Emph..,.,
)
n
I
~!
I ,,~+ Comma nd "',
L+ Posit;o;- i
11
d
.
5 _________
Md ---------.
-------Pd.P
\\
\\.
-,
ka:Y
,'~{ + Co mmand.,":> I
.-;" + Sin1'>"> --'I
Posi t ~> J
/.<. -
Emph >}
\\
/ <'.+ Command>~,
{ ,..+
~osi t :..> I
' -
1l\\e
s
_ _ _ _ _ _ l
~~
Pd. P
I
I
e;p
ka:Y
[{+ Sing
I(.~- Emph
I\\":+ Command )',
!_(-,+ Pos::'t. '.~ J
W~ should notice that ka:y is thE only vsrb, to our knowledge:
that is not found in contexts oihe~ ihaM ImperativE.
Anc
2S
J
we
havE already sa1~; ~t. occurs only in dirEct speEch and
havE
<~~2 Pers .';.) 'fsature.

---

38f
-
'{ \\' q
•
_.~
• .J
NOUN
PrR AS E. COr'IPLH1ENT
OnE of the dEvices
used for SEntenCE-T"€c.Ur'sr-On·
is
the'conjunction of sentences
For instancE consider
- 1:
1.
.)m ar
d EB mna
')mar left
It can be embedded in a sEnfenc~ likE -
2:
2.·
beE :ttna
mUsa:
. - /
(i t) surprised mUSa:
and thE result
~ould bE 3:
)mar , dEB m
ba3:ttna
mUSa:·
----'
)m ar le ft
S ur pr i sed mu sa: .
(the fact)
that ')mar left surprised musa:
3 can be rEprGSEnted as in the
Following P.mark·er 3a.
3a·
-------------._---
,
\\
i
NP
i
VP
\\
i
I
,
\\
f
i
1
i
!
!
yj
)mar
dCE m
bm :ttna
musa:
The ab 0 v0
P. mark er in di cat 6 ti t hat 1 1. S
E'm bed d 8 din
the ~J P 0 f 2 ~
Thi,s structure in·jiGates that the sGntencE 1
Functions as an
~\\JP complement.

---

3Scn
3 ~i II
Now considEr 4 and 5 given bGlow:
ll)
-
I:i
da3 m
bCE :t tna
d83 m
\\in a r
muss:
--'
(1)
(t)
the
sur pri sed +
gO
-+-
.. ')ma r ~ gO
+
musa:
for
") ma r t ci lea v e s u:r p:r is e d mu 5 a :.
5.
dce m
u
')mar
b33: ttna
musa:
....
gO
,OP
)mar
surprised musa:
:~m a r I sIc: a v i n 9 sur pr is e d musa:
3,
~ and 5 convey the same meanin~: )mar is the
dOer of a fact and
this
fact surprises musa:
In other words in 3, 4 and 5 thE constituents
express tile same Subject-Verb';' Object relationshi.p.
This commits us to say that
3,
4 and 5 a r [ uncJer-
linen by on? and
the same dsep structurG.
Thsir underlying
P.markBI could be reprosented as
undef~
A
---------~----~--~----.-
s
./~
. \\
.~
NP
.
vP
1
Pn
\\i
l i
(it
----~--_._----~-------
1.
ThE PiI' st dae m
is
a verbal-noun,
wher eas
thE:! second
is
a \\JErb.

---

.....
, 388
.") ,-. 1
,) ~ -
From the abovG deep structure F.rnarker
we can generate 5 by
applying Genitive-Clause transformdtion and li-deletion
t!'ansfo!mation 8S demonstraten in' 5a and 5b'.
5 a.'
l i
d<£ m
u
ynar
bCl3 :tt
mus a:
".---
5b.
.[11---------
_
~pp~
p
".p
dEB m
, u
')ffiar
b(j3 :tt
muSa:
'-.-/
The generation of 4 implies a type of tr'ansformati"
that
50
far
W8
have not
come across,
namely,
cognatE-Ohj~ct trans-
forma ti on.
Cognate-object transformation requires
the
following operations i, i i ,
i i l whi'ch respectively will
generatE th8·P.markers
4~ -c given below:

---

3110
1Q ~i ,
.. ",",'.
i.
Verb Segment transformation
ii.
Vorb Copying transformctio n
i i i .
Nominalization
4a •..
VP
NP
.~~
~ '-----.
V
NP
N
S
~.-----.. ---------
NP
·VP
I
~._~
\\
!
V
V
I
Pn
II;
.~
I
,
I
!
bEE :tt
musa:
l i
d~·m
,-'
.'
4b.
'-
~s . - - - - - - Q
':).
V, .
__________N p
...
V'--...--
---------I\\l P
~J
.s ~ ___
\\
NP
/j::~
I
\\
V
V
I
II
!
\\
\\
dae m
bee :tt
musa:
da3 m
l i
4c.
VP
-~
-----
/
V
NP
bee :t t
musa ~
"--'"
-l«(+N ~) ]
.
.
« ~
d em J~
~ ,J. rl qt 7~

---

No"w LJc .:laVe to app+y topicalization transformation to
the
P.marker 4c.
This 0PGration will mOVE the [NP~ V~J of the
embeddod sentencG round
LNP, s] of thG--GmbGddGd s8ntence,
producing
4d.
5 ._-------------------.
-------
NP
VP
..---------- --------
.---- ~.
r'J
5. ________
V
NP
- - - - - - i
______
I
I
NP
NP
VP
I
\\
\\
I
I
I!
li
dae m
:ynar
dEP m
bEE :tt
mus'J:
' - '
f+ N ~~ l
1''',+ d em)~ !
\\('-+ d et),> j
L-
I
Assuming that all transformations haVE been applied,
LJE
apply
li-dsletion transformation,
producing 40.
5----
.
..-----------
NP
VF
.------ .~---------­
.
~-----
NP
5
..------- \\
N
T
-----
V
NP
.. ~
~lP
1\\
VP
]'
! \\
,
I
I
l
(~
V
I \\
)
I
I
/
\\.
I!
/
\\
i
I.
j
i
( -
.
i
I
' - - _ - - - . 1 .
d;:pm
bi
Jrna r
d~ m
boo :ttna
musa:

---

'.
'.,,":~-
r. {I I
,_
L·' ~
~o~ 1st us analyse somE more oxamplGs taking t~G
folloLJing sentenCGs 6, 7,8
I
and 9.
6.
mu sa:
g'amul
nre )mar
dCD mna
musa: b eli 6ve-not . thot)mar go.3Pers.Sg.Past
musa: dOGsnTt b eli ['VD that :)m2r ll?ft
7.
b"sCjgn a
"-
musa:
:)mar
now
musa:
wan t- 3 Pczs.Sg. Jmar
come
musa:
wan't s )mar to cam 8
~.
8 "
muSa:
b"e'g gna
mu
now
--'
mus CJ : wa nt - 3 Pers.Sg. he come
(musa: wa nts he/shs/it/comes)
9.
mUSa:
b'ciggna now
"-,
musa:
want·3 PGrs.Sg. come
(musa: wants coma)
musa: ~ants to come.
8y now one'might bG abll? to noticG that' i~ 6 -
9 a
d81stion
of the hoad NP-Object in which the clausGs /nce ')mar 'da:; mn af.,
/'Jma r 'rlo~/;/mu nou I, and / now /
havl? boon ombodded has taken
placo.
Thus WI? can state that those sentonces given Clbovr;
sharl? thG following com~on structurQ
6 and 9 houevQr have El slightly diffcrGnt structuro compar~d to

---

393
7 and 8.
7 and 8 actually havG the sam~ undGrlying structure.
In 8 the NP )mar has been pronominalized.
Now cOn s i d 5 r· the un d e r ~ yi n 9 s t r uc t ur e 0 f 9 9 i v en below:
9 '·
a. * musa:
b'og gna
mus a:
now
FOr the sake of simplification WE havG deleted the:
hGad-noun of Cr~p, VP] ..
Suppose we apply pronominalization transformatlon
to 9a as we did far 7.
This would g~nEratc the ungrammatica l
string 9b'.
9b. * musa:
b'eggna
mu
now
----"
Notic::: that
we: say ungrammati.cal, assuming that 9b wc;rc
deriv'ed
from 9a.
\\.:ie noticE that in 7,[V, V~Jand \\i of the; err.bedde:d S
~aVE distinct referents, whGroaG in 98 tha rEferGllts of the'
r os 'Cat 0
two
verbs arG idc:ntical.
This
commi ts us to/'.' '.. ::~ th8t when
the two NPs are distinct a pronominalization 'can tak[;
place.
But
when they "arc: idGnt ical,
not only pronominalization is
blocked,
but dEletion of the identical NP is
a must.
This
trans-
formation is known as
Equi-NP delEtion transformation.
Now l:::t us turn to 6.
The undorlying F .marker 'of 6 is
DEi
giv0n below.
Purpos~ly
we haVE ~implified this P.markcr.

---

"" l
: . ~
...
..
'\\.l
..:.
6a.
"" s"
i
. /
"'",
NP
VP
I,
/"
/\\
- - ~
'
mUSa:
g'cmul
li
1183
li
)ffia r
musa: + b€li8uBs
• not·+ this + r\\
~ + says + this + ~mar + l~ft
ThG dummy symbol 4 stands for nit ~ ls0meone'
Contrary to what the surface structurE suggosts the
consti tUE'nt r nao' is not Cl cOi.:plernGntizGr, but a rl::!sidual LV, Vf=J
of an embedded sEntoncc:' whosG head-noun has been dGletod.
MorG-
over thE Clause
)mar daJmna is an NP-ComplEml?nt
as it Can be
seen in thc undorlying P.mark~r 6a.
The NP in which it was
emb Gdd Bd has b Eon d Gl et ed.
Thus, in order to generatE 6 , WE have to apply to
the P,marker 6a li-deletion transformation gonGrating thE
,
P.marl<cr 6a givon below:

---

395"
6b.
VP
.~
.'---.1
,
I
da; m'la
muSa:
gomul
na:
')rnar
has
9 Onc:
Th2 n , WG apply to 6b a dc18tion transformation in ordar to
. r cmOVG the dummy symbol
L~ .
This opcra't.ion gBnG-.'atGs thG
tc;rminal
P.marker 6c
which fGpr8sc n ts
6 .•
6e.
______- - - - - - S ---------------
NP
vp
---------
v-
~NP\\
S
I
UP
~ ------.
V
NP
I
~
~- ----
NP
vP
1
,./"-'..
na:
".)mar
da: mn a
mus a·:
+
bcli8vc.n o t
+

---

396·
' 1 ,
:...;
'. ~J j
Those GxamplQs
abOVD indicatG that .r~p complomGnts
may apPear in [NP~ SJ 8S wE].l 8S in [NP, vr] "
ThGY shau mareovc:r that in UbloF, the r~P cOmplGmGnt
is not introd~cGd by a complcm~nti2Gr~
Now lGt us reconsider an assumption we hav[ mado
We have said that sentences 3 , 4 and 5 arE undGrlined
by thE F.markGr A•
.Let us repeat hore 3, 4 and 5 and H.
doom
boo :ttna
musa:
"--'
the fact that )mar left surprised mUSa:
4.
dco m
bi
)mar
dc:e m
b2Gl :tJn rl
mUSa:
for )ffiar to +oavG surprisod musa=
5.
dO? m
u -;mar
bED:t tna
musa:
'-
~-,~
jmar's leaving surprised musa:
_________ S
______--NP~
N- - - - .S
V
NP
' - -........
-----~-
........
:
---
I
r~p
V p
.'
. ·1
Pn
r
I
I
rI
I
li
Jmar
d~ m
ba:: :tt
mUSa:
.....J
it
+
.)na r
go
+ surprise
mu sa:
In saying so, WG are declaring that li is a constitutont of
Deep Structuro w~{ch may b~ dcl~t[d in SurfacG structuro.

---

39'
blhat arG thC' considerations'" i:dat commit us to say so.
Considor the following sentGnco 10
10.
)1T''3I'
dcB m,
nUSa:
dcD s
ja:xalna
go:r
gi
(That) JmaI' lGrt, musa:
I'omained astonishes
thG man
If w~ argue that thcrG is number-aQI'8Gmcnt bctwGcn
Main
Verb and SubjGct-NP, since [N;:, S] in lO has thG strlJcturo
,NP
-- --> r~p + NP which en"tail~ plural nU,mbGI' ,Lv, VP" should
normally bear a plural marker.'
But, .if i t wore so,
the
11]ao *.';mar·
daGm,
muSa:
dc.G s
j-a:xalna·nu.: 90:1' gi
* )ma r 1 eft, 'm usa: no ma i n cd 'a s·t 0 ni 5 h t h L? man
Notice that 11 is .normally prc;dictable •
.: t 1.
) ma r
a k
mu Sa:
) ma ran d mu sa:
( ha rz e) 'a s tOn ish ed
t h G ma n
NP
+
NP
+
V~,+ PIu r:J L> + t h G ma n
Therefore,
the drammat~cality of 10 and the ungrammaticality
of 1G a .l oa d us
to say that
th~ vorb ja:xal observes a 5GIEC-
tiona 1 rG8triction. not in jm,H dco rn,
mUSa: dao s
but) in soms
)
.
othGr NP which occurs in D.S
ar,d that, wC' TGpres8htGd by means
of th'e dUr:lmy symbol ArcplacGd lat'Gr
by the pronoun l i .
,--
"
l i
has
the fGatur c 5
,-. +
I<. ~
demonstrative ») r
I
I
\\ '.', +
Pronoun .....'
i
I'; i ndcfinit C' -:-.::.. J
+
I
,_<" 0
Numb er
;»
.J
'This
Explains thi3
~rammaticality of 10 and the? ungramm8ti-
ca.1ity of 10a.,

---

391l
,. '1
.at; I
Thus we can now S8Y that tho matrix sGntcncG is :.
li
ja:xalna
go:r
gi
this astonishes thG ~3n
WheI:l?
li stands for )mar da::; m, musa:" dc£s
It appoars now that )mar deEm, mUs"a:· dccs is complement of
the Nr;l l i .
I I • 2.0.1 8
COORO Ir~:~T ION
A Co-ordination-transformation lS thG operation by
which two or. more sentences, or two or mor~ NPs.ar~ brought
under the imm~diatG domination of onc singlo nOde NP or S.
Consider the following sontonces 1 -
4 below:
1 •
nJ g)y
ak
nc1$ w
ta:ccunanu
----
nJ g; y
and ndm w ha vc: clapped thGir hands.
"'
2.
n J9 "y
ak
w)y na-
Q9CEW
nu
n'g;y and ndCE L.J
ha VG" sung-
.J
3.
n::g:.;y
ak
IJ go : r
ta : 9 gJ;nar.u
n.lg)y
and
Qg:J:r
divor cod
4.
n.g o : r
b eyna
t"):~am
ak
t:;:l
u
g":- r"):m
~go:r has ploughod his fiald and his ~n-Iaw's
f iGld •
In 1, Obviously, thc:rG arc two propositions,
each
having a seParate main vorb roferring to a difforent referent .
. iJG could say
n)g)y
ta:~una.- ~a3 w ta.:~..sunE1
withOut' considc:ring whother n-)g".Jy· and n.ds: w
did tha action
of clapping simultaneously or at difforl?nt momGnts.

---

398
.' r:
5
~~"
NP
VP
I
/\\
1 / \\
ta:ccuna
ndcs w
ta:ccuna
-----"
In order to genoer-ate
.1
frOm 1a
a
co-ordinatio'n-joining trans-
t
formation
will apply
to
1a.
The resulting P.marker
will be ;b.
1b •
.
S
~
____ 5-----
I
s
'---...
Conj.P
...---
NP
VP
NP
-------VP
I
.0'1 ",
\\
//~
.~~
o
•
I
L
'.
ta:ccuna
ak
ndcs w
ta:c:cDna
....../
----'.
Then we apply the duplicate-deletion rule
to 1b.
This operation
will
generate tbe P .marker·1 c.
1 c.
s _ _ _ _ _ _
S ----------- I
Conj.P
~-S"'-
~/
~
-----
NP
~Vp
NP
VP 0
\\
.
/~.
J
i
'-'-
I
nJgJy
ta:ccuna
ak
ndEB w
~
Now we apply
the residue-switch rule to 1c.
This
ope rat ion cOn s is t s
0 f
m0 v in g' the res i d u a 1 ~~ Pal 0 n g wit h the
conjunoture co-ordination as right-sisters of the NP n)gly.
This produces 1d
where
the first node has to be removed.

---

1 d •
/\\
/
\\
/
\\
I
\\
L.-
_.
ta:ccundnu
Concerning the transformation of agreement, ref8r to
the Chapter on
Prl<Sditatlt-.NP-Subject agreemsnt (11. 2.D.~·4) •.
Now let us cons~dsr 2.
2 may have two interpretations:
One in which nJg:>y
and nd&' w
~--
are considered as singing one and the same song in chorus;
and
ths other one in uhich n:.;g)y and ndE13 ware considered as singing
~-~
seParately.
In the lattsr case,
theY may not necessarily sing
t~e Same song.
These semantic informations
will be c~nveyed respec-
tively by the ~·.matkefs 2a and 2b which represent the deep-
structures of 2.
2a.
..___----. 5 ~
~.NP___________
~p
Join
NP
NP
/ \\
1
\\ .
I
/ . /
.~_
nd E8 w
.---.--
--
w=>ynanu

---

~Di
_ _,5.
2b.
~ ,J
_____T-------~-~~··-· ..._.,. ------.,_._
Join
S'
5
.--/~ ------:----
.~~,
NP
VP
vp
,/\\
//\\
.J._'_~
I
•
I
,
. L . - - _ . L
,w:)yna
nd33 w
w)yna
While Zb will undergo the same transl'ormation given for 1,
2a will undergo
only
the co-ordination-joining-rule transforma-
tion.
But 2a ~nd 2~ will produce the follo~~ng surf8ce
~s t r uc tu r e 2 C •
2 c •.
._----.----.\\~f·
//~
In order to
Dvoid such ambiguity we could make use
of distributional syntactic marker, saY,
ku
ci na,(':kk· (8ach).
.
""""'-
Now let us
E]nalyse another
example through \\.
A
,
verb may express a
prOCess
which,
by its
very 'nature,
entails
the involvement of different .L8(erents.
Such is the case of
verbs like ta :~J:l;) meaning to divorce in 3.
3·
n'Jg)y
a:<
fJgo:r
ta:gg):nanu
..... --""
n)g;y and ~go:r have divorced
'-~
The event of ta:gg~: (divercing) involves necessarily
'--
the persons
which
form
the couple.

---

~ '.
'.:' i!:t .
Given that n)g")y is
the wL fe of 22o:r, i t is
not
pOssible 'to envisa~.c: a separate act of ta:gq):
where'n)g~)y only
is implicated but not 9go~r, Or the other way around~
In other
' - '
words,
3 has only one interpretatiQn
which is represented in
j
the underlying P.markor 3.~!•
. 3. 1 •
-'--
~
.-------
.~~p------
-----
Pd.P
.~
.
join
rJP
NP
I
I
\\
I
//\\
N
N
\\
\\
\\
.:
\\.
~go:r
ta:gQ::;na nu
To' QErigrate 3 from
3. 11
we will apply simply the cO-
ordination-joining-rule ~ransformation.
The result~ng P.marker
3~2 represents the surface structurs string 3.
5 ~__._
Pd. P
1\\
, \\
/
.
~\\P
i
'
I
I
\\
I
I
\\
N
I
!
\\
1
/
\\
\\
L
I
ak
Cons id er 4 now.
4.
~Jlo~r
b8yna
t):'la m
ak
t j : l
u
g··)r).:m
ngo:r has
plouQhed his
field
and his
'--
in-law's
field.

---

VJe"'P"f1·rtWd"""II.
_ , " - _ _ , " , . " _ , , , _
In this sentence thare are tLJO distinct prOCesses referring to
the Same referent.
That is to say LJe could refqrmulate 4 as
in 4.1
4.1
~go:r
beyna
t):lam
~
~go~r has ploughed his field -
~go~r has ploughed
";-~
.. ~ .~
.'
his in - la LJ r S f i 81 d •
us
This en a b1 8 s /1. 0 say t hat 4 l sun d er 1 in 8 d by 4 a •
4a.
_ - - - - _ S "___....
-"-
-_.--
~--
join
S·
----------
.
~- ,.,,",.
NP
Pd.P
Pd. P
1
\\
I
)
I
VP
VP
• 1
i
I
N
\\J8
,.1
v
~J P
NP
I
~",
I
;\\
/....
'\\....
J
\\
. /
!
I
\\
....
i
i'
\\
\\
"
,
i \\
I
\\
pp
N
I
\\
!
, .
\\
i
t \\
i
/ '
,
';
I
I
\\
\\
j
! \\
I
/ \\
!
I
I'I
/ .\\
\\
Pr ep
f~P
\\
I
\\
,
\\
I
\\
\\.
I
\\;
\\
i
\\
I
I
!
!
I
/
l~
i,
,
I
J
L
:
:'.._ - - j "
~---- .
iJgo:r bey"na
t"):lam
u
gO) r .): m
Now, in order to gEnerate 4, we have to apply to 4a the co-
ordination-jcining-rule-transformation.
This LJill produce
t ), e !J. m'3 r k F:C 4b.

---

'to
4b.
~~' S
-____
_- - - -
i
~.
.~'
s
Conj.P
S ~"
---------
i
NP
VP
i
I
i
\\
VB
VB
~-
~-~
i
,"-.---~
~..
V
NP
V
[\\JP
I
\\
.------ ~,
1
rJ
pp
I
, (
I
/\\
~~
I
j
1\\f\\ ./\\ t
p~ ep
[\\J P
J
;,
I
\\
I
\\
,/'''\\
I
_ 1 _ . _
:
\\
I
.
'~--'
/ \\J
I
I
,
-/
. ..:...
noo:r
, ~
bcyna
t):lam ak
IJgoa
b eyna t '): 1
U
g:H ,1J~m
.-......."
-----
Then, we apply to 4b the duplicate-deloticn-rule-transforma-
tion.
This operation will remove the NP and the V in the
second clause.
The resulting P.marker 4c will be then 88
follows: .
4c.
_
S _________
______-------
I
'______.
Conj.P
S
____-r
VP
r~ ?
'JP
I
!
VB
VD
..---/ .--------
..--------1
V
NP
V
NP
;' .,--------
~'
-----.- -
N
pp
\\
//~
/i J\\
I
/",0
.......
/
\\
PI' ep
NP
I '
I
\\
i
\\
/\\
I \\
I
\\
I
'
J
'
~..... ~
!
! \\..
r;go:r
beyna
t ~ :·lam ak
t.):l
u
g) r): m
'---'

---

•
.I0~
':t
(
Then the tesidue-switch-rule-transformation applie~
to 4c wi 11 move the residual !'Jp alo:-:1 with tf,e conjunctive co-
ordinatio';-j as left-sister of the NP-object of the first clausE1.~
T~is operation results in Droducin9 the P.marker 4d,
which is the representation of the surface structure string 4:
4d "
s
,.-----------
NP
-----------VP\\
,VG
~-~
V
N?
,
,~---- 1 ------
NP
CoQj.P
NP
~'~
!
NP
pp
//~
/J
/\\
Pr ep
NP
\\
;
I
,
f
]
I
/"\\
!
/
\\,
,
.L-\\
-'-~
beyna
ak
t J: 1
u
The above can be representEj as under:
,
A
x
y
': ,/\\
X
Y
( 2)
S.o. (Join((Join (I\\P)+(f\\JP) + (v/~NP/) )+«(Join(NP)+(i~P)+(V/=..;;NP/)f)!
11 ~
SNP
N? VP
',.V PS 5 NP
NP VP
NPS#,
1
3
5
6
7
o
9
above Vs
where X and Y a:'Dve ~;Ps, and 1 and 2/show that NPs 8r~ not
coreferential dnd that
Vs are distinct.
S . L. 1 ..;' 2. ':.,' 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 -i; B + 9 ==9 3 + 2 + 4 + 5 +',1 + 9

---

, .
I
. '
4lJ6
~. • l' ~
, ')
Cc L ,r
B
x
(1 )
X
5.0.
(Jc.in:(
( NP) + ( V/=-i~P) \\) + ( ( NP) + ( JV/'::;..NP/) ) )
#=s
5 NP
NP
VP
VP 5
5 Nfl flj P.
VP
VP 5 5 #
1
2
3
4
5
5. C.
l' + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 ----y
-----
2 + 3 + 1 + 5
c
X
Y
5 .D.
( ( JoJiln
( NP) + ( NP)
+
( VP)
)
1/5
NP
NP
Vr?
VI? 5 #
1
2
3
4
5.... c.
1
+. 2 + 3 + 4
----~
- - - - 7
2 + 1 + 3 + 4
0
X
(1 )
X
:21
5;.D,.
(Jo in (
( NP) .+ ( ( V).+(N(i~·) ) + ( ( NP) +. (, (V)+( NP) ) )
IlS
5
NP fllP VP
VP 5
5 NP NP
VP
VP 5 5 #.
1
2
3
4
5
6
.7
S.c. 1 + 2 .+ 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 ::;:::;::;::;~ 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 + 7
..
E
X
1
1
Y
(1)
(.1 )
5.0.
(Join (
(NP) + ((V)+(NP»)) + ( ( NP) +( (V).:t(NP) ) ) )
11 s
5 NP
NP VP
VPS
5 NP NP
VP
VP
5 5
11
1
2
3
4
+
5
6(7)
wher E + stands for optional.
This do es not mean .in tr'ar,s it i v e
-
anyhow.
S. c.
,. + 2 + 3 + ( 4) + 5 + 6 + (7.) ~=::;y 2 + 1 + 5 +.. 3 + (4)
F
X
( 1)
{1)
y
! 1)
_;"2 j
S.D. (Join ( ( NP) + ( (V)+(NP) ) ) + ( (NP) +( (V)+U-JP) »
# 5
5
NP NP
VP
)'Vp
5
5 NP NP ,UP
vP 5 S #
1
2
3
4
5
6 7
S.C.
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 ===='=~
2 + 1 + 5 + 3 + 4 + tj, + 7

---

40'
·j
: u'\\ , ,
l .
J
~.
~.J .
.',
,.' ..
In order to prevent ambiguity in some sentencEs one
can make use of syntactic distributional mafker like the
phr as e ku c ince ( ea ch) •
For eX8mpls consider the 'followingsentences 5-8
5.
s:: xna
ak
kucina3
w.:,;yna,
: cc.
' - ,
st.xRa and nda3 w each r'as sung ( and) danced.
6.
*s)xna
ak
nda? w
w)yna, f cB ~c;:.g
~.-'
s)xna and nd a3 l,~ has 3U ng (a nd)
d a n c ed •
7.
s")xna
ak
nd~ u
w)yna-nu,
f.::me c.
~J,c. .....'"
o..V\\~ '---
hQ,."Q
~aew
~ ....,,~ (GIL"ar~fQ.""'-'l.j
8. * SJ xna ak ndae w kucincs W.""lynanu, fae :cc.
,~
.
' -
s")xna and nd cB w each ha ve sung (a nd) danced.
~
The occurrence of ,kucinm in 5 makes it cl ear that
we are deeling with a sententia1 conjunction.
It makes the
distribution possible in s~ch manner that either verbs have
both MPs as referent in distinct processes.
This is confirmed by the verb agreement lv(,:~ Sg·;.J.
The ungrammaticality of 6 cOmpared with 7 shows that
when kucince dOes not occur, thE:! verb necessarily agrees with
both NPs and takes a Plural PGrson-maker.
This fact
then makES
the sentence an ambiguous one, since it may be interr~eted as
~~EB w
w.:wna, fea =- ..
SJxna sung,
danc'ed
r:~. as w sun g, d a nee d •
as u'Ell as'8 phrasal conjunction, that is :
S)xna aP:J ':1..928 ware doing in comrnqn an action which
should be considered as a single process:.

---

/ .
W'
On t h 80th GD hand, sin c e ku c i nael is a d is t rib uti 0 na 1
marker it'fDllo~s that 8, ~h~re the verb appears ~ith plural
marker, is ubsolutely un~rammatical.
The cooccurrence of the
distributional marker with plural marker on the verb violates
the sGlec~ional restriction rules.
But consider sentence 9-10
9.
s)xna
ak
ndae w
w)yna nu
kucinae
\\
s '~, xn a and :rt.jEB w
have sung each
-'<"
1 0 •
*s::"xna
ak
:;da8IJ
.w',)yna
kucinae
--'
*s:~ xna and ndce w 11a s sung each
...... ~
It appears that when the distributional marker
follows the verb, the agreement between verb and sUbject is
n
no mOre blocked.
This due to thE fact that kucinc£
stands as
<.
an indefinite pronoun.
When it occurs before the verb it
assumes the subject-verb ,n:lation with tho verb.
1,Jhpn it
occurs after th8 verb, the N~.for which it stands assumes the
Subject-verb relation as usual.
11.2.D.20
~COMPARATIVE CLAUSES
Our rGason for not having d8alt with comPRTativ8s in'
the Chapter Co-ordination 1S that in doing so,
lJG
coUld
separate the very process: of CO-ordination from the series of
transfbrmations invol~ed particularly in .the comparison process.
However convenient our attitude may be, one should
not lose sight of the fact that comparati've s~ntences af~
included in the tyPe Of' conjoined sentence5.

---

I
We. could distinguish as many as five types of relations
in cOIilParative sentences.
Co,npflrison may introduce a notion of
of
equality, ·or a notion of ·superiority or a notion/inf.eriority.
It may also introduce a notion of sup3rlati VB or a notion of
similarity of manner.
In this study we arE mainly concerned with the process
of generating comparative sentences.
This being said, let us considGr the following
s en t §n c es.
1-
6
•
1 •
:::mar
m) :
gena
njJ):l
xalm y i
' - '
.Jmar is taller than the
children
2 •
.Jmar
m')~~u t
xalce yi
Jfilar is taller than the childr en
3.
·.\\fI1ar
m") :
sut
ci
xala=
yi
)mar lS the tallest among the children
4.
)mar
ak
~go:r
n~:
:Jmar and I)Qo:r are equally tall (have equal height)
5.
)mar
ak
"'""
......
n )x)r
n') :
niro:
.......
-)m ar and njx)r
res emble each other.
6 •
·)m c, r
da f a t '8 p
ni
rek
)mar
jumped as a rabbit
Superficiously it may appear that 1 and 2 express the
Same meaning.
But·a clOser analysis indiCates that 1 and·2
have diff~rent interpretations.

---

~la.
Actually 1,
presupposes propositions ,indicating that
)m a I'
d a f Cl r; j ): 1 ()111 a I' i s t a 11) 0 nth e 0 n e hCl nd, and ,. x a I a=
y i
'~.
danu nj):l
' - -
(the children are tall)
on thl? other hand.
A notion
of COmParison is introduced then.
On the contrary,
in ?, i t
is s imp lYE X pr e 5 5 e d t tl a t
t h G h e i Q ht 0 f )m <3 r
is sup er i 0 r
t o t hat
of xalce
yi.
Both\\)mar and 'Xala::
yi (t he children) could be tall
or short or even
,)mar could bG tall and xalae
yi
short,
vice versa.
We could represent this by means of a diagram which lS
as
foi lows:
P~marker A is ,underlying 1 and P-marker B is underlying 2.
A
s
-----
Coml6
--------
S
NP-------- .------'VP
/ "-"",.,
/
\\
iI
xalre
yi
'.lj):l
'--
tall
th e chi ldr en
tall
B
Camp
II
JIl
c OffiP»JJm ar
Sup))
Pr edl)
1
2
7
8.
9
,)mar
has a certain height the children hage a
1
certain
2 3 '
4
6
5
7
8
height
9

---

Assuming that A and B are the respectiv6 underlying
P- mark er s 0 f 1 and 2 we c ,::) n not i eEl t h:l t
1. and
2 don 0 t
con v e y
the same meaning.
L~t us givE now the dGrivational history of 2.
Fir~t
we apply nominalization transformatior. to B.
This
pro d uc es B1 •
s __~
Comp
-----=-----------
----.
_~
NP
~
c
_ _
NP
I
I
.------ -----
~-
N
pp
I
I
----------- ---- ----
P
NP
I
/'\\.
Ii .
/ \\
r
\\
I
_/_---\\.
~-
~+ .comp))"ltaxawa~y u
taxawa:y
u
xal ae
yi
"+ Sup n J
height
of
height
of
the children
b+ Pr-ed":'~J
Second, WE apply what WE will call comparative-prGdicqta movEment.
This operation generates 8.2
/;\\
,
\\
/
'
~
\\
taxawa:y u
sut
taxa wa: y
u
xalffi
yi
hEight
of
Jrnar exceeds height
of
the children
.... AS3_Z.Ui.2S!¥ii.iE_liPd,.-'S!i .. iEZI_.i&C.&tiiJ. W.i4&Jb

---

Third, now we apply Chomsky-adjunction.
This operation will
move thE comparative predicate as left sister of the second NP
of the first level, introducing at the same time a new node VP.
This generates B.3
NP
.--------------.
---------
-------
N
pp
~
p
---" NP
j
\\
I v
i
l
!
taxawa:y
u
-:;mar
sut taxawa:y
u
he:i ght
of
:mar
exceeds height
of
the' children
Fourth, WE apply identical-dEletion transformation to 8.3.
This operali"on will de'lste tho noun ta~:aw;:jy and thG prepl29"i~tion
l,i
from the: (r~p,s), generatir.g 8.4.
_ _ _ _ _ _- - - S -___________
NP-
VP ~
Comp. P
_ NP.~
~ PP~
\\
N ------
V
I
P
NP
I
I
.,' \\
I
"i
/ '
\\
J
i
/
\\
,
\\
:)mar
s u t
t a x a 'u.,la : y
u
xalre
yi
)rna r
eXi:8E?ds
height
,of
the children

---

, \\
.... .\\. ,}
fifth,
WE
apply permutation-transformation,
in order to move
the constituent Xalae
yi round the N taxawa:y.
This generates
8.5
8.5
_ _- 5 ~
--------
------
NP
,
_.VP____....
-----
Comp:P
-----
-------NP
I
. _ _ - - / - - - _ _
vB
NP
N
P
i '_,//\\
\\
')ma r
sut
xalEl?
yi
taxalJa:y
U
')mar
exceeds
the children
height·
of
Sixth,we apply'a celetion-transformation in order
to remove
the preposition u from
the trEe.
This generates 8.6.
8.6
5
------
---
'
NP
----------
_ _ VP.
,..------
~
Comp.P
NP
----- -~
NP
NP
/~
N
T
[,,
\\
\\
)mar
sut
xalae
yi
t axawo:y
:Jmar
8xceE~s
chi1drcn
the
h sigh t

---

I'"
··U'AWI...'....
The string generated noy lS quite grammatical.
Yet·
we could apply .one more deletion transformati~n in order to
generatE ::-·2.
This operation l.Ji~l generate 8.7.
B.7
s ----------
NP ----------
VP~
,------
/~
'
rJ
Pn
Comp.P
NP
\\
/~~,
V
N
T
\\
~lmar
sut
xalEE
yi
)mar
ha
8XC8 ed s
children
the
The derivation of 1 is different from that of 2 as we can
See it below.
Assume that the underlying P.marker of 1 i , A.
GivEn this assumption,
we apply to A comparitive-predicatGP
movement-transfor.mation~ This Operation generatGs A.1
A.1
S ------------ S ----------- 5
/1~
~- ~
NP
Comp.P
VP
NP
VP
I
' II
adv.
III
\\
I
I
I
I
/\\
\\
! - -
,.
',)mar
gana
,?1 j-':l : 1
xalEE
yi
nj--:):l
-.;.,;
'-"
:) mar
mOre
tall
children the
tall

---

I
'.
1
.~' ,Z i
Then WE apply identical-delEtion transFormation.
This
generates A.2
s -------..._----
.------
--
---.-------
5
------
---5
--------
i
NP
---.---
\\
Comp.P
VP
[IJP
'
\\
\\
j
J\\ .
Ad~.
j
!
/ \\
J
.,
')mar
gena
~j :.:1
xalce
yl
mOre
tall
children the
Then ue apply ChomskY-adjunetion.
Here, this operation
brings
thE comp·.pred' uni::Jt::r thG domination of the; node VP,
9E'flE'rating A.3
..------_
s .--_ __...
..
.__.---.
T . . - - - - -
5
s
NP
Comp.P
,
VB
adv
I
Ji
J
!
..
~)mar
gC'fl8
xalEE
yi
mor Q
tall
childrc:'n the

---

'e:'"N 'PSI',,"!')':!'" '."111' i 'ill
' F
l!am.llgmlllt"'"
~ 16
~Jow, WE: -apply thE residual shift transformation.
This oPercltion will shift the r~m~ining port o~ thG s~cond 5-
node under the domin8tion of VB of thE First sentencE.
This
entails a tree-pruning and generates A.4
A.4
.-------
[\\jP
-------
-----."',
N
Pn
I
I
I
adv
II
1
I
I
I
I
,
J
!
.Jma r
gena
xaloo yi
Notice that in 1 the comtPr~d, onCE introd~ced
as a
segment, is always followed by' a VP to ~hich it is finally
Chomsky-adjoinEd, whereas in 2)the comp.pr8~ when intrOduced
as a sEgmGnt)is followed by an NP,. even aFter it is Chomsky-
adjoinEd.
..
A fact
worth noting too is that in 1, the cGmp-prGd
functions as an :;Iuxiliary, in' thG senSG tha"t" it bears tensG
and aSPect markers.
In 2 the comp-pred acts <::5 CV, vl1.
Now let us considEr 3'.
Its underlying P.marker C',
givEn below, differs fiom that of 2 by thG nodes comp.prsd in
2 versus sup8~lative-predicate ln 3 •

---

~lf
C
.
--- s
----------- -------
Camp
5·----
---._-----
______5 ________
....--.....----
--------
NP
VP
NP
VP
~~---
V
NP'
V
r~p
-------- -----
The historical derivation .Of·3 is the Same as
for 2;
but for a prepositional-phv8sd-transformation which t3kes
C.1
s .______
--------:---
------------.
~JP
__ ~ VP~
'-
.------.------
............
.
Pn
Comr • P
pp
..----
.
-------
P -----
----..........NP
~----- --.................
N
T
.!
I!
sut
ci
x a l2G
yi
he
e'xcE?Eds
among
children
t-ha
The prEposition21-phras8~transformationis a
specific featurE of the comparison introducing a notion of
superl ati \\/6.
It is worth noting that it intervEnes only
after thE permutation tr8nsformation has takEn place and
after thE preposition 'u'
is deleted.

---

I~ ". I'
- .. I)
lJe nOw turn to anothEr
casE'.
Consider 4, gi ven
earlier.
If we assumE that 4 mEans :)lTlar and I)goa "hQve thE)
samE height,
thEn WG aTB saying ·that one element of the
s6nt~nce is missing.
Actually the underlying 'string of 4 is 48.
4a.
JmaT
ak
n
o·
'·.,9
., r
n')~
( ".·mar
and this means 4b.
u
I]go:r n.:>: 1.J:11)
4b.
taxa wo: Y
u
ak
taxawa:Y
hs'ight
of
and hei ght
o f ' ff"go:r theY Q.11.\\ 111
L
... _ ~
~.
.. ..
•
•
• ~.,
D
As .we·can SCE it, 4b. is genGrated from a deEper
structure which has undergon~ nominalization transformation.
lJ'e ;::ss umb tha t
t.hc corn par at i\\n:-;. elem en t-m o VQrn en t
tT a::lS forma ti-,on
has bc~npErformcd.
o
________ .~- 5 --~
N -
VP
P .
.
~­
I
5
5 ._________.
IJI
VP
II
//\\
arnna
taxaw8:Y
f]go:r
amna
taxawa.:y
)mar
has
h 8i 9 ht
rJg 0 a
has·
height
equal

---

As said above,
thE application of nominalization
transformation to 0 generates the string 4b which is'reprEsEntEd
D. 1
_ _ _ _ _ _
S ._----- .
NP
'VP
-----
NP
-------- i'Jp
I
.----- '--
/ ' --.------.
N
pp
N
pp
~"'\\.
~~
r"
N
P
N
I
I
I
iI!
I
I
,
taxa wa : y
u
xnar taxatJa:y
u
t j:ll") :
height
of
jmar
height
of
IJgo:r
l.'qual
'-"
To the P.ffiark~r given abOvE, tJ2 heVG to apply con~
jUnction-transformation.
This generates P.marker D.2
____ S
-~
_ _ _
NP - - -
_______
uP
---- I
.
NP
Con j. r
. ~J P
----------- ~
/ "-
~~I
N
I
•
" " ,
P
r~
N
pp
1
i
"----_.
I
P
N
I
\\
taxawa=y
u Jffi8r
ak tax8tJa:y u
IJgo:r
t):ll=..:
hEight
of ~mar and
hEight of
equal

---

·=' ~ j
~.--
•J
. '. '.
New in order to generate the string 4, ws apply a
transformation that WE hav~ to call in our \\"Ork Synecdoch8-
transformation •. This oPEration removes both the identical
I
head-no~ns taxaua:Y and both the prepositions' u ')sUCh that
the Ns .)mar and muse: stand res'pectively
fo!:' the whollj NFs in
which theY uerE only constituents •.
The aPplication of the synecdoche-transformation
will generate the P.marker 0.3 given below:
s
NP --------.
---------.VP
----~'.( --------
NP
Conj.P
NP
/
\\\\
J
!
\\
1
I
/
\\
N
f\\J
.I
1
.:
\\
1
I
\\
I
i
\\
.1
\\
~
·...\\mar
ak
f.lgo:r
n ::
t'):ll:o:
~.
Jmar
and
1)90: r
theY equal
'--'"
As could bE noticed, WE have considered that the
other transformations which ::::rl2 not in direct cor,nection
wit h t h 8 CO mpar i son t ran S f 0 Trn a t ion h a v e beEnap p 1 i E d wit ha u t
any ex p123 n a l i 0 n.•
Now con si d er " 5.
5
'implies the two following propositions Sa and 5b.
Sa.
Jmar
nir 0 :
5b.
1'i::lx:::.r
niro:
':Jmar

---

421
We can say 5a and 5b ~nt3ils Each other.
Given this, we Can say that 5 is unJerlineJ
by the P.~arker
E
_ _--~-----:.:-5 ..~--------
----_.---
Con;_
5ci-:---\\
Sb.
-----
NP
----VF
"--------
NP
-----VP
------..._~
-----~~ ------.
V
NP
V
NP
II
\\
I
I
I.
1
1
,
)mar
niI'o:
n.J x Jr,
n')x)r niro:;
:)mar
)mar
resembles
"--
n~)x:)r resGmbles
In ordc:r to
generat.G 5,
WE havE to apply
n transfor-
mation that WE will call in this
work Replica-delelion-trans-
formation.
This
operation consists of deletion of the sGcond
n ;) deS •
This
Q en Era t e s t hE
P. mark Et E. 1 9 i v e n b d 0 w~
E.1
I
/
I
niro:
)ma r
res8mblf2s
1-

---

,:'
!
"
/
I "
~...'
.
Then w~ apply Chomsky-adjunction transformation in ordEr to
bring th8 constituent ~)x)r unJer the Same node that dominatss
thE constituent )rnar.
We obtain thus the P.markEr E~2.
_ - - - -
~S,
..-.-----)-
-
Conj.
S (a
.------
NP
--- VP
~- ~-----
\\
NP
NP
V
\\
I'
I
\\
-)mar
n )x"")r
niro:
-=)mar
njX )r
r 1258mb 113
Now WE apply the conjoining-transformation generating. thE
P.marker E.3 given belOW:
E.3
5,
,--------_.~
------------\\JP
/\\
/
NP
Con j • P
NP
I
\\
\\
\\
I
/
I
I
I
'[
/
1
i
i_-~~
-.
'jma r
ak
n ")X '}r
" v
~jmar
and
n-) x·.lr
rGsomblo

---

Here agaln we ass~'me
that all other transfmrmations
have bCEn
applied.
Let us analyse onE mJre type of sentEnce which is
as
fo!l:loLJS:
6 •
') ma r
dEi fa
t"E? p
n i
r ek
)mar
jumpEd like a rabbit
Intuitively 8 lJolof qpeakGr knows that 6 is derived from the
following string 6a.
6a.
)maf
dafa
eGO
ni
l"eok
di
t"e"bre
)mar jumpod like a rabbit
jumps.
ThE undErlying P.markcr of 6a.
can bE given as in F.
Fo
5
Comp
5 (a)
-----.
-------~
S lb ),
-~/' ~
~ '--------.
NP
VP
N~
VP
1
)
!
r;~+
t"e"p
ad v. -"
'l.::>mar
;~
to·p
+ Similar':
,-J,~ + Comp;.,) I
-,'
If WE
w,ant to 90nc=rate 6 frOm
F,
we havG to apply
first an adverbial-phrase transformation.
This tr~nsforma-
tionllo.li~lattach thE node comParativE to thE second node; S,
g e ne rat in 9 F. 1 9 i v En bel 0 u:

---

.'i.:
.. ~;'f.
,", ') I" r
.... -'
,
F.1
s ----____....
---
-----~
50')
---~"
-~ ",,-
NP
'VP
Comp.P
\\
1
t·ep
")mar
t·o·P
ad v .»
~-'\\ re"k
5imi la r ~"i
Corn p ~) --
:lma r
jump
r abb-i t
jump
ThEn we apply to F.1 idontical -
delation - transformation.
This oPeration will: remove thE VP of the second sentence
from the trEE.
ThG resulting P.marker will be F.2 given below:
r.2
.
- S _________
5.(a)
.
S(b)
/
_/~.
-~~!
NP
VP
Comp.P
NP
\\
'Jmar
t··
ni
l'ek
- Gp
)mar
jump
like
rabbit
Now we apply a residUal-shiFt-transformation.
This oPEJration will mov 9 the rEsicbal S 'under the domination
of VP of the first. sGntGnce~
This will generate the

---

}~:r;
•
4
"
.
.l.
I....
!
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - 5
NP
--------Pd.P
.~------
Au x. G
VP
Adv.P
/-._~
(\\
adv.
NP
I
!
i
I
r
]rna r
dafa
t"ep
ni
Jma r
has
jump cd
liko
rabbit
WE 8ro assuming that the transformation which
introducG3 the: sGgment ~ux.G has bec:n applied-
It apPEars frOm this an8lysis that cornPa~3tive
sentences arc constituted by two claUSES of which one is the
ma i n cIa u s Ban d t hGot h er 0 net hoc 0 mPar i ng cIa use.
T h (? r G 1 El -
tion of comparisQn is est8blishc:d by the incorporation of 8
prodicat~ of comparison Or an adverb of comparison which is
the cOmparing GlEmsnt.
Now let us list the l(M}.98 sf transform8tioro applied
in the above? analysis.
For~1 which contains a rolation of suporiority wC? hav~
S.D~
.
( Acl v - Co mp • G 1 em)
(
( N~) + (VP)) +( ( NP) + (V~ ) )
# 5
S
S
S
S s 11
1
2
3
4
5
'-
+ 1
+ 4
S.C~ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
======7"
2
+ 3

---

2 also has a rslation of sUPEriority but the comparativE 81Gm~nt
herG is a Predicat u contrary to 1 W~E'r'E it is an adverbial COril-
Parative olGment.
Thus
thE rule he~c is
S ~D •
( Pr Ed • Comp.
Elem (
( NI')
+ ( Vp) ) ,+ ( ( NP)
) )
". 'VP)
#=5"
5
S
5
..:
5 5 #.
1
2
3
4
5
S • C.
1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
=:;:===:;:=~
2 + 1 .+ 4
3 has a superlativG valuo and Can, be: ExprEssed
with an adv-comp-"
eledJ as
well as with
prGd.comp.
Thus
WE havco
S.o.
.tadu. CQ~P.clem~.( (NP) + (V~ + ( (NP) + (VP) ) )
. Fred.comp.elem
<.
11 s
s
S
5
5 5 #=
1
2
3
4
5
5.C.
4 has a relation of equality.
The tYPG of rolation
is alwa~
'introduced by a
prEd.comp.
For this
tYPe: the rule is
.5'.0
(P,rc:d.·comp.t:lcm(
(NP)
+ «V)
+ (NP)))
+.«NP)
+ «l1)+(NP))
)
)
/f.s
S NP.·NP
V~
vPS
Sr'll: NP
vP
VP s S#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
5 • C• 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 :;:== == ~ 2 +. a k + 5 + 1 +. ( 4) .
The last Gxamplc with 5'-'.6
giVES
a relation of mannEr.
The cOmp-
Gloment is an advcorb
of mannEr.
The rule herE is
5,.0.
(adv. man.
camp.
e 1 'em ( (N P)
+ (V P) ) + « Np) + (V P) ) )
11= 5
S
5
5
5 S #
1
2
3
4
5.
S • C.
1 +
:2 + 3 + 4 + 5
:;:=:;:===~
2+,3+1+4

---

I
.( <.• .,..,,>, ~
SUBORDINATION AND ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
_._-------------
The relations of subordination between two sentences·
are of two differEnt tyPes.
Onc is
the tyPe of relation eXlst-
ing bEtween a rdative claUSE and the subject (~P of the m~tr.i X
The other one 15
the type of
relation
Existing betwGon a SEntence A and a Sent·ence. 8)
when
.8 mOdifies thE' main verb of A.
HerE WE are dealing with" the
latter type.
When a sEntoncc modifies
the main-verb of anotnEr
sente~28, it is said to be an adverbial clause.
Let Us now·analys~J the
process of genErating
. adverbial clauses.
Consider the
following sl?ntEnce~1 -
5•
1 •
dina
gana:r,.
bu
gana:r
YJ:mbac:
.......
jmar will
bUy
chick8n~ if chickens are cheaP.
2 •
') ma r
j G ~j n a
CJ a n a: 1r ,
a t t a :
ga n a : r
j a f ae
~mar has bought a chicken, although chickens
are costly
~mar has bought a chickEn, when chicke~s are cheaP.
4.·
:::·mar
j£!2.9ul
gana:r
D'Idax
musa:
"nowul.
jrnar has not bought a
chicken,
becausG musa:
has
not
com 0.
5.
~\\mar
JGndna
gana:r;
fJgir
nda3 w
bck
' - '
·:mar has bought a
chicken in order to please ndcc w.
'_..

---

The clausEs'.
1 ~ 1
bu
gana:r
y J:mbro:=
if chi'cke;;:.-; arC? chl::ap
' - '
2. 1
a0 a:. gana:r .' ja~rort=althou~h chickens arC! costly
:3 .1
bi
gana:r Y:J:mbao:
=
when chickens
arE cheaP
........
.......
ndax mUSa:
nOl,Jul
=
bGcausG musa~ ilas not cOme
:;:;
in order to plE8sG ndae w
,~
Cannot stand alone out of contoxt.
This is
to
prOVG that'they
I
are subordinated to thn rG~aining Part of th~ir resPGctivG
embeddinQ sentonces.
The underlying P.markers ~
surfacE structurE strings 1 -
5 shows
that the subordinated
strings 1.1
-
5.1
modify
the V of thE sentences
l,Jhc;rc t:lGY arE
A.
5 -
.
-
NP
' -
Pd. F·
-III
---~
.Aux.G
-----~'Vp
r
-------_.-. -----
VB
Adv. cl
-------/ -----
~- "'--
V
NP
Cmnj.sL'b-5
I
\\
I'~
I
I
I
\\
I
I
\\
NP
Pd. P
I
I
I
t
I
I
I
I
i
I
i
i
t
I j
/
I
I
. !.~d
."]mar
gan cl : r
bu gan8:r y:::mbac
jt>l~
'--

---

42B
,r I
•
.,
t j
.... ..:..T""" . .
I
.
8.
s
-------------
NP
~-Pd.P
I
VP
.
~
i
. VB
Adv.cl
/ / " \\
~~.
v
~JP
Conj.sub
S
I
/~
l
NP
Pd. P
j
1
I
atta:
gana:r
:fa fED
c.
NP
Pd.P·
I
~'.
I
1\\
I
i
I
)mar
LJ
jG~ul
gana:r
ndax
musa:'
nouul
' - '
•

---

re n.'""t.""fti""'W",,-. .sry!""""il' rptlllHl'''''.·
4.30
.~ ",
, ....
D.
.
S~
~-----
'.
NP
Pd.?
VP
.---------- '----------.
VB
Adv.cl
, /~
/'~,
V
NP
Conj.sub
5
1
/'~
1
' N P
VP
I
I
/\\
I,
I
u
j
r ....· :
:.)ffiar
jendul
gana:r
ndax
musa:
nowul
' - "
....... -
t .
NP
Pd. P
\\
~VP
__
VB
Adv. c 1
/~'
~'~'"
V
NP
Conj~sub
5
I
/~
r
NP
VP
/\\.
\\
I
\\
I
';
I
.Jmar
j-en dna
gana: r
i]gir
....-.
"'-'
.
Adv'Grbial clauses can.
optionally bG moved to the:
front of. thG s~ntGncG by advGrb-clause-movement-transformation.

---

..
The transformation would QGnerate the SGt ~f SGntEncO~J
1 a -
52,
cor H,~ P 0 n din 9 tot:1 0 set I - 5.
1 a.
bu
gana:r
y :;: mb E0
'"~m a r din a j Gml 9 a na : r
.......
........
if chickEns arc: chGaP,
Jmar wIll buy chick~n
2a.
atta: gana:r j-afEE J :mar jGndna gana:r
.~
.
".- .
although chickc:ns arE costly,
Jmar has
bought 2
chicken.
~a.
bi gana:r y~:mbm , ~mar je~~na gana:r
whEn chickens arG cheap, ]mar has
bought
a
chicken
b GC a uS G mu s a~ has not cO mCl, j ma r has not
bought chickEn.
5a.
~mar jandna gana:r
....~
in order to plGasG nda8 w,
j,ilar has bought a chickGn
--...
ThE trG0-diagram r of the surface structure string la shows
that the adv.clausG is, in fact,
a sUbordinatGd pr~position.
F.
s _______
AdV.c~
s
~" -------
Cainj.sub
5
NP ------ ----Pd. P
NP------
\\
----.Fd.P
--------.....
!~ux. G
,vr
I
i
I
1\\
/~B""
j \\
V
NP
"j
L\\
'\\
I
-
"
f
bu
gana:r
y"':j:mQCB: Jmar
dina
jc~
gana:r

---

1
:
.,.
.'( .J :1
ThE struc~ural
dGscrl~pion of an S embGdding Eirl adv. clauSE is
as f 0 110 LJS :
SoD.
(Conj.(NP) +
(
(VB) + (Conjosub)~
(s))
)
)
sub.
# S
NP
NP P.OP VB VB
cl
cl
Pd .p
s/l=
1 & 2
3
4
S.C.
is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
======> ·2 + 3 + 1 + 4
WhEn the P:markErs undErlying 1 -
5 undergo an adv.
clausG-
mOVEment transfdr"mation thE structural .changE is thEn as folloLJs:
SoC.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4
====,:,,'->
.
7
1 + 4 + 2 + 3
11 2.0.21
PASS1VIZAT10N
0
Passivization in English or French is knoLJn as the
process by LJhich thE NP object of a sentencE is pGrmittGd LJith
t~e NP subject LJithout adultGr~ting thG deep relation subject-
vcorb-obj ECt.
For Example 1 -' 2 are related by passi~ization, but not 3 .:. 4 •.
1.
ThE man is Painting the hcuse
2.
ThE house is being Painted by the man
4.
John bsats PetEr
3 and A are not related by passivization mainly
becaUSE of thE absencE of thE Particle 'by· before Petor and
thG SEquEnce 1 bE •••
En'
in LJhich beat should bE inserted.

---

~3B
Now let us
consider th e sentences 5 and 6 givEn bdow:
5.
I"
arbrc SI? ploie sO'JS
13 force du
VEnt (FrEnch)
ThE tree,bends under
the force
of the wind.
6.
Enfin,
le Paquet comm:mca El bouger sous la trartion
,
d'
une puissante machine (French)
At last,
the parcel started 'moving due to the
pull of a powerful m"chine.
It is obvious that 5 -
6 arc PassivE sentencES and
are respEctivdy releated to 5a;
6a.
5a.
la
forCE du VEnt ploiE 1 'arbre.
the forcc
of the wind bends the tree:.
,
6a.
la traction d
'unE puissants machine commen~~ '3
mouvoir
le Paquet en fin
,The: pull of a powerful machine started moving
thE parcel at last.
Ne:verthelEss thE~E is no occurre nce of 'be •••• en'
and
'bt'(or 'ctrc • • •
termin,lisOn
du particip~
Pass6
and
'Par').
;-
Our
First rGmc:rk
tJbcn "'i·s. that __ '.bG
•••
en'
and
I by I
are not obligatory in the syntax of a
PassivE sentonce "nd
what is mOrc relEvant in our analysis,
is that thEY nCtfd
not
haVE Equivalcnc 0 in othEr language:s.
ConsequEnU y
'bE ••. en'
and
'by'
arc not universal fEatures
of Passivi~ation.
Notice that-~E)insist upon this b8caus<:, 'bG ••.. En' and 'by' ,
implies nEcessarily an agont at
th8 syntactic lEVEl.

---

Since Passivi zation is 5'Jrface ph enomGnon,
thE 'occur-
nC8 of aQGnt may not be a uni~Ersal fact.
T~us, eVen if WG
I
could say that in English or French'the agQnt is oPtionally
d~lctable~ in Wolof the delation of uQcnt is a must and thGT3
could be no alternation.
ConsidEr the following sGntencGs 7 - 9
7 •
f) go:r
rat .~ nap a X b i
r-.f)gD~r has fillGd up the hol'G.
~~.~ ....
....
8.
wa r8:W mi faIn anu n go: r
~-
the citizons have elected ngo:r
..:-.
..-
9.
bant bi S):kkna ~~o:r
'----'
the splinter has drivGn .undGr the nail of rJQo;r
arc rEspectively agent ~n~ Ibant bi'instrumGnt
,
.
Evidently 7 - 9 arc .rcl3tEd to 10 - 12.
10.
pax
bi
fattuna
the hole has been filled up
11 •
t")go:r
faluna
rJQo:r is electEd
12.
IJgo:r
s:;:kkuna
'-./
rJQo:r has a splinter dr i VGn undGr his nail
..............
ThE NP obj Eets in 7 - 9 have bGcOmo NP subjGcts in
10 - ,12.

---

~J!
. The relation between 7 - 9 and 10 - .12 is traditionally
known as r@l@tion of eI'Q~tiv;Et.y..
But ergati\\iity i!l Firs.t of 011
a semantic notion.
Thus discarding it, we refer to the relation
existing betweEn 7 - 9 and 10 - 12 as a relation of pa8siviza-
tion,
since it reflects syntactic manifEstation, namely,
object becoming surface subject.
Now let us note that in 10 - 12 the agents cerlnot
have a syntactic manifestation.
The more adjustable transl8tion
of the English sentences 13 - 15 could be given only by means
of tcricalization as Ehown in 13a - 15 a •
13.
the holt! has been filled up by I)go:r
13a. fJgo:r m): fatt pax bi
=
It is Ogo: l' wlio
~-~.
--
14.
nga:r is elected by the citilens.
14a. wa re:w mi n): .fal rJgo:r = It is the ::itizens
P
' - - '
LJho
•.•••
fl
1 5 •
IJ Qo:r
has a 8 pI i(..t 8 run de r h5. s
na i I
1
15a. bant bi
s":::,:kk n.go:r = It is the ~pinter
<.
' - "
' - " , I
which .... ,
where
~Qo~r
and
wa re:w mi are still NP. subjects and
bant bi
instrument; on the other hand
PaX bi;
i)Qo:r
-
"Ogor.r
still
--
NP Objects respectively in 13a -
15a. as in 7 - 9.
,Thus in the Passive form of Wolof sentences there
"
is no agent.
We come now to the next point.
How ar e Pas si VB
sentenCGs generated in Wolof?

---

~36
,.~
- ":
' -
'\\.,
. 1 " .
V
SUPPose that the underlying P.marker of 7 is A
,
fattna
pax bi
filled up
the hole
'\\
If we want to generate 10 from 7, we have to apply a
raising· transformation.
This operation tJill bring (NP)
to the
next upper level and adjoin it to NP 1mar as right sister.
This willQEnerate the P.
marker 8.
B •
NP
NP
VP
,\\
, \\
' \\
I \\.
,
VB
\\
"I
\\.
\\
{
I \\
V
1\\
I
\\
I
\\
!
\\
/I
"\\
L - - \\
L-.---",
:;ma r
pax bi
fattna

---

In the next step we apply to B
the NP -deletion-
J
transformation, removing the NP ")mar
From the tree.
This opera-
tion will generate C as folluws~
C • I
___________ S -----------
NP
Pd.P
(\\
\\
VP
\\
i
,
j \\
VB
I \\
\\
V
L-J.
. /\\
. 1 - - - - '
pax bi
fattna
Then, we apply to C a transformation that WE will Cd ll u-Passi-
viz i n 9- f ran s f 0 ITn a t ion .
This wi 11 g e n 8 rat El the sur fa c e s tI' u C tu r e
string 7 and its P.marker 0
below:
D.
___________os _________
NP
Pd.P
I
VP
1\\
I
VB
I
\\
I
V
j\\"
U
L
\\
pax bi
fattuna
At the clos0 of our analysis we suggest that the
,
process of P8ssivization may be tJeinterpreted,
and distinctions
like weak-pa~sivE transformation and strong-passive transfor~a-
tion Can be introduced in the theory of syntax of natUU'a 1

---

J' '
' \\
'1'.1~: ~
languages~ strong-passiVE transformation would be a Passiviza-
tion where there is no trac;~ of door ~w 'se2n in lJolof.
WG can now formulate the rUle of strong-Passiv8-
transformation in Wolof by giving &n example:
? "
~go:r.
fattna
pax
bi
S.D.
(
(
N&~') + (
( V )
+
)
S
NP
~J P
Pd. P V V
NP
NP Pd.P S
1
+ 2
+
3
. s . C.
l' + 2 4-'3
=======;.'>
3 + 2 + u
NP- TIJ INN IN C- TR ANS F00 MA T ION.
, This transformation consists of changing a s'l':ntence
which h~s the structure A into a sen~Ence having t~8
StrcuturE-B.
A
=
NP
4-
v +
Prep\\' ~<.sociat>;>; <~inst-;3+
NP
1
2
B
::::
NP
4-
NP
+
V
4-
Case-affix
1
2
f~Sociativ8)) ; ~ .... inst., }
NGedlEss to s?y that a
farm having the structure 8
can be considered as dEri,.\\Jecl from A iF and only iF thE
structurl? A is recovr:rable.
For
8xamplo consider thE sentence 1 -
3
1 •
b"lirae na
ak
"'""
n ')x)r
IJgo~r has wrestled with n:);>;'~r
"---'

---

. -: ;~~,
2 •.
andna
ak
noae lJ
-
n -) IJ ~ yha s Q0 n e a Ion Cj - wit h n d i-1~J W
n ) g :>y
i s rn a r r i E d t 0 I) go: r
All thesE sentencES have the structure NP
+ V +
1
ak +
'NP 2 rcprBsGnted in the P.rnarker i~.A. qiven below:
A.A.
- - 5 -_ _ _
------
--
.
------
NP
Pd.P
I :
I
VP
IVB
,
----
V~
-
----
J
pp
r
I
~
I
\\
.-/'-
/
;
I Pr ep
!
I
I
8y applying transforma.tions
to thesG strings,
thEir
structures can be altered in such a
way that the 'Q~P, SJ and
thE [NP,
VP -1 aTE? twinned undeT,-one single node NP.
The transformC)ti§ns to be aPpliEd here are,
first
Chomsky-adjunction transformation.~ This operation will mOVe
the .pp backwards as right-sister of LNP, SJ and gEnerate the
P.marker~ 1a - 3a :

---

5
.J~P ...--.----
---------
.----------
Pd.P·
~
I
r~p
pp
\\JP
~--\\
--
I '
.
Pr ep
NP
VB
i
;
r'
V
\\
,
1
.1
i
f)go:r
ak
and
wrestle
2a.
___________ S
---~---
NP
. Pd. P
I
.
-----'
NP
~-pp
Ve
_ _ _ _ _ r
I
Pr ep
NP
VB
i
I
V
I
(
n~: gJY
~33W
~Q9.
n:! g::;y
and
naBS W
. go- tOget her
Pd.r
I
VP
l
VB
i
V
f")go::r
ak
1 ) . x::> .
' - -
fJgo:r
with
----..
hand
beat

---

mc rm "t''''§--SS-'[I'·t'iBNUft'''Uj·. . .f.M'Hm·''m'Q!!i1iJi!Ri
t .
:. ~ '{
.~ "'" \\ ...
Than ~G applY the tw~nning-affix additipn. transforma-
tion.
This operation will .affix the proper twinning particle
on the. IJsrb and QEner'ates 1b -
3c
:
1,b.
_.- s --------
-~_.-
NP
------Pd.P
.~
-------_.
.
~
NP
pp
V~'
\\
~~\\
VB
Prep
NP
\\
V
l
~
,
1
Vst
)
'-
~af
- i
,
J
I
I
fJgo:r
ak
b"er EB
al
' -
wrestlE
wi th
2b"
_________ S
NP
Pd .. ~
/
I
liP
~JP
pp
I
1
/./.
VB
I
{
PrEp
NP
V
]
i
:--;./ ~
r
. Vst
af
,
\\
.1
i
ndae w
a:n d
.
..........
al
' -
nda3 w
--
gO
with

---

3b.
--~
.----------
-----------
NP _____
Pd.F
-------
-.
l
NP
pp
VP
~-
/---
I
I
VB
PrGp
NP
\\
I
V
I
/I
I
/ /
~
I
Vst
I
,I
I
!
\\
\\
I
IJgo:r
ak
l-.")x ::
tOe"gg
Oil:
:---
........
I .
r:Jgo:r
wi th
hand
with
.'---"
Now, If WG apply a dEletion transformation in ord~r t~ remOve the
Prep ak, then,
thG transformations which introducG the A~xoC.,
and, the rGlevant morphophonemic transformations. ~G gen~latE
/
1c -
3c.
___ 5
1 Co
.---.--~-
'NP
Pd._ P
.~-
~~"
NP
Aux.C
vr
r
I
!
VB
,
j
\\
V
r
f
II'
1
I
.r.
f1go:r
b'e'r ae : 1
--
fJgo:r
wr Gst
. le-aoai
~
nat

---

,
J
,.
~:. ~,,,,, '\\
...
•
J.r
2c.
----.,
Pd.P
------- .
~.
-------- VP
Pux.G
I
I
l\\
VB
j 1\\lI
\\1
I 1\\.
f
\\
I
I_J
a:ndal
nda: w
lay
----
QO- wi t h
ShE
(bGto)
noae w
- - '
3c.
_~ S -__________..
. NP
.
.
----
-------
NP
NP
-------
Aux.G
-----
Pd.P
----_..•-
~
.
VP
\\
i
i
,
VB
I
I
I
I,
/
II
"\\
!
j
I
!
I
I
V
\\
-I
I
I
. \\
I
I
I,
i
I I
f
I
I
j
I
I
,
!
l
l:"x~)
lay
l"]Qf! a'
'-'
noo:r·
hand
he(beto)
,_~~... ._~
But consido:' !~.
b eya'~_ .
QQo:r
cultivates
for ~~x~r.

---

i
•
, "~-) .
_
' J
Notice that 4 is ambiguous in the
senSE that i t could
mean 090:1' cultivates
with n~x~r ~alo~ wi'th).
But let us
-
discard
this intGrpr~tation.
So, we notice that 4 has t~E structure NP, ~ NP
+ V
2
+ al
In this
sGntencc: WG cannot I cccver the structur~'~{",I
NP,
+ V + 3 k + f~ P 2
•
On thE 0 the I'
ha n ~if (Jlh as t h 8 mGani n 9 I) go: r
c tJ :. t i vat 8 s
with n::;X'..lr,
then the structura NP, + V + ak + NP2 is l~covGrable.
tJhE~' 4 means Qgo:r cultivatGs for 'nJx:Jr the structure
' -
NP1
+ V + ak + NP
is not rc=coVErablG bEcause NP
has
the
2
2
fea tur e «da ti VE » •
Thus,
a structurE' NP
+ NP
+ V -I- CasE 15 not
1
2
necsssarily r~Glated to a str~ctLE E'
NP,
+ V + ak +' NP 2
iI.2.0.23
ELLI PTICAL S ENTOJCES
Elliptical sent5nc8s
aI'S
sentenc88 whicr at the
syntactic level arE constituted only by the residuo of an
ori~ir.3~ sentence whEre one or more major catego~ies have
b 8 en
d 21 et e d •
Th u5
El 11 i pt i Ca 1
S en t: en CG S
can not but b e
accol'ilted for
surface:: phenomena.
Consider thE' utterances given below and let us
agree to rofdr to them as sentences.
1.
Bu: r
King
!I!llW4AiFt:Cb/ibi zmCD: 5 _ D.••.

---

·' .
.- ~
2.
OBe m
to go
3.
ni ICBm
likE: honey
4..
wa:ntae
jikk") ja
~
but the: b:mpET.
5.
wa :w
Yes
In nrder to intr;rprot these sentences
WE h8ve: to
assume that the:Y are the rEsiduE?'.
of completE sentBncos,
1a.
bu:r
It is thG monarch w'ho called.
2a.
dnma
be"gg
drom
' . - '
I
want to go
3a.
s ) : lJ
ma:
rj gi
mCB 1
n i
i CB m.
thE curd is like: honey.
4a.
Jmar
ba:xna
wa:ntae
ji~J
ja.
~'
)mar is nicE but his t omper
( is' not 9 00 d) •
5a.
wa:w '.)rnar
ba:xna
Yes.
=.)mar is nice.
1 a , 2a, 3a, 5a
Can be tho anS@Grs of the conc~rn2d questions
like 1b, 2b, 3b and 5bw
Who call Ed 7

---

2b.
lan~ga
b~gg?
.....
' -
'
What do you want?
3b.
nakala
s) :w
mi
mcE 1 7
How is th'o curd?
5b.
~ax )mar
ba:xna ?
Is -:.mar
n iCl? ?
Thus 1 - 5 arc obviously obtain8d by way of tTdnsforma-
tion, as exemplified in the historical dErivatian of J:givGn bGlow:
A•
-.------Pd.P
----- \\
Aux.G
VP
-----
VB
-----Adv.cl
I
'-:..
v
Adv.Comp
S
,
.
"-/" ----
I
NP
Pd. p
I
\\
:l):w
mi
a fig i
mCD l
n i l ffi m
[;1 aD 1
'-'
curd
ths
is
is
Iik G
honey
is

---

8
______-. s "-~
.-------
.~
NP
Pd.P
/ / "-\\
/
'-..~
N
T
Aux.G
~p
~ .............-..............
I
. /
. V .
I
Adv.Cl.
/'
I
\\
~- --------
i
j
~
'-,
l
Adv.Comp.
~
i
i
\\
I
I
f
I
I
I~P
I
I
I
j
,
!
.,
S): lJ
mi
ang i
m33 1
ni
lee m
'--'
curd
the
is.
is
lik e
honGY
c
s
,U.dv.Cl
~.. ~
Adv.Comp.
S
\\
NP
I
ni
l;:l? m
iike

---

.~
.r.-
.;'f .
*
-~~-
*
PART 111
~-
*
~~
*
~t
*
PHmWLOGY
~;.
*
~f-
**

---

.:; '.
\\
'C
"'C
*
"
*
;<-
II 1. i
CHA PTER
E
-.,"
*
*
*
Pi :o;.J OL OCI CAL
S VS TEr~
*
-i~
*
.,:-
,'jo

---

Phonological Syst~m:
The fact that we start ou~ analysis with vOwels
is merely strategic.
Vowels'arc numerically lesser than
consonants, and,
to soml:' extEnt, lend thEmselvEs'morc easily
to a description.
The classification of vowels will be basGd~ On the
one hAnd,.on a criterion of apertu~c," on the other hand, on
the: pOsition of the lips ~nd the shape of buccal .cavity as
divided by the tonguo.
lJG'
will also mE'lke use: of a physical
featurG,' narrGly, quant"ity (or duration)."
Compare the morphemes of the following set:
tis
'1'
to spies h
t i:5
=
moral pain
tus
=
nothing
tu:s
=
tc play the drums for the
wrEstlGr's making ready.
tas
=
to sCatter
ta:s
:;:
flattering, short and rhythmical
prose: said by I trouvcre'
in
ceremonies of joyfulnc:ss and>
dance:.

---

, ,
~51l
:.. '.~
,
; I
.~ .. ' }
,
~
.
It is obvious 't hat the: moa ninQs of t h8s e words diffc:I'
o n 1 y
b e: c a us G 0 f
t h [: ',J 0 w(? 1 s
:"
u: , a and a: •
Discarding acoustic fc:atuI'C:s,
wc: can OppOS8 i, i:
on
the onG hand, and u, u: on th::: othor :-:and as front vO\\o1Gls and
back vowc:ls rGsP8ctively.
MGrGoveI' WE:' can oppose: the: group i, i:',
u, u: to the group a, a: as high VOWEls and low VOWEls r~pGctively.
The pairs i/i:; u /
u:
; a /
a: also,show an in~Ernai
opposition laying on a critErion of duration.
Thc:sGt i, u, a
is
formc:d by short 'volJc:ls, l<Jherc:as 1:, u:, a: arc: long vowels.
This could bE pointed ou~ throu~ thE' diagr~m-I.
Oi a gI' a m- I
_v ..-___
----- ._------....~--~....------.
hi9h
loL.i
-..........~
/
-----..
ont
back
\\
i
.............
.
I
.............
../
\\\\l
I
. ' .
"~
short
long
short
long
... short
I
long
'j
i
I
I
r
I
!
i
i:
u
u:
a
a:
Now consider the: se:t give:n be:low:
wi :r
=
canvas
WE?: I'
to lay something against something
wee : I'
to stretch somGthing in order to
dry it.
wa:r
to lc:cturG'; to sGrmonizo.

---

, '
HGrG again-, thL' differcncGs of meaning is to be ascribed
to thr:' variation Of" vowels.
All of thEm arE' front vowels: but
, . . ,
.
for a: •
We havE already· SGen a differencE betwEen i~ and a:
Y"ct it SEems that if WE:r and woo:1' are opposed to wi:r and LJa:r
'it means that therG exists another range or anoth~r ~~ature
aPart from high and lo'w to distinguish we:r and wC£' a
from wi:r
and wa:r.
Actually if WE' pay some ottc:ntion to thE? mO VGIIl(3nt of
thE tongue,
while making an articulated reading of the s~t in
the order given abovE,
Wc noticE a
progressive dQwnw8~d ~otion
of thE tongue each phase corresponding to the vouel ws are
uttering.
It can be noticod then that WE:r is clos~£ to wi:r
than to wa:r as far the feature of aperture is cOnc~rn?d.
On
the contr2ry w.:::e:r -is closer to wa:r than to wi:r in the: Same
consideration.
We can now say that we:r is high-mic and w~:1'
is IOu-mid.
This IGads us to cOmplete our previous classifica-
tion as describdd bElow:
Vowels may be high or high-mid, low Or lo~~mi~.
Consequently wc have to improve th~ abOVe diagram as in the
di agr am- I 1.
----
V---____
-.------~.-----
-~-~
H
L _
~ ---...,~-
~. ---------
h
h-mid
1
l.mid
/
\\
.....
/ . /
. / / "
.....---...
, / "
"-
sh
Ig.
sh
19
sh
Ig
sh
----1£.1
/ ' \\
/"'\\
/ \\ '
,/\\
. / ' \\
, / \\
/.----",
/'\\,
F
B
r
8
F
8
r
8
F
B
F
8
F
B
F
B
\\
\\
\\
j
\\
I
I
I
I
I
I
j
I
i
j
i
,
i
!
I
!
i
u
i:
u :
-,
E
0
0: 0:
Vi
,0
yJ
Ji
."E
aJ:
-', ..
I
-- .

---

Yet compare the next set.
wer
::::;
r EC cv Er y o~ one l s heal t h
..
:::
IJer
to go around
wa= r
:::
worm
vOwel units.
We haVE listed ~ as<.,high-mid :'" short + Fr.Jnt';::P
vOt,jd,)Elnd 2E' as <.,.low-mid +·short + front
';I)
VOWGl.
This r:-,cA ns
that "E· hElS at lGast onc fGaturG which distinguishGs it: ft":Jm 0
and ae
Actu.cJJ.lY
whcn WE?
pronunce t,jGT, w'cr,
UEEr, WO notictO'
that for wh'r thE tongue is at a mC?dial position betwJEn the
.
r
pOsiti~:n of WGr and t,ja::' r.
Morcuver the tongue retro~ad~s
.
(
slightly but· sufficiently to make sensitivE thG loosEness of the
cOntact of thE aPex against the: lowEr toeth.
Th~ samG rC?trogra-
datiQn could be noticGd for El and a: (though we did not mentiun
it:, . Thus comparGd to t,jGr and waer on thG basis of aPGrtur.c:,
·w·lir s_hows thE existence of a medial apcrtUTI'e vowel.
On thE
other hand, ~ OpPOSES ·itself to a in thE sGnsc: that
a
is low
apc:rturc: vowel but, it sharES t,jith
a
its positicn of rathor
cGntra l
vowEl, if WG take-Central as opposed to front and bad< •.
WC
.
MorcovGr, if
considEr thG set
1
i :
8
G·
a::;
cB
.,e a a: on the onG hand, and the set ·u u: 0 0:
on the othEr hand, Wc can Gas·i 1y notice that the 11 ps ar E2
·un~oundGd during .the a~ticulation of the first SGt of vowGls
but have a roundEd shaPG during the articulation of second SGt.
Thus vowEls arE also divided into unrounded vowels ~nd roundEd
VD wEls,

---

'/
"
I
- ThE above sub-classifications Can be ?ummariZGd in thG
following Chart-A
~
,----
I Place of articula~ion
I
-
i
i
1---------+----
-~---j_.------'- __ T_~_"-T ~
i
I
!
ApcrtuT e I Fr ant
Centrel ! Beck
i
,
i
;
I
-+--~-
-~---I-
I
-'-l-~-'----~-----
i
I
I
i
i
iI
I u
i -
j
IV
H
------1
0-____ _
1
High
1---------
I
l":
i:
1+
d
o
I
I
J
u
--I~--
I W
G
---~~--I~--- ---I 0
!
I
h-mid
1---
---r-------i--!
r
I E I H I
I
E:
I
I
0:
'l+ J a
] L
r-~~~-t---~d--~---i - I t.
I, rLI
·-f1
<JO!
I
1
! ! I_~.-mid
0
I ~~-t-c-_l~:~=-~:~~~_I 0
i
~
W
I
I
i-!
I
n
- II
low
1-
i
a:
-r--------,--:---!
I
,
I
:
;
I :
'c _._~----.i
- - j - - - - - - - - - - ---~ - - - - - - - - ---t-- ~----~----
I
+
J
,
,
Round~ss
of lips.
- - - - - - - - - -
The
following is the distributional Pattern of thE vowels:
In.itial
Mcd ial
Final
i
- - - - )
ni t
ji
to bring
to sow

---

.~ 5S"
~.
~
. -,
. ')
.
.
'.• I
.
i:
--..:; \\ n i : t
----::-\\
f' •
)
1
to focaliz G
h81' 00
,light
e
- - - )
lwc r:
("
.=-,
tG:rc::
to l' ceo\\k1' onE t 5
h c a1 th
bo G!<
[' :
--7 LWE;r
----r----l
le:
_...... -
,
to lay somE-
that (dEmons-
thing aga.inst
-:"rativ",)
° •
_ _ .::';1
o °
8
ow
b°cir
t~
to s ti te,h In
to ,b1' oClk
unqovE.L'nablc:
a leathQr
(of class['s)
a3 '
--.::,
ffiksi
n a.J n
t er: r.;:s
to a1' r i vc
ogg
to forbid
(h or G)
.
re
- - - )
~ :a9
taJ :r
rm 0
. ~. - ,~ I
to
arrivG
to sto p moving
to 1augh
( t h C:1' c)
a
---> at
fat
d a1: a
yoa r
to place into
nothing
a :
~ -:--'l
a:t
f-a: t
xana:
,
adu 1 t. pG rs On
to kill
PQrhaps
not eircumci-
SGd;
u
--~
ut
tur
S.)lu
,I
to S G cik
name
to dress
onGsEl f
,
u:
- --/ l-r.dm
ku:r
r u:
Co~b]. er
b QGtl G
Soul
0
-)
0t.~~ 1 i
boli
ndimo
' - -
to lya\\Jn
thr cat
mat2rial
(of clot h)

---

456
'I;
. \\ ...
m:
---~
o:m
do;m
s c:ddo:
'--'
ashr
tLl share
j
--->
to put a dis? D~
a kinJ of fqJit'
El
trivc:t for
reducing the hEat
to be reduCGd
fi (;ld
cause to spoak
(of body)
The syntagmatic occurrsnCG of these vowd.a Can be prEscl1 tGd
I
in Ch;:Jrt-8:
Chart-8:
1-'
.....
I~_~ distribution ;
.~-~~~_ -~'nitia_~
Me~~~~ Fina~l
..-
__l!r
. -
,
1 , 1
i
.
+
i
" +
I '
'+
I
-"~-~~'+I-
+
+
~---~.. ·-'1
I
l .
'
[
I
1--
I
-r-'-~- J
I
(3
. .
I'
+
I-~:~-
.
E .
,l----,-~--
I
+
!
+ -~--~_.,
+
I '
+
I + r---+--l
1-
EE
I
+
I"'-~--+-.>+~ + _~ +1
i--
~I!
--I
++
1.
8
1 +
' + j
r'~-:- . '.
1--
+
+
~--l
I·--~--~-·I +
+
T
+ ' !
.. --.~
-.-~.--+-~-- -··1
._---~..:_~. +
+
~-~~.._..1
o
, +
+ !
+
I
~-
t---
i
'1"- _._.._. -..__.-[
0 : '
j
+ ' !
+
-
+
I
!----;-----t·---;-·--t-
+
---'--j-.-··---~---·I
i ...,- ].-.---r-- +
j
+
__ ..+._. ~.._~__.n. i
t . ·
l
i
t
i.._ ._-----_ _,1._._:
_~
~__~~._

---

This analysis has permitted us to SEE that, ovory
vowel is distinQuishablc froffi the olwers by some f~aturG that
0pPOS~B, it to other vowels.
In the mEan~ime, we SGC alsO that
I
a vowel Can be related to some others because of 5 0 mG f6~turcs'
it shares with them.
For example j{j and juj sharG tha feature
of high aperture: but ar'e opposod by feature sueh as p13c~ and
Organ of articulation.
Thus it aPPears that a phonological descrkption has
to assi~n to each and every phoneme 'the fcat~rEs that enable it
to enter one,or the othEr group of phoncmas, and als~ differcn-
ciate it from othGr phonemes.
In order to fulfill
this :l.'(>quir'cmcnt WC can give the
description bolow:
i
i:
e
c:
- I
!+
V
-I:i~
I
l
V
f j + V
!~+ V
+ V
I +V
'I
I
I
1
1+
Front
i +
Front J + Front I1 + Front
1
I+ ~lcd i81
ii
I
f
+ Central
I + high
1:,'+ high
! + ~~~h'll + high.mid '
I + Short
I1 +
l,ong
)
+ short j
+ long
+ short
! -' rOund
j' - round
round
round
l' au nd
I + (~_) C I1%-
,c !1I-_.i: W-
+#(_J C
~-
t
~I__
- '
33:
a
a .
.
u
I"
,
:
I + V
-I!ill~ \\I
-'11, I'~ v i i + V
+ V
i
,
I
I J
, i
I
,- Front
Ji + F~ontl
+ Ccntr~~ + CGntral
+ Back
+ low.midl+ lou.m,i J
+ high
l + Ip.,w
!l + low
fi
i
.
I',
I
+ Short
!I + long I' I + Short"
+ long
+ Short
I
'iI
I !
1
I;
,
I
J I
I - round
!j - r 0 un df I - r ou nd .t
round
+ round
L+ (1/ _~):; + (/I C); + (/I C~ +C~/..__C)
.-C i_
1 -
I L-;
--'
-J

---

LJ :
o
0:
~:
, i
i r+- v
I +
r;
\\j-
I
V
1+ V
-I
I,; + Back
1+ Back
I~-
I I+ Back
,
j
I
Back
'
i
i
+ h.ijgh
1+ high-fi1{d
hi gh- mic!
+ low-mid
1+
!+ 1 Du-mi d 'r
I
i
i
+ long
I + short
+ long
i + ,) 10119
I
+ short
I
,
.
+
+ I' ound
+
:r
rouI'l<l
OU~d I + rouod
I •
I,
+ round
+ (#_).Cl i + (1I__J.c
,)+ (#_Jc
+( 11 _) c
_ l ; . -
---..;
With these informations
WC
can give Q phon~tic
rePrcsc;,tation of El~Y lJJ I'd, S2Y,' fa:~~a:: likV,' if et this sr..Jgc-
WC
arQ'alloLJGd to rc:prGs'cnt
consonElnts~ simply by + C.
Thus
for
f El : 'Lt CD 1 i k u wc would havG:
f
'8
t
t
aJ
1
i
k
u
( + C ) ( r-
'1...,..
V
-) (+ C)
(+ C) ( + V
) ( + C) ( + V
) (±c).(+V
)
!
!
c(jntrEl~
1-
-,
Front
it
I
i-
i
I
1+
Fron oil
1\\+B 8 ck
,
+
I
1
I
,
(
! + Low
I
)+
I
Low-,
~i
1+ hiQh
J+h iw.h
I
i
-I
I
mid
:,
I
i
j
j
round
I -
I
I
( +r ound
!
round
,
rourd
!
I
, + Short
I
!
I:
I
!
I
I
i
s hnrt I
/+short J
j + long
I
l_
_.'
'-.,
)
III.1.E.8.Consonants:
,----... --
_-~
Consider the following sets of words
A and 8
A)
PEl I'
-.
partnC2I'
b8r
==
br i~f
mar
....
thirsty
mpElr
:--"--;
varilOty of 'horse
I
i
'-'
mbar
==
sh~ath
.....
tar
==
On!Jm8 tOPEia of a slaP

---

It i~ obvi~us that but for thoir initial c~nson3nts
all those wOrds in the set A ar~ identical.
That is to saY
that their differences of moaning arc to be ascribed t~
thoir rEspective initial consonants.
It moans th2t oach

---

~60
(
~f th~sG initial consonants bears a distinctivE fGaturo,
onc at lcast,
that ~PPDSGS it to thE other consonants of tho
initial CQns~nant
set.
Muta~is mutandis the Samo oxplanations
hold gQ~d far the set G.
On the ofher hand,
considor the Pairs given below:
n'd'p
=
. putrid
n"opp
to covcr GntirGly with a
---
piace of clo"th
to drill
na:c
Sun
na:cc
=
'to blcGd
' - '
SOak
gr a vcy ilrd
S'ckk
t~ fill up a hole ma~2 on
~
tho ground
Here. als~, if wc apply the samG prDcess of invostigatian
wc 'haVe' t~ conclude thiJt P and ~ arc two SEparate? consonants,
I i k GW is G tan d tt, e and c ~ ,. k and k k a1 s 0 con s tit u t c: pair s
'..,.;'
-
"-"
Of scparafG' ph~nE"mes.
Yet consider the following pairs:
a:PP
=::
del ay;
0 x t en s ion
c f
t i mL.
----'
a:bb
=::
to bar row
...
~
XB"t t
=
"-'"
~ I,
tD COVGr a ~oof; brca~fast,
,.
xc"~
=
spec. during ramzan
mba:cc
=
thr oshing
~'
mba: j-j
bl8nkot
' - -
'~

---

s'ukk
=
to fill
up a ho18 madG en
'--'"
the ground
s·cgg
=
tCJ bend onoself
"--"
x a: 1
=
wator-mGlon
"'-
(a :11
=
to make a way
"-'"
go·m
=
bcliGVG
g·cf!1~
=
cl :JS c: oyos
gOon
"='
bcttGr
g"dnn
=
mortar
"--"
lJ:)n
::;:
to squeeze:
...........
w~nn
to
.....,../
=
count
tax
;::
to Caus 0
taxx
=
stainod
'--'
ThE sams type' of analys is
uould lc:ad us t:o thE
cDnclusi~n that p'and b ar~ sOParate phcncmos and, ~imilarly
t
versus d, C VGrsus
j; k
versus g ;xx vcrsus
x; m
_
......-
- '
......
n
ver sus ~; n VG r s us ~;
1 versus 11 @re all separate
'--'
phonemGs 0
This
onablos us
to give the following list B.a
constituting the sot of consCJnants:
ConsOilantS:
B. a.
p
b
,!
m
m p
~;..'
mb
'-.-

---

t
n
nt
-.....
nd
'-'
c
j
,..
n
ne
k
9
fl
Q~
9~
x
~
f
s
r
1
y
1...1
11
'-"
mm
-nn-.-/

---

•
~
nn
-----'
Xx
"--'
pp
'-'"
bb
~
tt
........
\\
e!
0-
Jj
..........
kk
..........
gg
' - '
According to their articulatJry modos, these conS8na nts
can bo di~idcd into two main sub-groups, viz. onc subgroup that
includes all the consonants during the rGalizati~n of which,
there: is a tl?mp:Jrary comp18tc closure at some p8int of the
buccal channel; a second subgroup including all tho consonants
during the ro~tiiation of which, th2rc is obstructicn in the
buccal channel, YGt the strGam of air can find its Way and is
at no timo intcfruptsd.
The first subgroup constitutGs the
group of occlusivcs, the other one, the group of frlcativcs.
They aL'l? respectively given in lists 81
:- 82.
B • 1
OCCLUSIVES:
p
b
m
mb

---

t,
d
n
nt
nd
~
c
j
ne
k
Q
')Q
~
xx
[]X
mm
~
nn
nn
~
pp
, ~
bb
'--"
tt
~
dd
kk
Qg
' - '
cc
~

---

, ,
8.2
FR IC/HIVES:
f
s
r
1
y
w
x
For sOme Clcclusives,
part of the air-strr·.am is
ehannclized through the nasal Ca vi ty and thc
romain...i.ng part
through thG buceCll ehanncl.
On the contrary,
fClr
SOme others,
the total amount of air goes
through the buccal channel.
Ti,is i3rticulatory phenomenon
creates a division of Clcd.usivc;s
into tuo subgroups.
The first
onc; includes
the occlusives
for
which wc need to set thE nasal cal1ity to
work.
These
occlusives arc callcd nasal ocelusives.
The sceon~ subgroup
compriscs the remaining ocelusi vcs
called oral oeclusivcs.
The first
oncs arc listed in 8.7-a and
the sEcond oncs in 8.2-a
g i tlen
t, d Cl w:
8.1-a.
Nasal Oeclusives
m
mb

---

~66 .
n
nt
nd
.~.
ri
MC
' - - "
mm
........,
Mn
........
nn
'"--'
8.2-a
,p
b
t
d
c
j
k
9
xx
'-----
pp
'-
bb
tt

---

dd
'--
gg
Now, rcconsidGr the set 8.~Rncthcr distincti~n
could bc made among consonants, based on whEther thG voc~l
.c 0 I"" d s arc s d
to WO r k 0 r not.
Th G ph 0 n cm (s d u r i n9 t. h 2
utterance of which WG can notice a vibration of vocal cords
arc said t~ be voiced;
wh~rcas thG others arc labcl~d unvoiccd.
I
The feature :Jf voice is not Peculiar t~ tile conso-
nants.
Vowels also 8rc tc be given tho fGaturO voiced.
Nevertholess, ue note that it is not a distinctive feature
C~ming back to ccnsOnants, wc say that vOlced
conSDnants
arc thoSG of the set 8a.1
; and vOiceloss
conso-
nants ,include th~sG of the set 8a.2 gj\\'E'n below:
8.a-1 :
b
m
mb
"-"
d.
n
nd
~
j

---

9
r
1
y
w
11
nn
'--'
nn
~.
bb
~ .
99
j j
-'
8a.2
Voicelsss 'Consonant~
mp
'--'
t
nt
~
c
-ne
k

---

x
x ~(
nx
f
s
tt
kk
·~,--I
cc
'-"
S 0 mc con s cm ant s r G9u ire t h [ us G 0 f t h G 1 i Vi •
For
this rGaSJn they arc labolGG labial.
This group includes
consonants of thG list 8a.3 bc18W:
8a.3
,Labiality of c~nsohants
- ~ - _...
-
p
b
m
mp
f
w
bb
--"
mm
nn

---

Consonants prGsent differGnco and relati:Jnship also
with r~g:3rd to that part G~ -th~ -tongue wh5_ch constitut<;:,s the:
paint Of obstructi~n by its m:Jst closeness to spcc~fic zonc
o f t h G VD C a 1 t r a c to
Thu s f:J r
s ~1 mc con SOn ant s, t h i"s Par t 0 f
the: t:JrigUG is the dorsum (or cEntc;r);
for other consonants
i t is the: tip;
for s.ome others i t i s the blade;.
ThEse sub-
groups
arc rr.~rGsGnt(?d rdsp,r:ctivc1y in the SGts Ba.4-6 be:~ow:
Ba.4
Dorsal C:Jnsonants:
------._~
c
j
n
ne
Y
k
9
n
kk
-..->
nk
...:~
w
nn
x
xx

---

,.
.~
cc
' - '
Ba.5
1
t
d
n
nn
----
nt
~
rid
,~
s
lJG can also make a distincti:m as to
whothGr the
tip of tilG tonguo points downward
or upward.
ThG following
sots Ea.7-B will list thG consonants
of thoso group.
Ba.7
P
b
m

---

'~#l .
.
"! I ~
mm
,--
mp
f
e
j
, ' v
n
,-
,ne
' -
y
w
k
nn
9
n
x
gg
........
cc
..Jj'........
xx
'--'

---

·
~73
>/. - '
:i" f:}
t
d
n
nn
nt
'--'"
nd
'-11'--'
r
1
t t
dd
'-../
The distin: tivG fGaturc of a consofJant may be due to
the Dart of vOcal tract LJhich is set tci LJork.
F:'or GXClmple C and
k .a~c opposed by the fact that the formGr is produced in the
arC3 of the domej
whEreas thF lattGr is producGd in the vclum
ar oa.
The Parts that arE required according to the consonants
arc the following on8S: vGlum,
domo, alveolar
and/or toeth,
lips.
On this' base consonants .arE: sUbdividGd
as givG'n in fhe
sets 8a.9 - '14 belClLJ:
8a.9
Volar
k
9
n,

---

-..
O~
.~
x
xx
.../
lJ_k
IJ
kk
99
~ ,
8 a. 10
£'.a 1 cl..t?1-
e
j
n
-.:le
~
nj
. ,',-./
nn
~
y
ec
~
j j
'-'
Ba.11
AlyS_o_~~!_
s
r
1
11
~
Ba.12
Al vCD-d mtal
t
d
n

---

' j
j
~
nn
' - '
nt
nd
---
tt
Ba.13
Dontal
'.
f
B:: .1 4
p
b
m
mm
mp
._.
mb
~,
pp
bb
Now loot Us turn to thoo s d B.2.
For ·all but one fricativo,
the air-stroam he 5
oljly
ono way,
that is the tunnol,
SO
to speak, delimitod betuncn
the palate and the tongue.
For
the fricative that constitutes
thE exe8pti~n, the sD~alled tunncl Is blocked by the tip of
the to'lgue rais cd U02 idCi! 2gainst tho alvC'olar.
In this manner,
,
tho air-6trcam is diverted towards both latoral sides of the
mouth simultaneously.

---

.. , :
., :
Thus
the first
group of Consonants
listed in 8a.15
below is 2.abelcd medial, wh~reas ti,e singleton second group
8a.16 is labelcd lateral.
f
s
•
r
y
w
x
8 a.1 6
11
1
Still nn
the base. of articulatory phGnomena the set
Ba.15 can further
be divided into consonants
for
"Ihich thorG
a~e beatings of the tongue against ·the palate,
ancl thQse for
te'lich thcrrc aro no beatings.
The latter groop includes the
consonants given
in the Sot 8a.17· below.
The forl11er comprises·
those given in EJa.1B bcl(]w.
Ba .17
Med ial without b ca tin 9S •
f
s
Y
W
8 a. 18
Medial with bcatings.
x
r
·These statements
can be briefed
as undor in Chart-C:

---

CHAR T- C
- - .. -.- - - - - -" - - - -" - - -
- - - - - -. - - - - -i
Man,lcr
l
Plac. '0',- articulation'
i !
i
of
Nasa-
;----------------,-------.:.---------- 50noJ TGn-1
-
'
I
'
I
'
so i
articu- lity
:La-
IDGn- :AIVGo-'I ,UV Eo-i Pala-i VG"; irity i ncs5
lation
ibia l !tEll
identa+.:
lar
\\ tal
j lar 1
r
- - -- - - - - - -I' - - - ~ - -j- - -j - - -I - -, - I - - j' - -: - -:- - -
.
, I
"
I
.
~
i
O
!
I
I
~
~
."
' , b
r
' d
I
'
i
J
' g '1
I
-
i.. ---t-
:
-+-,
I
. . : - -- 1
i--"--'-1
I
j·---W~~
C
I
--L~~l-.--I_'J__.g --l_~-~J
c
L
I
u
I
+
1-
i
i-'
'~--.i
I
: - ' . - ,
i
I
I
~ l -+ Q9 !--~- , ~ --_. ,rJtL····..11
s·
I
-~ ':! r ' ''6s _+~~I I
I
. . j
I !
" 'CJ X j
I
'-----1--·-~
I
'-'--J:;)('II' ,. -;.
v
1
i
I
,
j
, -
I
E
-_i£l' I i u L~_j ~~~[
~._ ~
II . . .
. . . .
5
i
t-t: ;
ral
t- I P!
l c i ,k
j
I,
F
~---
--+--=-+--
"~f---'-t--l 7-·~-l..:
!
i R
Lilto
i
\\... --! ---T-·----l------:l·-t----..-i :.----!
i'~'---- i
i
t .
I
.
,
I,
j
I
III I
! '
i
+ ;
+ t
j
C
!-
I
I
........-
, " .
'
i I :~h~~~_~----i
,II~: i~~~~:~-~,~-~~-T~y iq=i!1=I"---c
I V [0
-----1. --'-l-~-i
:
tu
! I
-.,
~,I SE
i
-J
'
x!
I I
+~ Gat -
I
I
! !
: I
I
IA' Ing.
I
1---
i
i
I
-~--'--;--. ----:
i
I
' , '
!
I
:
I
I
I
IL
r
j
!
I
!
.
~ t
i
"
I
+;
.
--I j
T' l j 'I" i
i
[tip: 0
.
'-'
I '
i"
I 1 ~
"'~
Id i r GC -: R
I------~--~~l,'_-_l.--u_-_,
-:~~ .C?~. J G ,
I
I
l
.
t
I A
I
1
tlP:b1a-ltip!
Canter
Ipart! N I'
t
I do I
!
Jaf
I
J
I
~
:
!:
ltongue!
l
,---------~·i
·~--~--"l-l-I--"~~-~
!
I
+
1,
\\+1 - :1~bi8-i
!
: I
ill. t y :
:
~_--L.._
~ __ .
~~ .••.-_._-_.

---

''i'b
0
'1" ,
. ;)
The following is the dis tr ibuti onal
pattern of
Con sonants:
/
Initi",l
~1Gdi al
Final
p
-- ..:)
p)
nap
game
whose head skin is
over scnsitivG
b
--...,
b"o't
abel l
oYG
to lend
m
---;>
mar
xamadi
lam
to lick
impolite
bracGIGt
m p
---)
IlIpar
yumpa:n
s urnp
.......
.....
'-'
var i et Y of
unclG's
ui Fe
var icty of fruit
horse
mb
--~
mta: x
l'a : mba: t)J
'o'mb
--
~.
--"
~
gS8dncS3
to seck' wi th
Parcel
onc's hand
t
-- _....
tak I<
lJatatu
at
to faston
to mDVc onc-
YGar
scl F be ing
s oat cd on
onG's
back
sid 0
d
- -..;>
daw
rc'):c!u
...
\\
run
.',
n
- - ""':''>
nit
wanak
ban
person
backyard
argil
. • t.
nt
-- -')
l i :"tir.ltu
3a nt
........
al phab et
Fami 1 y namo

---

Init ial
MnJiai
Final
- , - - - -
- - " -
nd
'---'>
,
ndam
binduka:y
and
,,-,,"
' -
~'
succoss
any
tel ell
to
l i ttl c argil
pot us Gd far
writ Q with
burning incC'rj 3 e
c
- - - )
car
b EP : C)
nac,
small
small loin-l
to wedge
branch
cloth us cd as
underwGar by
ladies
f
--..>
,
,:tcf
nija:y
acti On
maternal uncl2
-
~'
n
- --'7
nay
ba ta'ns co
ban
-,
clGphant
brinjal
to rafusG
" -
n C
..L_~
dEJ) ~cuk a I y
, xanc,
'-'
a place! to
Filament ( frOm tr aG elr
k aep something
plant)
~
n'
,,j'
--~/
n ja Xas
manja :y
d-,;n}
~
' - '
'-
mixtu ra
nam Q, of par son ball
k
--->
k ili fOo
da:ka:nd33
a k
-.-'
authClr i ty
gum arabic
with
g
---)'-
go:r
sa: ga
man
to insult
11
--.:.;>
s°cillu
da~t!
-'
' - '
cal f
shoc
I)
--- -)
Ija:m
d a lJar
laiJ
jaw
venom
to go somcwhor2 and
stay thor e
for
ever

---

~ coo
'-
'-
-.. ,.
lnit}a 1
Mod ia 1
Final
----
I)k
- - - )
safJku
li]fJk
-
'-
-.../
ts be 1 Q:.3 ~,
to rofl.!so
I)g
---';>
f) ,J) rn
sar:Jgu
ta:r:J9
--
--
.~
family
name
to batho
hot
x
----)
xarn
baxa l
nax
•
to know
to boil
to cheat
IJx
-- ..,
safjX!ll
SaFlX
-
~.-
.::--
flsu r
s srn c t irn 0 8g o
f
-- -'>
fit
taofEl's
laf
cQuragG
b8ach
pan81
s
--~>
sa:
kcsit
tas
momGnt
rGsicJuc
to scattC':t
l'
--~/
raJ
garaP
l)r
to laugh
treC'
to harm
1
-- ~;
larn
,nac 1:>
x'): 1
brac81ct
cCllour
t'J look
y
-- -~
yar
tce ya: : f
s cy
to eoucate
dsn c on
pur-
to bo rnar r icd
pas 0-
( for ladies)
w
-"--""
wal
dawCll
s 1lJ w
to flow
to dri VD
thin
Pp
::lipPax
nG~
'--
,~
pr a \\;In
to CDVa! antir cly
with Cl
pi I2C 0 of 01 Cl t h
t t
-_. -7
. ~
fro :ttax
b"ct!
,~
to spr in 9
to drill

---

Initial
-----
r12dial
-_
Final
... -
--
• ebb
,ne ___
-:)
yo~bbu
-
take ElW8'/
hi de
- --'?
bicJdB:W
fod d
...../
star
lay dawn
---~
rlJccanti
rGCC
--' -
to makG somo-
ta escape
bc:c.Jy overcomo
a feeling of
shamo
j j
- --"/
sujjo:tu
"---'
"---'
to pr [;S tr at G
ta (sc8rify',
kk
- - - j
Sa:kkart
takk
' - -
-
---'
fence
tCl fasten
-_..:.,
"
J
tCl bG car~lEss to beat (for cg.Drums)
1
xx
··\\·~~·jet
--~
taxX
.. _....
'--"
---
to cough
s tainod
mm
---)
xn'mmaliku
'''-
.
to rccagnizo
to clOse JnG's GYc's
---'7
dEfnnu
to thundor
mortar
,. ..J ......
- - - )
W)~.
to run ba ck
to count
Making use of the abClve data wc Can prEdict tho distribution
of cach con5~nant as given in Chart-D.

---

,',
.
,
'. '
CHriR T-0
.- -- - ..
,
!
Distribution
i
Cans onants
t---I~iti~i-----i--~~;;i~i----J'----~i~~i:--J-'
- - - - - -- -,- - - - - - - - ~ - - - - -- - - - --
1
__ ! _
2'
_ _ _ 1_ _
3
J
.4.. _ ~
!
I
I
!
!
'
,
I
p
+
I
+
i
+
I
- - - - - - - - - - - - 1 -
I
+
--r------~-- --I
b
+
--t----~~
m
+
+
m--p-------+-------+-/--+---r
-+-
I
i~ ~--:~'1--:-J: .]
--~i :
I :
~. ~.
-----n
n t
'+
'---'
I
~
+
+
- -
c
i
----+-----:-----+-----+-+-- _ .~.. : -~~
I
~_·__,_--+I
+--
_+____
.~
I
n
1
+
+
+
- - - - - - - - - - - - - i l - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - t - - - - - - - I
nc
i
+
+
+
I--'-~-----+i
+
i_-_--~-_~-_--_+_-"_·_!
-!-
'+
j---- -k----ri-----+---+-----,----+-l
__ ~
I
+
i
g_ _
+
i - I
I
i
i
T
!
I
,
I Q !
+
+
!
, +
i
I
i
i - I
I
+
i_I) ~'------,,_L-~-L--_--.::--j
I
I
+
I !
i
Q Q
!
+
i
+
- - . _ - - - - - - -
!

---

483
~ ",
•.
. ;
f 1
CH~~R T·-D (CCJntd.)
- _ .....
1
2
3
4
_. - - -
,
,
-i
-j
!
x
+
+
i
+
I
... __ ... --- - _. -~ - .- -~~ _... ~-_._-- _.._~.__._~.. - -,.-~.,,~.
,
I
•
I
~~~--.-.. -- -
j
;
+
I
+
..-.J
f - - r
--'-'--"--'~""'------'-r- --.---..-~-...- ..-.-~--r-
.. -~-----.
-.----.----.
I
-i
.. _.---+-
. .__ .------.
s
i
+
i
+
!
or
,
'
i
( --.._- - ..------~~--_______r____---~-- -------~I - - - - - - -.------------+---. --- -_. ----
I
r
+
~
+
:
+
i -~_
---.----------------l----~-
_,_'_ _
.
.__
_
i
I. -.~-~-
I
- + !
~~ ~_._
+
__
I
I
I··----·~
.. I
..·- ---.+----~-.--J
+
--.:'.' ..
,
,
I
I
I
I.J
i
+ , '
+
1
!
. '
I
+
" - - - - - - - . - - - . - --7--
-~------------l--------
_
I
:
+
I
+
I
~?
I
,
I bb---~-·i--
.~-·---l-------+
I
- .-!
I.-.'::""'------.
.1..__
I
I
,
--+------ ---.~---.----t-~-._--...
i
tt
~
!
+
j
+
..---------------'-~-.
+-
I
....,
d d
I
+
i
+
!
.... - - ' - - ' - - ---.... ....j.--
I
~I
•
•
..
I
c:. C l !
+
j
+
I
"-
I
I'" J j----.-
------;-1---·--- --~;-~- --1--·----;--_:-..
.......
i
!-.- .._--'--
.-------T--.~.----.--.- ---1-. --.
I
+
~k;
+
,
,.- ~---------___r--- .....~-----------.-~----- ... .-------_..-..I---------~-.-
I
l":!
g
1
+
+
:
: . : J ,
l
I
! -- .-:::::.--- --.-.---t--- ---------------i-----------t-----.-
!~:<
!
-
+
i
+
I..
, -
!
I," ... -...-- ----------·--1--- -- --------------+- --.--..------- .. --.--." . --- ....
:
;
!
m m
.
.
, + ,
+
-- ,--~--_~ _ _______i._~_ _ .",,_..
~_L,
~__ .....o__~~
L.~ .. _. ~--~---'---.
•
_ _
I
•
•
n n !
;
+
.
+
.. _~
...'... i...
'
I
------
,..
-.-.-.--------~:
- ....----~---.--- -----r------·-------- .. · -..
....,
n n
+
....
1
+
~
+
+
j
..
I.
_
__
.
.. -
..--._----- ---
------------_
-._-._~----_-. .. ~- ..._- ~-- -_.-.
.~
.. --~
.... _.---._-----

---

,
. ,,.
1
:;t
the clo2e :Jf th:L:'i
on"1lysis
8f W,1lof phon:)logical
SYSttll:,
it appears that
the iJsl~f ph'Jn~!l~jC'ic31 systQFI c::Jmprises
fiftQen
vowels
sn~ f~rtY-QnG consonants.
"1 t
i s i n t c r ~: s tin ~ t [J not Q t Ita t .s a u va gf!.0 yh ~s 1 is t e.d
S itv fl.n t cz. ~ n c ~ n s J n Cl nt s Q n 1y •
T his is
dUe
t G t h ~ d e f Ii. et i VG':} (] t J
CO:cl~ctccl fr':Jln the informant, namEdy P.Sone- whom we cJo 11~t
b e> 1 i eve t G b c Cl n El t i v e. s Peo k er 0 f \\,Jo 1 0 f 1 a n g u El 9 (' •
III
F~ct,
t~c fElmily name> San~ is a-priori an indic~tor that th~
informant is mOst
pJ:lbab1y
frOm ,CElS3maJlCl
r(!~i~n 2nd could
I
The.. [l e ta(1.) collc;ctc?cl fror.; this
informant c::mtoins thG
followinQ
LJr:ln~ IJ..Jrds, wh::;sc correct
f~rms arc Qiutn Within brzkets:
oata-1 *
P
Pa:x
( P3 x)
. hole
t
t~ n
(tt: n )
well
k
buki
(.bukki)
hyena
d~
d?-ar
(cl~8:r)
PElSS
,
s
3amm
(sa :mm)
S h Gph er cl
t~
t~ElO
nr:cklacli?
Cl
buqi
st8r('
b
ba:x
o :J ::;el
.'
u
dc:mbE1
Tcstc:rday
9
~an
h:Js t
rn
ffiQ:m
c::: r 8 nrJ PElr ['lit
r'Qli";t-~~;rT0;- 'p-cfc'r',·'G;d c f 0 g;;;:flT;r-P"lCln G-tlc 5 l: u:1 r-;;-('tTc-sr~" '..0>.
;\\ Pr i c 2 n L a n ~ u as CS It S Q CD m.l GC: i t i :J n 1 960, p.
46 •

---

~85
,..,
- ,.' .
n
na:n
drink
..n a Cl
_naq
s ueat
fJ
1]8:1)
Open the mCluth
f
fas
hClrsc
1
l~m
bend
r
raxas
uash
s~ems
to eorrub~rate our suspicion.
In
fact the spectClgra~me fClr
uherQas in the specto~rammG for
'fireuood'
the final
con6on~nt
clcarly has
cxplDdcc:.
This is
not an accidental
phenomenCln
normally.
But IJhat is
inf'1resting is th"t the spect09rar,1me Clf
'bug'
eorresponcls rather to~ L)ord wh~'se meaning is c1ifferent
frorll
'bug'
viz.
mat = in labour
(for
the d::livcry Clf child).
Yet
what is no doubt more interesting
for
our
phDIlolClgie21 description is
that LAOEFOGEO S2YS
:
"in
initial
position ther~ ore contrasts whiel, arc phonetically p-b, t-d,
9-k- q (ur, diaphonically, X instead of q); in final
position
there ar~ the same number of si~ilar sounds, iJut none of them
arc \\f8ict~.
It is not difficult
tu make a phonemic statement
a-bout these d"ta;
ue nood r c·eognize only the phonl'mL'5
p b t
d
9 k q.
But the problem Clf· the phonetic.nature Clf the contrast
Then quoting ~3rd, h~ adds:
"Ward (1939a) stafos that
th" !'inal st"ps in IJCllof contr8st
in
If
'")
.
that some arc exploded,
whereas
othors
arc unrelease~.- .
1.
LaclefClC::GcJ (ibid.
P.
in behl~cn 42-43)
2 . "
ibid.
P.15.

---

486
Mote:Jvcr)
thoLJ(]h Ward d~(?s not spcocify whether till::
c~ntr2st he unQErlincs is ph8ncmic or subphonGmic, his statGm~nt
makGs us more confidGnt to clearly Establish the following
phonEmes:
bb
tt
c! cJ
j j
'-
kk
gg
xx
nn
nn
and
11
DistinctiVG' Fc=aturo composition of Phone.me)
lHAR T- E
VOWGls
j~i-!_~
:"'--- - - - -...- - -
i:
; G
: G:
: er; i c£; j u Iu: I 0 ; 0: i":l ; ";)~-- "·cT~- "i-~ ":-" -
r
!
.
l
:
I
I
I
:
.
~
:
I
-'1 .--I
1_ ..·; - - - - -
!
I; --+-~-~t~!I~--:--T- --;-r'- --r--"- ._,.
:
i
i
i
'
I
I
1
I
l.
I
I
1 Vocal re
i+ ; +
i + j + I + ; + : + i + ! + i +
j + ! + I +; + : +
"'--'--"'-~-------l.--+-L-r--H--·-:~~--- -~ --l-·_J..--t- _!--:...--....1- '--' •
e t '
.
t-
~
i
I
I
I
; !
I
!
I
I
i
i
.
..?~..~.~~..~~-=-- ..l.J
I
-.-t--: I :
1
!
)
i
!
:
_j._--L_._:. -..
P l
·
i
i
.
j
i, I
I
:
!
I
i , '
;
I
!
o grlty
!+ ! +
: + ; +
i""! + : + i + I + + ;.,.. l + : -
- : -
.. -. -.....- "---'~i·--t
i
I
I "~i----;-'T--r----t--t--T'---t-i-"
. High
1+
; + .
I -
i - ! - ,
J!
-
j -
' + : +, I -
i
'
1 -------.. - - -
j
j
t.-
'
- i '
\\
Ht--+-_..I. ---...J-..---,-- r
i ------+
l
I .
•
~
: :
I
I
r
!
~
;
I
:
I
:
I
J
:
I h 1 g h- rn 1 c'
i :
.' +
+
1 - I
I
:
I
+ : +
1 - . - :
!
.
!
I
l
I
:
;
:
I
'
. :
'~'
I
l
I
j M-- .. --..... ~l..
!
! -l---+-..; -i-- -'--r- --r-'- -. ;
'I:
!
,
i- I'
;
,
I oell a
, ' : : ! : , :
I
i l l
!
I
+! -- i -
:
I ---··------+--+--t--:----l~--r-------;--TII~-·T --- -:- --! -. ---.f'.----.. ,
I r~ Cl sal
j
i
i
'
i
I
! ,
i
I
~
'
1
:
;
I
- I
I
.
I
)
I
I ;
I
:_ I:_--L..-_......:.._.__
i
I
- - - - - - ... - - -
I
I .
:
I
'
- I
,
- :
---r
;
i
;
I Vf) ic~Gd
, :
I
i
I
"
l
!
!
I
;
I
-
~:
I
I
.
I
!
.
I---···------·i-·-~-..
i - "
.:--;.
I
~·--r---\\--····i
I h: ns en cS S
I -
I +
-,.,.
!
+ I
!
+ i
+
I - ; +;
~
- : +
;
I ---"-'--"-'---1----1--
--l.....-.-~"-.....2-.----i
I
1---. _
...:., ._ ..__ L
._.. ~
' "
I
I
.
I
"
J
'
;
) L 8 bia l i ty
i
i
:
j
i
I:
;
;
I
!
I
i
· [_.1__.... !
.--------.......--~~n· -'. ,-------f.-------r:-T---+.--t- I .
I
.:
I
I
~
I
I,'
,
i
I
j'
I
;
i
:
Roundn ess'
I -
I -
i
- i -
+ , + I
+ i +
. + , +'
:
.
!
I
i
I
, .
I
l '
I " ,
.
,
I.-.---------.-~-i...---.I-~
I
I
I
_L~--!-_.......l_·__ ! !
I
+-·-·-~-I
'
'
:
:
I
I ; '
I
I
'
,
I Prcnas8 l izccJ:
!
!
!
i
1
! :
I
i
I···· "'-'''. -,.--------.---~_L_.J..-_L'
I
'
- ~.---+i---!----:---;--.......~-
I .
..
;
1
;
:
l
!I.~.~~ratlon
I
i
! '
I
I
i
----l
~
-+---l-\\--+----+--+----r-..--'---
i Tip
:
I
,
il__~
-
.-_~..':._
_
--
----.------.-~-_ ..~
-_.-------------------~ ....... -_ .._..

---

CH",RT-F.
Qi_ s~_~_n.c. tj lJ.e_ . f" 3_t ur_e.._.c_a_mJJ~s_i_t_i_()_n__c:f. _.£.~,=,-n..e mes
Occl_u_,,~vJ,S
--------~--T--I-'-----~-
I
,
, b
~,~
1'- --
...... ~
-I ~
j .... ~ I ......
J
- . . . . .
-
' "
'.
-
\\ - - -
" " "
i ......
I ~,
-
I
===:= - - - - - - --. ~ --t--.- -1-'t .'t-1- -11
r --------/- .-r-,-i-- -'.---r 1~-T-. t- I
-
-
-
: Vac-lie: -
I ---"'---- .-..
--
!Canti- j - -
-
";;~:-;~i:~-T-~--:-:+I+---:'l:+t-:- ~)+ !~- ~-~.~-~~~- -~-.- -:. ~+~-I~-L--t=-t .=- =- _--i-~-t-t
r
!-Hi~-h-
-·f-· .----- ---1-,--,-~--
- - - f - -
---+-- --- -·---l·-Ir--' i---.-- --'---j-r-l'- .
1----- -mid'
...
- - - ..... l·-·-·j·--··-I·-· - --\\- ~r-t·'t-
I~l:f~}~ '-~---~~f---t ~--~--,- --~.~~ ~~~- f-~~-:~. • f-- ....•...'-·---:-1::~ --j -1-~--:-·-r---i':':'·
i.--
i_~_Q~~_CJ ~.~_T_ .+_ .~ _f-=- :tl-__ .T.: + ~:.. -=-__ ~.__ -=__~--=-_ 1-' + + + --'"+-~ -I+ + ,+ + + ~ - - - I+!+
I TEl ns
-r-
••
-
+
-
1+
I'c~-::~-~-~: -;-f-~-~
~- --t-:: ----~- --- - ---:- - -- --
-
I
'
T
+
I
I
i 'I '
i
l i ty
I. --- --..
.
-.-
I-~~~~a
i
liaeJ
I··
Vibra
tian
-----
r .
Tip
I + I + I + , - - ! -
,[-1-
1- _ ;
i
I
!
i
i
I
!
, I
! I '
i I
I
' . , .
'
, I ,
I
I
___ ~ __:__ ~ __ J__;__ .:~ __.__i_~_L_~ __'__ J
~ __ ~ __ ~_~ .J __I L_l __ l )
~
1
:
!
J
\\ ;
:
-_._-- .. _-------
._-------_._---

---

,-·-
1 -
Distinctive feature cocnpoai tion of Phonci"cs.
CHART-G _
Fricati Vcs
,---------------~-------------------------------------
---------
i
-
i
1--------- ---- --L--~--i-_:--:---~---~-~~--~--:---1--~- -~-_J-~-
Ivo_c_a_!~c__
-!-----;.---------i--=---T------~-·-~
-I--~-
·1
i--
I~o.~~~.u~~n~. ~_~_i-_.:_...+- + I +' L_: !_ + : + I__+'
I~ol__ari~_~____
I
+
! - ;
-
i - i
i
+
+
: noh
---+----t-i---r-----;--
-1---
- - -i -------- ------i
:5:~~~-- -tl~_~,t_--i._...~ -,~l~ri
III
•
•
1
!
t ,
, I
]
j
!~~.']S~.:__~-~_=---T~~~_.-Lr---t- ---.:-----~ -----1-- +- +-i
[
t-
- -- -_.,
~ __l--------l---_----;-------J----J- _ i
::~:':~-:~----+------~---~-' --:-.--I-~' -~---~---i-+ j -~-L:--i
~ t--~----t---+------T-----~
.
,-.
-- --:-- -
i
-j._ I
L .] IJld..!.l
'}
I
+ ,
!
I
,
I
I
I
!
... -. -----~ ---.-_.- ..__._-- -"-t-------;------:-·---+--·----·--~·----·--i-----t_·---i·---~
R
' I
-
I
' - "
o u nd n ss s
J
:
I
'
:
i
.
. ---- ---._----------_t_
!
;
~.----.------.
;--
... )
--- +..
.)
Prenusalizcd
I
i . :
I
:
---- - · - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - , · - - f - - + - ----
Vibr",t5..:..-;n
I
!
1
i
+
'
"'-"------ _.... '---1---'--------+---" '--"i' ---~-' ..._---t.-
···--t------.--f·
i
i '
Tip
+
- --- --- -- -- --- -- --..:.-- --- -_._-- -- ------ -'--'- ---- - ---'-- -- -- -'- --- - .

---

48B· "
1.
IJOcalic
2 •
Continuarr
3.
POla r it Y
.~.
4.
High
5.
Hi!.i?~mid
'6.
rled ~ a 1
7.
Nos~l
~
8,
Voice~
~/
~"
.'
g.
Tenseness
./'/
10.
La bialLt"y
7'''-
11 .
Round"~~
,~ "
,."
"
..
..--' .~
.... .....
~
.--'
"g -.
"'-...8
.--
--.._-
8·
.
"~-)
9
. 9
./
,
9
9
n
9
I
. ,
,
/ ...
, \\
, ;
/
.f
. "
,
:
,
10
10
" \\i
10
10
10
I
I
i
,
I
\\
!
i'l
,'1
I
..
", :
j
, ;
\\
l
/ !
i \\
.
I
". !
: I
I i
I
I
:'
~
!
.
i
J !
/ ,
!
)
}
'1
1
;'
\\
\\
!
I '
i
; l
I
i
!
12'
r \\
\\
I
f
I .
i
I
\\
J
I
1
I
i
!
)
I
i
I
I
f
I
: j
I
i
i
I
,
}
i
"~
J
\\
14
14
"
\\
1.3
\\
14
1'4-
1lt
!
1)
14 14
,
14
I
l
1\\
/ '
/\\
1\\
1\\
.;/\\ ./\\
!
c
./\\.
\\
t cc tt j
d j~ dd 11C nt n n
/\\ \\
,"
i
;
I
""-
n' nd
,
fin nn k p kk xx
-
..l-
1g.
- -
Prenasalized
- -
~p 9 h 'JtJ bb I)k
- -
1 3 • Vibration
- -
;;.J
-
--
~ mp l) IJ
- ...
14. Tip

---

.','\\.
1 +
--'- - ,.' .- - ,,:2.
'"
...
...:
3
!
,
\\
\\,',
5
. \\\\
{
/\\
I
I
. I
,
\\,
,I
/
!
\\
I
\\
{
I !'
\\
,/'
,
8
8
I
"
.' .
I
i
,. ,
!
/
I
"
/
9
I(
(
9
,
9
9
;
,h
i
,
!
.
:l
n
I
I
I
' .
/
10
1\\\\
I
"
f
\\
J
!
•
\\
,
I
\\
, r'
; \\
1 1
1'1
i
I
i\\
- I
fj
;
i
I
t
/
i~
I
, )
,
, I
I
,
\\
iI
I,
,
\\
I
(
,
.\\
i
i
I
'
J
1
)3
I
r
~
\\
i
I
I
. /
\\
J
;
/
I
!
!
t
I
I
!
!
I
J
!
\\
I
Ib mm
r
11
x
r, w
-......., s
a
a :
Q6 : ..~:»: .

---

*.
'*'
I I 1. 2
CHA P TER
F
*'
*
*'.~,
..
. .
~
, !

---

,,,
III.2.F.
PHONOLoCICAL RULES
which its
ph~nGmcs arE constroincd.
For
examplE, the sEquc:nce
C + C + C 'Jccurs
in En s lish and French, whereas in l.Jol'o~ such
Combin~torial rules ~r ph~notactic rules
arc m~reovcr
rEinforCed by intersegmental c~nstraints applyinC ~n th0
featurE,"",
:Jf a cluster, and by intrasc:~mcntal rule: t lat arc
rclC?vant only
tJ
the
fQaturGs
uithin
onc p·honEme.
ThGSG amal(;amatiJns
of c::mstraints
upon
H.,; .se~mcf1ts,
within and beyond a r:Jat arc kn~wn respectively as ~orph~mc struc-
t ur.~ r u 1 ~3 (0 r f··l. 5. r u 1 G S )
a n rJ
m Cl r p hop h 'J n Gm i c
r u 1 C3 •
f'l • 5 . r u 1 c s
ond r'l:JrphophoncfI.ic rulos
c~JnstitutG the phCln~locic(]l ru12s.
r:.5. rules m8ke unncccss2ry the spl:Qificati:Jn of
fcatur2S
which arc predictable:
frOm a r::ive.n
IQnVirDrllllent.
f~ • S. r u 1 est h cInS C 1 v ES lJ i 11 Gce 0 u n t fOr the un s p cc i fiG cl f Gat LJ res.
Rule 1
The can~nical r~~t is
-----:;>
(r::) + V + (C) + (C) + (V) + (C)
'This rulG statos
implicitly that
thG shortost morphG~ic construc-
tion is constituted by a
sCQmcnt which is a
vowel.
II
1
\\
1

---

Example·s
for
rulrc: 1 <He. lQxiCal it~.:ms lil([::: th':Jsc
giv~ LJe1CllJ:
u
:;::
:Jf
v
.
fi .
:;::
her ::-
c + V
18 1
-.
bed
c + V + C
jar g-. n =
s pic! er
c + V+C + C + V ~ C
Rule 2
,H
00) n y
p cl r t : ; f
a mCl r Ph cm c,
i f CJ 9 i v r: n s e.~ men t is
a
vDwcl~ the fDl1owinC, if any, is CJblicatorily a
cxample~
p:)ftan
:;::
8
name
of a plant
Rul r
3
Aft er -8 s<a.quQnce, C + C ~ only V can imr.,~cJ 3tcly
exampl~:
il~iti
=
t:::l
CUr n up
cxampl r::
jalbu fala:n
=
name. of a Qame:
askBn
=
raCe
R ul c 5
Any consonant can aPP£ar in the initial rusiti~n,
if it is ncithGr
(,(,+
PrcnasalizC'd~)
<.<.. -
VD ice cl )')
t<<.. .+t i p 't;<<C...·+pal at 2 1..,.;«....+ Vei_er ~1

---

nor
Cons ana nt '>]
te ns en css >\\
Fur
eXcfT1ple: the followinG c"Jns~.m,3nts ne-vel
iJpp2ar
in the initial p~sitisn.
11 ,
bb,
pp,
~,
9 Q,
·kk,
xx,
dd,
tt
nn,
- -- .......
.........
' - '
-- - ....... .......
......"'"
jj,
cc,
.........
Q2'
f]k,
f)x,
nt
'-'
~
~
v
---
Rule 6
it V:"J i c q-~ ~ ~f"l J ~"8 ..i ..t ..w. <~'t:l'il!"v'C!oe~Iil.t"'8'l~>, ,
~ Or-l!\\1,,"<..~-...j--er:.js-e:f:\\.esa.-,r>
m~c.Q"i;es~ v€~'C"QEl' i...fllmld...t~CI,:r;"ec>edes
.,
)
I
J
t"'
-
•
l <..~;j-~b~i-lea1J.i,mk?);
<.<.413 cT.r8"t.d~~~ ;
.<'U!I.-+~.;.\\/.;e~j.) } .
R ul c 7
Any v8wcl can iJppear in the initial pos~tibn,
iF i t is neither
say
i:
(.(+
V8calic
,.et + f r.:J n t ».
,
f\\+ hi ~h ))
!
i(<. + 1 ~ n S )')
: ':"c
'..

---

n:::-. 1"
.s "3 Y [c
] ,le: 1 ]
(~+ V:l C ;.] .1 i C '>}
I
<<,. +
h i C! h(T1 i c.l ~) ]
~
'.
l:.. X x.
cc : l' 9 0
2E ks i ;
in Cl i;
ut;
u ~ 1 ;
:O]t;
::'J : t ~
)T' ;
:>: ~';
-,
~
.......
"'-
~) ~ m;
:lblJoli~
(arrive;
ar r ivli1;
brin(~;;
SCGTc.h;
-uIlCi l'CIJ~iCis od
I
fruit;
YEar j / bd:r,:;y;
fast l?;
kn,~Q;
y a\\0)(\\. /
Rul cc 8
Exx.
f
+
;::~s
in t<'l fsir
s
-:-
os
in OSk3rl
1
-:-
as
:Il 'olb~ti
11
+
as :"n
Cal 1 LJ;:0 :1'
-
l'
+.
n S
jar~)-
in
n
x
-:-
,"'lS
in m::Jxfu:s
R ul r: 9
«+
V':) ic cd
<(.-

---

Exx. Rcsp['ctivcly~
Jarg::>n
arfaQ
s C1r x:>llao
cH mEl:' : 1
fir n [I 32
--_..
El
scream
cemetC'ry
si!]nal
R ul c 1 U
If the:
first
sc,;;mc:nt :If;
a cluste:: isj';I+la-Le r '31,>;,
IL:'; - t Gns r: "0'"
thc f:Jll:JlJinQ sC';f\\lGnt is any
onc :Jf thr,: fol1QL~nQ
metriccs:
bi 1D/:) i,:J 1 ');1 [<-,+ 1a IJ i CJ cl en t ....J '1-:"" '... V::-18t »
I
v :~ j. C r, (!
I
\\ ", +
":c",
Vo i c [?[J ;)
I,
cral .,'~
1"-" -
t c r1S I? -,»
!
\\
t:"\\ .- nasali ty ,~~I
Ex x.
RcsPcctivdy:
81 funni
---
turn u'p
mi 11 iarr!
Ru1a 11
If the:
first segment Df Cl cluster is«+ vG18r>'J
..
Ex'; •
ma x fu::;
Cl
n:Jmc
R ul c 1 2
If the:
first SEgment
GP i) cluster is </+ labi~Jdcntal»,
Ex;( •
tafsi:r
Cl
name

---

~96
('
..
Rule 13
If the
first seQmcnt of
the fCJl18LJing s cC'rne:;-n t is[':+
'"
....
Velar "-~
1"
" + 1 81) i Cl 1 i t Y ~J
:>
Ex: •
CClIllJeE
:r
......
Rule.: 11.t
If the first sc;gmc:nt of a clust~r is <"", + s~i.r8nt·\\,
the- l":Jllowing sr:gmcnt is .... + Vdar ~.
..
.'"'. + Vo ice 1 cs:; '; ..
.;'. + 5 t Cl P >',
<". -
tonso .';
Ex .•
race
•

---

IIr.2~F.b.
llI.2.F.b.1.
.Supras c:.c:~rnGntal morphcmG
J , / -----} (/-r.in'con /
! f. 5ilt on /.
R ul [-1
/
r. j.ntCJn /
1~lntg.~
/«Excl.,>'
Rulc-2
/f.intan /
-----)
.
Nq;CJti:n mor::'hcme has
t\\J~ i'lllomorphs.
An analysis
of
the f:-;lloi.:JinC
data enablEs
us
to giVE rule '3'
kan
rn'):
,j awu 1
=:
\\Jha
h ~~s
n :Jt run
( sind
"'"'
.....
nan n:l: cl Cl \\J IJ 1
~Jh ::J hove
( PI ur)
'"
not ru;"!
oE1rT: a
~Ja xLII
--
( the:
fact
is
tha t)
I
have n CJt
s pJk l-n
,b!JQ 3
wa xul
-
=
-do-
) y'Ju h2VC not
s pak en
(Sind
d El fa
LJaxul
-cl 0-
) hdshr:) has
n Cit s p~k en
_::! 0-
) \\JE have n8t
sfJ~jk[On
da!JQ2[? ~ n
l,}.JxuI
:;
-
-d:J-
) you havG n'Jt
s p~k c:n
(Plur~
-cb-
) th C' Y hav-e, n~·t
s psk en
I.J8xna:
=-
I
hElve
spoken
. '
'.

---

."
IJaXUlne
We xu l):
y ~")u
hove nCJt spClkon
w.sxn 2;
hE (s he) has s p~k c'n .
w8xul
he
(s he)
hi?s
not sPCJken
-'
-
=
W:: ( thr:')') hElve spclken
l'Jaxunu
Uc
(thc:y)
havl:: not
8 pok~'n
R ul c:
.
3
nc~ati~~n Particle
---~
u / \\
1:_...
tlvUX
1
J ~Grs.aF
u1iPcr~.
l
of +5 V
1. ;~ux. V--_..+~IJ
III.2.F.b.3
I
whie h 8 r e i n C D mplc ~ l. n t _. r y cl i ~ t rib uti::; n,
as
i t
c 2 n b e s c: en
i nth eLl: )( 1. C en •
Let
us rE[~ll that theY CiTE ndaX unrl
--;:
.
occurrin~ in Full -
SCClnc
qucstisns,
local-sCSPG 9ucstion oncJ .~ ill t.")g-qurcstions.
Rule
(,
;:~u r; st i on/
;·JP
X8n3: /
sentence
fan /
kan /
I-ers.af.
+ <c. t iri',C:: »
-
n8(.:2./ _ P c r s . a f .
+c.e..f'lanncr»
Pcrs.af'··

---

;, n /
\\ la; ~q C); { 1 El ; NP3i. 1al-l u ~
25'1' :n ~
i)r.Jb/ ~~.a; 1): ; t mU;I']P)
nu;
IJQEE °ri 1.
U
J
/
d
.. t aQ-.qu E sti ::::f1 >.~
...•.
0
,.
---_...-... ........
!
./
n
, r~ El n n ;;: r /:-
I I I . 2 • Fob • (~
.~r.29_ ~s_~__,-'!.1_~~_eb.~~~ ~_._
r'1::J r! ~1 :,c; IJ '- eLm ::1 r p h cIII c:: h ;:lS b E ~ n sub c 8 b;,~: 0 r i i.: ,,;"] i n
sUbcat~C!lr~.zat~'Jn rule 33 as Asp --':'>{Proc;Perf; Unreal}, and
subcatcgOr'zLltlGn Tulc= 34 r12acJs
P~(1c. --..:;.{Punct.PrClC;HaboProc3.
The
Fo11buiiflQ rulE Sand 6 rE8f.le.ctlvG!ly 9ive·~hR. ::!:!'~e.'re.l'\\tF-
3110 ii,or ph~~) ~~ P
mor0ht:-mc:,.
R ul E- 5
~
{~ / a!J 9i 4(" Exis ten c e )
F r :OCC6". - - -""
cl ~(__ .:' \\I "'.:':. .Po st »
,
y ..__~
\\1 (.(.-
ip as t »
Rule-6
+'Pcrf~~sp
--~~~ ~
CGnsirJr::r
the f')llowin'[T cJato:
up
_.
to' el'J:3C:
ubbi
=
to DpGn
ubuk2':y
=
shuttEr
ubbika:y
=
opEnEr
"~
t EC
=
to C183C
tij3 i
::::;;:
tCl open
-
tGJuk,"'):y
=
shut c=r
tl jjika: y
=
opener
-
,
eJi3: r
=
t'J cl r i vc::
(a nail for e - Q)
int'J
d8: j Ji
=
to unna i1
f~'l"y'
-
T~;i1'81IrCr'n'ot-'bE cDn'i"LI's'e2-t,J1Ti, th6"ver'b' y (;'" to bE) UhClS8
a 11 0 m0 r r, h i s cl '.. : n •
HEn c E,
pas t
ten ~-:: E d ~ n + ') : n :> d J: n ._~ n ,
The vnlJ y occurs with &.Past».
y and d?:n art:: in
rriOe
variati~':n uh"n thc:y .3rea -Fast».
TheY
are in
complcfi:"n-
t8ry distribution elsEwherei

---

501
instrument for drilling (nail)
(hammer )
c1a3jiko:y
=
instrumGnt for unnailinQ
'--
fa? tac ka~ y
~
instrument
f~r uashing clotl~c5
xa: J~ikD;y
~
instrumEnt usod by ladiEc
t,":
~ividG h~ir into wisp
'""
. .
I
J.lwU.<a: y
=
instrument for sowin~
It a~pears that when the suffix -ka:y is affixed to
In other word~)wc can saY that tilE instrumentsl - m~rphGme
Thus the data abovc Gnab1cs us
to state the
followillQ rulc-8/j :
Ru I c- 7.
/
Instr. Su ffix /
---->{ ~kay / c...
J
CDns.J # __ ...
Kay /; [.
. Vow] # . _.._
\\...
Rul :>8
~ + PCl s t"»
- - - - -'>
): n

---

50,t
I I I • 2. If. b . a·· .Per,., cm - a f fix mCH ph erne
Uc turn n~w ts Pcrs.afs.
apPEars in a psrticular
[nvir~nmcnt.
ThE
Following rules 10
1 5 pr cs en t
the c.! i f f r:: r L: n taLL :J m:n ph S
J f
the
P [r s.• 3 f,
m8 r ph c:: me.
Rulc-'
10
LPc;:rs.Sing --~
m<1 : /
( NP )
.....+ (:i u x. C)
+ V
1
/5
El;
(NP)
+ ['J elm • r-- :.: • P
l ENP,
(NP). -;- V
(r-J n + (t c ns c ) +
+ V
d 2
+ f u tu rL_. + V
cl,g' +
Habitual {Prc:scnt;
Pastl
+.V
( ~J P) + d Cl +
.;..
(t EnS c)
+
asp.V + V
( IJ P)
+ rJ a - f" u tu 14.- Ha bit U c] 1
+V
R r: p et it i v" Pr:.:; c ['s s
Sellici~8ti~:~n
Conj.p_,
V
(NP)
+ asp.V + ncs.P +
(tense)
+ V
(NP)
+ V + nc~'.P
-,
Imp.;.. nc:q.P
V
( Nf:")
+ d 3 t
+ 8S p. V +
(NcC·p)+(tEnsC)+V

---

503
. R u 1 E-'
'11
11 Pers-Sino -"-~"ya:/ (NP)
(Au;-<oC)
+ v
lJ~al (r!P)+ V
- CClnj.P
V-n:;n a:J:.istic
+~
(NtJ)
+ c!a-fu'cure-hobitua1
J.. /
{( imp 6 rat i v G)'to V .- - ..,. -
V 1
t impl?r 8 t i vEO + n'C:Q• P .. J
tie}
1 ,: /1'(CGp j • p) - .~:-v .2 0 l' i 5
(NP)
+ AUX.Cr-nEC
V :
. ( N)
+ V -:. n e Cl • P __._. ._.
'.
Ru1 e -
12
\\1 •
III.PErs.Sing-~->
Conj.p
n Cl n
(r'J p) __-_.. a ~ 9 i
"-
RGpEtitiv8 PrGCES:J
S '11 i C i t at i Cln
imp+ncg.p
V
1 a/)
[,JP + r'Jom. Pd. P_ ..._.'_.
lE ;,JP sVpJ im:Gr si 'in
na/{(i'JP)
+ V _~..._.
da + futur ._
__ + V
cl a + h (] bit u alL Pr 12 S l? n t ;
P8 S .~_.~ Y
(
I
fal
(NP)
+
I
c!a~·futur c-.habitual~._...._.+V
I
I
m):
(N p) _
_ (A u x. G) + .. V
\\1:{ (f~P) + Au;<.C.+ne::
(r~ p)

---

50l
R ull::-'
1:3
Il.P~I':;.plur
--~
y f2 ~ n/ (r,J p)
('l7l, u x • C'.) + V
,-_. '--
..
lJ~ce : nl. C:Jnj. P ._ ,,_, . V • • • •
........
(NP)
+ Carr' + neg. p-Past
habi tU,el
of \\.'
( Np)
+ d a - f u tu r r:": h cbi tu a 1__. +V
(NP) + cop
+ nr:g.p ~ Pa~t
habit
V
impErc.+:i.VE + V
( Np)
+ V + n 6 9 • p,_..._. . .
imp + nEg.p
V
Rule-
14
[.la + habitual {PrEsent; Pestl. __.~v
(r~p)+
aQgi + (tJense)
+
-'-'-, 't3 s ~ c t) + (v)
(r-Jp)
+ do-futurE-habit
. +V
RE'DetitivE pr U cr,:s5
501icitatic:n
Conj.P
V
(i'Jp)
+ Cop
+ nEg.P
\\1
( !\\] P)
+ V +. nE g •P
.' ..
irilp + neq.P
V'

---

5Ur
: i
-
'-'
~
11 I Per s. plur -- ~" 'nu! (NP) +
Conj.-p
v
(NP)+~a-future-habit
+V fI
"RepetitivE pr~CGss
(NP)
+ Cnp.
+
I}
5DlicitatLm
(i~P) + V + neo ... P
->
~._'.~-",",.
Imp + n eQ. P "__ "._, _._ V
( ['JP)
+ V
( NP) + da + future
+V
( N))
+ d a -+- h 3 bit {p rES [~ :~t ;
Past)
+V
+ Nom. Pd. P . _ -
1 arlu!,~. (N p)
1 )
. l[~JP., vpJ i n v(: r sic;n_.._.. _~_ + V)
1
III.2.F.b.9
Copula
III.2.F.c.1
Pers~n-affix
._,-.....-._' ..
.. _._ ....._... -
--~
SomE ~f thG aba0e Pers.af. morphs may underg~
alternations accDrding to ths context.
RulE
1 - 4
predict
th~sE pos~ibilitiE3.
1
--~>
a 1 /
[
• • • <.
C] I! <.<.+ impEL)i "-
Rule 2
bu
su
.cla + U -

---

506
..
.1
- -.. ~..,
,0 /
bu -
sU
I
/
de + U
R ul cc .(~
---) {y ~ ~na / - (ll) + v}
YE: n /
_
a IJQ i
.
-.....
Rule
,1 states that 1 lS r(::writtEn, 81 in EnvironiTlEnt
In Ru]~ L~[
thE? syl';:hCll
/\\
st;Jnds far
any
itEm CJccur ..
yE: n ::':3
C! fJ (] i
t 1I r: r E i s
n:::J a 1 t era t i ~) n "
f.!stic c that'"I in Rule
1 and 1 in RulE]
should n:Jt
be confu~t='d I.dith each othBr"
The
fsrmr:r
is (<.2 PErs.
SinQ» >
wh E" r E Cl s
t h :," 1 2 t t Er i s
<.<. 3 F f~ r s "'S i n 9 ")
..
III.2.F.c.2
AltErnati~ns in dErived
.. _.
__ ....
...'-.
-~.
~..
~
~cuns
A
lJ"s":r: e
=
to wr es tl G
mIJ "E'r
;;:
Llr B st 1 Er .
b'): t
""
t:::J
Car r y on
.mb?:t u =
clc;thc for
carry-
th~ bac~.
ing eJn thE bElck.
b,: l_CE
::::;
- ~ [)
put to'?EthEI'
~jJ~ : l? : - assembly
b a : x
=
g SCJd
rrba : x =
g:::JodnGss
-
b:) n
=
b 3d
..
n::.~)n
=
naughtinEss

---

•
50i
,
t.
L ' ..'
b"r;gC]
~
t ", lik E
mb"sgQa:' :1
=lovl?
'.......-'
~
::::
t ~J UT' it (:
F.b in d
=
scriptljre
b) Y
::::
tD
[ll'OdUCE
::::
a
\\.Jarrn
L1inrJ i1'1'i··
infLJmnatiC'll
tatinn, the skin
'[IlL, k k
' -
'-.-
bo:cc
~
to thresh
mba:cc
threshing elf grain
'"
bE)'
n:b sy
~ c u 1 t ur'e
s'),Xjr
~
Cl' '-le]
p
S) P
curbulent
= turbulence
Sa:CC
=
t~ steal
ca:cc
=
th oft
saf
tel, have taste
cafk5
sx pp
-- love
~
to I~lve a bride
cc:t
-
nuptial ccrem8ny
for
the nuptial
c er ~m:;n y
s U :8
CLJs
= n.jjppls
=
t:J
surpass
car
=
bough (rameau:
French)
=
s har s
[
dimb"dli
to hdp,
[1 c1imbEtl
= help
d')x '.,
=
,t,c'IJ",lL;
:::: pawn
da: ~..:z
:;:;::
tD
c has G
-
victary (in
Qaml
Q
::::
t~l begin
:::: thE bcginnin~
dik
=
to promi~.e
ndikta; :1 = a promiss
::::
'CO entEr
=
provisieln (of
f '~I'JcI prodljcts)
cfepp
:::: special tErm In
g"enb l i n g

---

I
50~
dC£" s
= t 'J r c: ma i n
ndcssit
'-
= rEsidUE
D
ja:y
= t'.] sdI
~ja:y
n .
J'
, i ' t
ju:m
=
mistc:d<e
j':QQ
= t~ bE circumcised
-
;;: circumscision
ja:xx
=
pc::rp,lexity
'_.'
Ja:'Jg
;;: to stud Y
nja:IJC;
= stud i eS
, ~."
........ J
. . . . . . . . .
j 2 n_[.1
=
to buy
'n" J' ~n-'
=
':
~
pu r ch as in c;
jik
-
to
bring good luck
j i
:=
to S ~J \\J
nji
= sowing
=
to swing to and fro
j C? J,
= to take'
nj"sl
= pr is e
E
= child
?2) nas
= childhc'Jd
=
man
;;: meri torious act
= t:J bel iEve
-
\\} i sit
(Cl f s Om E
::=;
to
Pey' 0
vis.it
(for
sC"Jme daYs)
days)
L2ntu
=
to refuse
=
reFusal
... ~ ~.
C~ ae ~ C'..t = t 0 El ba n.-:I on a p 1 a c r:
= desertion
c' - : n t
=
t~
QO 'fDr
EVEning
= 8\\n:ning LJDrk
-' -'
- (Jork
~] 0: p
I}go:p
gis
= to SEC?
= shoLJ
'-,,
..,\\
.
'
~ I
,
,
: ,
I
~J'
I
.
~
=.'~
,

---

.50B
r
o;'Lu
--
t···, trust 1n
ko:luL.e
"" trust
Unip
"" unknown to
k urn p'ri
"" sc=crEt
-
( 'J r
facts)
"" to f()st
k):I'
::0.
f8stinC
= to rc=ply or Cl l~ Y
ka~ddu
= utt c=ranCG
J: ddu
= to d r (OS s with
k j: dd a·.y
= cl 0 I:h ES of lady
~ ..
"-'
1 Cl i n- cla-ch
il i : f
= to hE) V( somc;body
kilifE
= authClrity(ic=s)
,
unci Gr onc r S Car c
..
up
= to clo,=8
kube :r
= shuttEr
ce : nd u
"" to staY sClme-
ka:> : n da·~1
= f<Jct of stayinQ
.....
wll Er
s om ewh er E'
I:
all
8 11
d3y
daY,
long
C
f ~:lS
=
tu ti. E'
pas
= knat
f j
= t ~1 plaY
P)·
:=
same
fee XC13
--
PEG X.::l3
=- dEvice
fu:r
=- tCJ 'foa m
purit
= fClam
f'J:t
= to IJ8sh (cO:othes) po:t
= washing
feo ~ c c
=- to dance?
PC8 :cc
= dallce
-
fo:n
= t8 chew tobacco
po:n
= tobacco
fDl
= tc El Gct
Pal
= Glcction
f'X y
= -[:1 Pay
pae y
= Pay
~Part from the ~Gt
r
WE notiCE that invariab~y, the
initial consonants have UndErgone an 81tGrnation in the nominal
forms cr.JrrEspondins to the; verbal
forms.
This alternation SEen'S
to follow certain rules such 3S:
bG-comes mL;
In 8,
initi al S !JC:COrTIES 'f;'; in tC
in
A,initial b.
:in 0, initial j
becomes "r'ij; in E, initial
i nit i a I d b r: c 0 me ~~;
' ... ,J
that is :

---

------~----------II'~
5110
."~
.. ,
~ . (~
l~bial nas3 1 VOiCEd
prena~olizcd step
d = a 1 v. :Jra l VOiCEd stop
--~ nd
= nasal vo ic ECI prGnasaliz cd.
- stop
......
j
pcjl
era 1 I/oj.ceci step
Pal nasal
VC ie Ed pj:'cnasali-
=
.. -~
nj. ;;::
- l.ed st::JP
g
;;::
VEl
ar Ell vo .icsd stop
-..,. .:...;>
f)Q
;;::
velar n()sa l
voiced prcna-
- salizEd step
f ;;:: labia-dental oral voicG'.less --7
P == labial voicel"Gss stop.
This indlcatss that thore is homorganic harmony rule
However, it is not
thE Case that ~ll V~rbal-N::Juns manifcs~ this 'canson~nt alt(r-
nat ion."
Se",for t=:xamplE;
carriage:
faP
;;:
faP
;;::
to carry
f)mp
=
uiping
f..)mp
=
tu IJipG al.lay
.........
~
fact of refusal
gae :dd
=
..... _..
9aE : clO
;;::
to rEfosc: for
dUE
to dissatis:
cl is 3 ;') t is fa c t:. 0 n
factian
=
fact of cut-ti ng
!J:H
==
1;0
cut LJi th El
wi t h a s word
sword
=
pilinc.;
jal
jG\\l
=
to.pile uP
jo:r
==
maSs
jo:r
=
ceJ accumulate
==
cutting"
c1agQ
d agsr
=
to cut
......"
-
d E£ rn
Ja:: m
=
to ,..,"
'=-w
:::;
assiQnation
- .
sas
S;:jS
to [~ssir-n Cl
responsibility.
:;::
dEfarr.ation
S:l s
=
to d£:fame
bax
= Ebullitiun
bax
= to b 0 .i.J.

---

5111
In thL- C8SE of cognatE n~uns thGr~ is no consonant
Thus WE cbuld brief our remarks as undGr:
Rule:
.5
'--1 ;-:~.
:.,#
- •
....4
I
c'+ COilS .»
I
~"
,I
+ cons
,,
I
i
i
I
I
I
/ 11
I
Or
\\
(( +
~.
,
Cl l-;",
i I + Oral ';"',
i
I
h-·\\
J
,
, I
! I
I
t
!
I
(" + Vo ic Gd
I ,
/ '
+ l}oi c cod ....
j !
r
! <.',
I
-- _i
j
I
I i
!
I .J,+ Pr G na': ali zed')
+..NP co~natt,..,,,:
I
=-'
_.i
"
Rule
• 6
f
:. lni i:i 81 '>~
-- -:>
P
/
N ;,
RulG
7
s ,.j nit i <3 1
... - .. ..;;..
c
>}
/ r·J
.. C09.natc>}
R u 1 c;
·8
?f ,·lnit i81 '.'
--.....;,
~
/ [,.]
Cant:=:xt
NoticE that we have not menti~nGd th~ changes that
takE
plpcE at the ~1!JI.JQl lev::.-l.likEIJiSG, WE hav;-:· givEn nO
.
.
explanRtion regarding thE tyPes of affixation involved in thG
.
,
1
d G'r i vCl t l on S •
TheSE phEn~m~na arc worth~nalysing.
Actually they
show th8t
the dc:rivatiDn of a noun c10ES not con5ist 'Jf 8 n
initial consonant alternatiun only.
maY be: a whclG sequEnCe that som~timGs affects not only thE
initial c~~~onant but also some othEr ElemEnts bf thE base
G~ smcnt.
1.
Here UE ars L!sinc:; the term dE':tivation in its traditi~mal
me3ning.-

---

51;L
v
. , U
•
In sOme cases
the variation occurs
in
thG
final
For
Exam~l e
tudci
==
to
namE:'
tUl'
=:::
name
t~dd
=
to liE down
,,_
==
thG WClY of
..'
lying
R u 1 E· •. 9
+ . !C:crivElti vE/
( /\\ )
- >
( :::i )
where the dur;:r;:y symool ( ./j
)
-
/\\
(
) stands
for
.~
the deriVElU.ve morphrol1'c.
The abJvG rule ElPplies
both to
verbal and other grammEltic51
catG~_~'Jri::s also.
In
this
connection the CC3se cf
dimin6'ivG
nouns
and 20~E ont~nym vErbs may bE cit~d.
5cG
rESPEctively
set H an~ I fDr example.
H
bjpp
=
head
mll): Dp .
=
small h earl
''"'"''''
'-
QC) :nna:y
= weapon
I)ga :nna:y =
sl1'a l 1 I..Jc·aPCln
" -
-- ~
jOekkE-r
=
husband
njG'kk'er
=
small husc€lnd
~
"_.
' -
d <OK k
=
town
naekk
=
small t OlJn
' -
I
--
=
to el eet
f:>: II i
=
to dismiss
' - .
1 al
=
to stretch a line
la : l l i
=
to remove
Cl
:In
~
cloth s t r d -
ched on •..
da~c
=
tCJ dr ivc in ( nail) da;j-ji
=
to driVE C'ut
~
(nail)
1.cB m
=
to fold
lee :mmi
-....
=
to unfold

---

513
, ..
t a:' k
=
tCl put
ta:; :ggi
=
to
carry off
up
=
to CIOSG
ubbi
takk
=
to ti C
tae :kki
=
to
untie
fas
=
t~) knot
FEE :cci
=
to untie:
=
to bE nd
=
to hold up
anE"s head
saf
=
to hav,.'
taste:
sa:ppi
=
=
t Cl 1 G ck
t i·· ·i
JJ
to unlock
=
ta ClOSE
(eyes)
= ta Open (Eyes)
Y;j? n
=
t a loa d
=
to unload
=
to i-l1snt
SED :m[Ji
=
ta drivE aut
jukk
=
tu im~ersE sDm~­
jU~ki
=
t'l b r in g up t Cl
'-
thin"
surface of a
liquid.
nu: r
=
to iliimersl?
nui<ki
t'l
comE uptD the
surfacE of a-
liquid EnvironmE
=
to thrEad
ny.cci
=
to unthrcacl
=
to stitch
ta:; : ppi
=
to unstitch
=
to gulp
to disgorgE
ElC
ta put at
=
to rEm8VG from a
clGvated placE
cl E vat Ed pIa cc.
y;s:.. :w
yc£ :~yi
=
to un f8s tcn
=
tCl rr:vC:Fsc
dippi
=
mu.: r
=
tc; COVEr
mur i
=
to uncover·
NClW wc can giDE
thE fdllowing rules:
RuIG- 10
fal
-_.,)

---

---

RU ll?-'
22
YEE n
Rulc-
23
sa1np
sa: :mp/-i
--.,
-..
"'"
R u 1
~
E"-
• 24
nu:r
---)
nuk k/-i
.......
Rul 10- .
- 25
naS
-- -)
R u 1 c- .
26
- - - )
.
teE :pp/-i
taPP
. .......
'--
Rul(;··"
27
gu =x
-- -)
g.~ :x>. I-i
-
Rulr:-
·28
ac
Rule--
·29
y CE ; LJ LJ/ - i
ym :u
-- ->
'\\",,0
Ru 1 c-
30
---)
dipp/-i
' -
fi1u:r
mur/-i
-->
Wr: nat iCE" that in Rules 1£)-31, for ouch jinE? therco a r ::; tLJO
2l1om~r~hs of th~ samE mor~~EmE, onc of LJhich occurs in. thE
prCSEnC~ ~f the TGvcorsivc morph -i.

---

516
rrI.7.F.c.3
-.. _.. _... _- + a[}<;i
. '.__ ._"'-"-~- -~ -~ :,- ,-
fo.J ULJ
consicJr=r
tll" rncJrr·h a r:g i
in the
fClllowi ng d:]ta:
1 .
o:a:ngi
<
( ma: and)
= her G I am
2.
yn:fJg i
<
( y Cl :
a9<;i)
= h c:r (' y::u ar c
] .
mu rJc;::i
<.
(mu
ang i )
= h (Cl' EO hE is
,.,
1-). •
nunQi
<.
(nu
" \\
''''n,1 I
= h"r" we:..- (they) arE
5 •
xal cD
Ye: fJ "i <- ( xa 1 CD yi" 8r]Q~)
= her e a r;: t"h e children
6.
."
nit na:
OGi
( nit
<.
[1 i
a%i)
= her'c arc the persons
7 .
nit ka: (}Qi <.
(n i t ki anDi)
= hEre j.s the person
'-~'
8.
CjCJ:r
g8: ~ Q, i. <. (gD:I' Ci a,ngi)
= her" i ·s tt"t., man
"._-
9.
b" nt ba:
f! Qi <. (bant bi anQi)
= h er ~ is the stiCk.
--
1 O.
fas
Ya :
')gi
<.
( fa c
wi a.!:)gi)
= her" is the hors c
..
1 n~.
rnu:s
ma: ngi <. (m u : s mi aDgi)
= hc:rE is the cat
.
12.
su:f
Sa
ng i <. (su:f si aDsi)
= here is the sand
. -
~-"
1 7
l' .-
J '
er 1 a:
n eei
( l'c'f l i
<.
aQ.C i)
= her c is the thi ne;
~,
"I !~ .-
j2;n
ja: rJ~: i <. ( j a: n j1a ~g i)
= her e is the snake
1 5.
k:):dc!:>:
IJ gi
<. (k'):deiu a~gi)
=
here is k):ddu
'-'
--'
~
'-'
1 6.
aba2 : !Jg i
< (8bi PI)'J i )
= her e "is abi
.....
'-'
17 .
si: ,...:L::E
Qf:i < (si:di arJgi )
= here is si:di
,
,
18.
CCE rEE
r; g i
( ca: ra:
angi)
= her c is som~
Cc£; r cc
'~.
<
19.
t{l :re: nc i
(
(te:r" ai!~i )
= here is Cl b :JDk
"--
20.
9 ) 1 ' ) :
']gi
(
( Q~r) a'Jg i )
= here is Eln in-law
~"
21 .
daba: n gi
< (cJaba angi)
= hi"I'1? is dab a
"'-- '
22 •
ada ~ n oi
< ( "oa 2~gi)
= hEr e is ada
.~.~
--
23.
r)Q,,:r 2[')gi
<-
([')so:r ;]~5i)
= here is Q.~ 0:1'
2(, •
ne: (J2 LJ a nl,i
<-
( nd ao LJ angi)
= hor'e is ndao w
,-
~~ .. ,

---

51il
-
a
contExt the Q which is its initial ~owel may be subject to
assimilatiJn.
When an assimi18ti~n tBk~s plac~, tWQ chan~cs
arc prG,~!5_ct2.bJ.E: therE may b co eith.::r 3 dolctLJn DF ~_, C? a
cOalcscence ':lF~) (,JJ,th the" Hnal vOlJ~l of thG prEcEding morph.
morph ldhich procEdl?s
alJ~i is either of the FolloLi ng: rna:;ya:
.......
mu;: -r; u; t h ;;
~ , i n i ti a 1 v0 lJ ~1 Cl F <J fl Gi i s dEl Gt Ed (C f. 1 - i~) •
lJh~n the morph which prec"de5afJai r::nds Ly a COllsonant, the 2.'
i n it L~ 1 v~ l-J ~: 1 Cl f a fl Q i i:; 'p r i, S [" r v E d (C f. 2 3 a n cl 2 iJ .
I not h [' r
"
~
"'"--..,'
TheSE analyS[S Can be presented in th~ form of the
Followinr; rulEs:
Rule:.'-
32
[.----iJ#
----~
\\J
S
ii
1
\\\\'. j

---

51'3
RulE-·
33
[. .:._:. u) fI
-_ .....;>
RulE-·
34
(-.
---.;>
3G :/-af)Gi
Ru1c-
35
[- - - cc)!
--_.~
Rulc-
36
Rulco-
37
, [- - - 'U #
---:->
a: 1-8 Cl9i
"_0"
Rulc-
38
Con J#
~,Jow eonsidcor the nExt data G" vcn bdo,J:
1 •
duma wax
.da + u+orn:'l't lIaX
=
I shall not spEak
2 .
b::Jo:
W3 x cE
but-I:}: -/ IJax + cc
=
If you sPEak ( IJhen
y DU speak)
3'.
d:): wax
cia
+ u + L: =-/ l,Ja X
=
you do not sPeak
4.
S~: lJ a X a:::
s u -r1) : +u 3 X + er
=
i I~ you spEak
5.
du uvx
da + ul+w'Jx
=
h r~ ",ill not spC=,Jk
6.
bL: lJ a x a:;'
bu+ I-tw3x + iD
=
i f (whEn). hI? spGaks
7.
su ~J Cl XEG
s u.,.l +lJEJ x + IT
=
i f he speaks

---

51'
r, ";
If wc
have in mi"d
rules
'2
and
3
wc rEe'l:ize that
the Cooccurrcncc of
bu
uith
1 J:
cl a+u
; ..
1:>:
su
"
l~:
da + u
;.
1
bu
:.'
1
SU
It
1
implies
'3
mutual aS2in,ilati'Jn,
part of whioh has already been
CGVErcc.l
by
rules
2
2nd
3 .•
,
On the b.3sis of 1 of the abOvE data
wc can formulat~:
RuJ.c-
39
da + u
----~
du
Now thE eomplcnlsnt3ry
part
can be pointed out 'as
Rulc-
40
bu
----~
RlJl cc- '
41
su
' , - -- ~
·R ul c-
·{,2
du
------?

---

52,0
"
III.2.F.c.5
..
f2j:J:(k)
<-
fuju
ak
=:
to CUrE
(o'nc:sElf)
l"Ji th
f,tbJs:;):(k) <
f:>tt8 SU + ak
=
tCl sn i'lrJ
wi t h
-
......
ra;~a5J:(!<)
<
raxaslI + a k
=:
to wash (hands)
with
,
s ar:~; ~: (k )
<..
9 a f} r~U
+ ak
=
to bath with
'xa : j j EG d!d -<
xa:jji + a k
=
t:J di vid c (hair) with
-
rOSJ2 : (k)
<-
r:lS i
+ ak
=:
to fry
( on i cm)
ui th
ubba:: dk)
.(
ubbi + ak
=:
to open with
"'-_.,.
SUXXcE : ( K)
<:
suxxi + ak
=
to plume:,
with
........ ,~
f;jO t33;(k)
<
fzcta:::+ ak
=:
to brus h with
ami:I:: ~k
-<
ama::' + ak
=
to ca rry ui t h
ji: LE :k
<
j i; ta:'.'
+ ak
=:
to Dfficiate:
Ldi th
~: a n El? :k
<.
~?na:: + ok
=
to pay a
visi t
with
jur~ 0: k
<-
jubo; + ak
=
to g(t tOGcthc=r
W1 th
dc:~~~~s:k
.0(
dt:::Qc.::l
-t ak
=:
to ~. et t 'Jgc:t hc:r with
:
xul:-J :k
~
xulo~ + ak
=
t':J quarrel wiih •
diss;h:
<
disJ: + 3k
=
to concert wi th
j a : pp") :k
<-
ja:pp,): + sk
-
to hold
eoch Cl t her
, -'
na:kk:>:k
c::.
?ro:kk~: ..- ok
=:
to fiQht
uith
......
'--'
[hQ': k
<.
d')t;;~:
+ ok
=
to cut 311 fGlati'Jns
LJi th somEbody
ta :9,l').:k
<..
t2:~g:>~ .......!.. ak
to divOfCG
......
"-
An
8 n 2,lysis
~f the ac:Jvc
data
Enabl~s us to, statE the
follo\\Jin~ rUlEs.

---

521\\
R u 1 (7-- -
43
[ - - -. -- - -.: L~
11 + El k . ~ - _. - ~ E- -:- -----.. ,):J k 11
R U 1",-
~'f4
[- .. ---- ~ 1/ + uk
-----~) [._ .. _~ .. _-
x D k J;
r: u 1 c-
45
( - - - _. - , , a::J #
+,') k
- - -- -:~ [- - . - ... ..-
J
EE
k IJ,
R u 1 c:-
46
[------- )J # +
)1
Elk
----~' [----- ... --
k 11
Rul c':" .
47
[----- -
'JD#
Elk
-----')
f:------
rQ
'"' .
k 11
Ru1 E - ".'" ':18
E---,,' ~] if -+- al< - - - --'> f:-C"---- 2:J k #
Rulc=-
.L! 9
[- -----
e] 11 -+- ak
----?'
f:- ---- c: Jk /I
Rule··
5D
III.2.F.c.6
s:):cc~:m
5
• ~~.
+
"
r'U
2m
'"
ilis ( hCl')
tOCittJ -pick
' -
I'i:t~:m
r i : t i ± am
:::
h is ( il cr )
VL11in
Qac rtcs : m
~2E :rtc£+ 'am
:;0
his (he,!:,)
~rCJunc.: -nut
1~ x'):m
1) x,
+ rim
'"
his(h~r) hand

---

~98na:m
<
mbana + am
~--
t['~rE :m
t c:r [ + am
"
This data leads
Us tCl i:he
Following Rulc;s.
[- - -
-
uJ I + an
Rulc;-
52
[- - - - iJ/I+ am -:c
Cen.
af.,~ ---~ G.. ·.. EE:]+fil
Ru12-
.53
Rulc;-
55
Rulc-,
56
III.?F.c.7.
[----- .... --:J + "31 {q"dRtive' )). ({5 0 ciati vc»}
_ _ . _
_
_
. _ " . '
• • _ .
_ , _ • • . • • • • ~
0 0
" 0 • •
_ .
_ _ .•. >
_ _ • • _~
.'..J-._ ,.•..
+~ __,
' . .
. '
b c;y a 1
b cl' + a 1
=
cultivate (f8r;
in.juncti:.:n)
=
wrcstl" (for;
with;
in ju ncti, cm)
<.
ta :~~;u + a1
ask p2rrftiS3i~.Jn (V8I'
s Clmeon,,; injUnctioil)
=
Part (with;
injuncti.c"

---

523
s idd i l
=
strip the fl~sh sff
<
sidcii + al
(fsr somcClne;
inju"cti c
leE pIaG :1
=
giVE
in loan
-<
lEE p 1 ce
+ a 1
(fD~ sOmE
onc;
injuneti,.Jn)
xu 10: 1
'"
xulQ + 31
quarrel
(uit~; 'fQr;
in jur,c ti ,'m)
This
dats enables us tD statE that:
R ulc-
57
1
ConsClnantJ
+ al !
RulE-
58
11
> • • •
Rull'-
59
,
. u i .1J
.
re
+ ill
. . ..
- - - - ~i
u
1
L~
..I
11
Ru 1 e-'
60
,..
. .
i ;
--_.-
,, .
•
. ..
,
;
iI + c11
~,
i , 1
#
RuIe-
61
,. .
T
i
----.-~.
i ••
EE
:
1
11
, -
Rul~-
62
I •
• Cl: i /1 +
11'
---.,.>
,. • • • ••
Cl ~
1
#
R u 1 [-
63
. . · ):J # + ,,1 ----)
I:, .. "
): , 1
IIL~.F.C.8
IJ
Cenic.
Prep.
u
;
um
In U;
i.

---

52~
...
r~
'-i; .
'lJ
=
nd;x
!Jm
tEe:n
=
W8t.GT
From 'uJi:ll
fHj-_,x
i
to::: n
lJatGr from IJPll
1
u, um
arr: Lsn~rally in
frc~ ·vari3ti~1n·lbut somGtim,~s
t h G Y r: 0 n v c y
3
f C"":: i n i: d i f f Q.l' en ~ e·~
mu
DccGrs only wit!l the
Th2
f[)~lCluiriG fhta rlla~lcG us tc; state rules 75-ffi
r;ivcn bclc'u:
gana :r
IJ
",: 11
gana : r
i
",:11
ganCl ~r
U),i
a: 11
CEE I(u
Cl : 11
cs: kuy
2 : 11
"
~
cx kum ,,:11
==
L.!ilJ ~arrot
CC0 ku
um ,,:11,
, j
.._-"'
'"
CEl:' ku
mu
fJC Cl: r
=
man!(cy by n~cht
_ 0
C;"l m
r; u dd i
=
//
==
C,?.2 r22
made' in
fas
1.
lle suspect uw
to hav:~ ~!cvllop~d ·th~oygll mEt~thGsls from
mu;
2nri u fr~m urn by dclcti~n of m.

---

525
,
~
=
( I
c a: r er m f a:s
=
< CCE rae urn fa:s
*Cc(' I'W mu f a~
"-
Violin by ni~ lit
ri:ti~' S'u,~i
"'"
I ,
ri:tim,Qu~~i
-;:
r i : t i
urn
Qudcl i
::1
'-.
*' ri:ti mu nQ~:r
.>
'-'
= n~g:>y's rnbana
/1
=
~anam n)QJY
* mbana mu n Jr:;J Y
.OT_
xu J. Cl: f} S :' ~ r
= r)~o~r's q U 8r r (;ling
'_.
.........'
,.
x u 1 0:
u m n IJ Cl : r
<..
=
b~~k by rainy scasCln
t e : re y n 8wa:: t
=
I'
::.
tc:rGumnawEEt,
t G :rcrn nauc(' t
=
*tc:rG mu nro:r
:~ ~~
musa:m )r:1Gr
= mu S.;1: (s::; n ) ~J f ,m 3 r <: mu sa: mu ")Ill a r
'l( "doi '1'\\\\
'::),",0.1"
:. )C.O\\J.i Cd"",cr\\u') Q~ ;:)t'¥\\o.t' l... ~,,~\\ "M~ ~"'Q,,"
Rulc-
64
---_.::.--.,
u
/
.0,{.----- Vow) IJ ----- ..
. '..+ C~nit>!:,

---

526
I' " ,
Rulc-'
65
i
- - - - -;
. y. / [
•
VOlJ
J JI
[~;.+ gcnit ....,J.
, ,-:+ Prep":
Rule=:-
66
c--.._..-
c· .
cL ]
11 + U I\\!
- - - - •• -)0
Rulc-
67
RuL:-
65
(- - .' - ~],# + u m - - - - -?
C:... u: mJ #
R uL:--
'69
l-----,' i ]# + UTi1
---~~
[ · · · imJ 11
F: u le··
70
[- - - .. -.
8 ]# -:~ un
__ _ .::0)
C- ·
· Q:mJ -I
Rul I::;.'
.7'1
".
[---._.~
e ] ,£J
+ urn
-- --)
E- ~
/1
· • cm ;
I
-.
Rul (-
.7 2
[.-- ~.-
DJ /1=: +
-"
UTI
~- _.~
c-
Cl: mJ J
· · ·

---

III.2.F o c 9
R ul c-'
13
«+ Cons >;>
-~,
«+ ·Con s ~)
I
<<.+
V'J':'cclcss,,»
;,i\\1
/)
"'....+ or a 1 ~>
Voic~d
I~
I
<~+ b i 1ab»
«+
b i 1 a LJ >:>
}
~+
P8l
Palatal»
}
(l:r
at-»
Vel-tens »
.(<..+
Vel-tEnse,»
- - ' .
Exx.
tOcp
+
u
tOc?b u
up
+
u
ubu
da:c
u
cfa:ju
taGk
+
lJ
t aE !Ju
R r::adjustmcnt rul ~-16
Cop

---

52~
CCJnsif.'cr
thc
f:,llClIJing set c;f pairs 1 -
3.
'I •
b"Ct
(sClm:J
eves
2.
ap
ba:ra:m
,]
finger
ay
[·'a :r am
7
J .
ap
b'c'il
• .'V
,'j Y
9 r:n
First ~p all if wc c~nsi-dEr
tIlE opp~siti~n Bp/ay in
1 -
3 ue i;I:-~Y FJSSUr1~G th'at the c:Jnson8nt altcrnatirJn plY ·c~rrl:s-,
)
ponds ta the varioi:ian sinoular/plurpl,
and thEr2f~re, tilat Cl
is
(-~ctuall:f an article, nl:JTc: prccisc:ly an incJcfinitG article.
"\\
maY
lc,3c~ us to say that the variati·.m sf'Qllllar/plural invol·vcs
<
a
cDnsDnant altcrnati~n bDth at the article lEvel 3nd at the
noun level.
But such Exon1plcs
Qf alternation 8t
the n~un
lEv~l are sO fEW that it c~uld not b~ cQnsidcrGLi as a ceneral
.J
rule.

---

528
:I
' \\ . ,
1
NGvcrthclcss, since th~ grammar has ·t[) account f8T
Qx~mplms likG 1 -
3, W~ m2Y assumE th~t the plural mDrpheme
,\\)
11
y
#"
6)
11 __ V + (Consonant a I t!Or na ti c;~
I')
41
thE m~r:~ll y, an~ S) indicatGs that the othGr al1omorph of
plural m~rphenle is the ~ise~ntinurd m~rph y + variati~n ~f
the initinl eCJn,~:m8ntc;f r~ (noun).
N:Jw consic!c:T the-
r::::lloLJinQ phrasGs
!~ -
6
4.
iJOc:"t
bi
cYG the ( t he- cy c)
iJ 'Q't
yi
eyes the (the: ey ES)
G.
ba:ra:m
bi
fingGT
the (the finger)
fingers
th~ (thE fincers)
t C'C th the (t hc tc;:Jth)
If ~ur previous 8S3umpti~n
made here is thot
i
rather than
a
is the m~rph of the
article mGrphE~~ in the C~S2 Jf

---

530
-
»
;
. )
, )
l.,o,
YEt considcr the phrases belDw 7 - 14
7.
ni t
ki
=
the persDn
nit
~.
nl
=
thE pcrs~ns
8.
ji"e:n
ji =
thee lecy
-.
jige:n nl = the ladies
9~
C'~~:r
I;,~ i
=
the ITI,1n
(;;C.1:r
ni
=
thee men
s')plce
si =
the oniC.1n
s')pla:
yl =
thee ~)n i'Jns
bunt
bi
=
the cl ~) CJr
bunt
yi
=
the rJ:-: '"TS
,~_/
12.
fas
wi
=
the h:~TS c
fas
yi
=
t ,l C h':.jrs~s
1 3.
in '--1 : s
mi
=
the c;] t
;nu:s
vi.
=
thee cats
1 4.
nd8u
l i
=
the rncsscns~r
-n'~:au vi. = the rr;GSScngcTs
It appeears that the plural morph may als~ be n as
i n 7 - 1 J .
alu·-:oys
p,
but Curl b~~ 1, m, k,
j,
s~ u and 9 as LJc11.
The cCJntcxts
c~Jntiiti :JninQ the :Jccurr Gncc of G3ch 'J.f
thESC sincular morphs aree not given here,
sinc2 this aspect ~f

---

531
::: .""; ~
~: ,'\\ ~ ,
Thus for th~ pr~sent time we will be sat is f 1. cc!
Rule -
7lf .
/Plur/
n /I;/Ii nit; ji~H':n; go:r; Da: ~ Y"f} ~..-
~: yj+ #.@cns.altJf\\J/{~·et"b~,:ra:ml
b·en 1
l"g"f 1-;£-
y /
elsewher e"
Rule -
7;i

---

53:L
**
PART
I V
oUo"
SAI"PLE 5UITniCES
*
*
;I'

---

533
IV
SARPLE SENTENCES,
T h rc
f 0 1 ] 0 will g S c n tEn c cs
h a v r:: b 5 le n t El k EJl as 5 a m p1 e
s2ntr=ncr:s
tCl show the:
gcnG'r 2 tive capacity Df the T. G
5 • 1
::; u nt
b i
U L! 1I n Q
~ < IJ + up
+
bun t
)
[.-.<.+ pr C'2 E no)] ~~+ T)N'
+ S Q»
,'+ 0 co f n '
(~+
] ] »
-
I
( '\\
(1)
'<
1
A
6
+
S ang u
+ u
',-
)
8<.+ pr cS e nt )~
5.3
a=s
.~< 0: S
+
.:ia : y
+
,Ll
~+ 3 p. S 9 ~~ rc.+ Pr cos .\\)1
«+ N
."
t<.t- PEr f .»)J
[_<:<+ 3
5. 5
Xar
mi
133 :kkna
c.Q?;p bl flcB :~.kJ:n ci ns:Jap, 1;
-.(
,1. ].
,C fill
"
+
1 cD ;J~<
+ t}/)
,+ Jiz)
+
. ( ( +
"
I"
~?
I
I
I~<
)J
+ Pr res
F<.+ 3 P EIS)~
(<. +
3 F'. S 9 »:
<<. +
t~+
T ~.,
J
Per f'»
~\\+ SQ :»
,<..+ Od,:;>
na: :k:<
+
ci
L\\.'-3)
)
~+
-,
Pas t)~
(<.+
iJ :»
!
«+ T ">">
<<.+ o e f::>~
.« + 5 G);>

---

53"
~ ')~.
...... .. ~ \\.;
1
,~d + NP + Pd.P
._- .~_._~ ... ~._. ~""'-""~_.~-- ...",:"'"
2
~Ast + r'JP + Pd.P
_ . ' , w , .
_
. . . _
.. _ _ . c_ _
3
.~posit + NP + Pd.P
5
/
'
/
+ NP + Pd.P
'7
9
/
I /
+ NP
+ \\Jp .
_
• •_
' _ c '
" , . '• • - , . '
•
~ •..•__~.
10
._
~ _ · -'71- t / + r,JP + VB
i 1
... .'- /
' / + NP + V + rl i--
13 ____ .....__..._ ..
~ /
I
/
+ ~I + V + N
1 , 2 , /1 , 7 ,11 ,2 0 ~/
'
/
+ rJ +
<<, 1" V »
+ N
«- Er "»)
.(,.(,.-
ACl. 5 »
(,.(-
Ag '))
«.+ Tr ..)
(<.-
dEl,'"»
«- de t . ">
se) ; 5:~ , 62 ,6 S , GO -y , /+ ht· +
-~ .... r.;
H.... V
»
~)
«- Er)."
,0«(-
C '»
«-
: .. ' .
A g. S »
~(-
nH ..'>
.<.. -
~ g ,,)
«(,.~
1. . ;:».
<<. + Tt' »
a+· COilC;»
<~ -
d 81)~ .
c"-+
nL»
-.....~
«- c1at'j,
.c:....+ count
77 --}
/ f • in t on/
+
N l'
«.+ V'». +«+ t··I ,,>,
<.~-' Er '>')
<0:..-
C
"?';>
« - /~ g rS·...~ ,<.<.~ n H 7'> .:
<,...-
Ag?,>
<<...-
I ,"?
«+ Tr-,>
( t +
con c),
'~'{:.. - d 81-,>

---

j
'.1 \\J I
-
,J2'!
/ f. inton/ +.1.. 1-..... T- 11
..,
+
,d
,
I'.
."
\\
_1<" -
c
.,>
I ( .....- ECl ,)
i
i ....."-- AQ. S
k... + nH ))
'»
j
10.
A
...... +
Q
I
:»
."
0
I('~ Tr »
,
(<, +
cone >,
I.....~ - d",1 »
«.+ nL
) ,-~-d8t
<.~ +
":>'>
C elll nt )~
........ -
Past,..1I
(<. +
Sin Q .)~
+
U
i
-
---.J
( close)
+
t
p
b
u
~
.~--_&~---- -~~. - -----~_.--~~-------,------------_._._--
~.
.
-* 1 = Vocalic; 2
Continuant;
3 ::: Polarity;· LI ::: High~
5
lE Chrn id;
Cl -
nGc.i i a 1; 7 ::: tJ a sal; 8 "" Vo i c 6 d ;
9 =. Tenseness;
1'].= Labiality;
11
= Roundness;
12 = Prenasa1i.zed;
13 =
Vibration;
1/-/. := Tip

---

536
I'· ' .
..
~,
~
, ~ 'U ...1
"
Passi\\/i7ati'Jn
--"1/ r ,i n t/ + / CJ U n t/ + / U p/ «, 3 Per s .S g "" + / U/
~
Aux.G.SEQ:Tran ,---->/f.int/ + /ou~/ + Qux. G + /up/« 3 PE'rs.Scj-n+/u
Asp. TensE' Tran ---;> I;. int/ + /bU~Y +
/UfJ!
=: Pc:r<;?Sg
+ /u/
P['rs.af Tran
Article, Tran
3 PErs.81,Sg + /up/ + /u/
Af.shifl: Tran
--'7' /r,i;nt/ + /buQ..t/ + T +<:'(-Past»+{(+ Pnf).>+
/up/ + /u/ + 3 Pers.af.Sg.
2
--7 '
+ /bunt/ + T + ~-Past» +.1,(+
Per f~) + /up/ + /u/+
'--
3 P (Or s • El f ,S Q •
6
--~. +
/bu':l.t/ + T +
c«-Past» + ,0 + /up/ + /u/+ :3 Pe!'>. ar
8
+ /buC'_t/ + bi· +<.-.-Past»+ ~ + /up/ + /u/ .,. 3 PUs,ar.:
9
---~
+ /bu~,-tj + bi +;1 +;;i + /up/ + /ul + 3 Pn,af.Srj.
1 2
+ /i<I~/ + bi + 0 + /up/ + lu/ + na
14
- - - ) , + Ibu~!I + bi + ;1 + 0-+ /ubl + /u/ + na
Lexical r{=;prGSEnt,"1ti~Jn·
--_.
--;-"---
.. __ .,- .._-_.-._--".". .
bunt
bi
ubuna.,
-
thE door is shut,

---

531
-
:
~ 1
# 5 (:~) '# .
CatE~ory-cxPansi~n rulEs~
2, ----.--) Ast + ['JP + Pd. P
--_._-,.
3.
Posit +
P + Pd.P
5. -- ---.....- ._--- /. , / + IljP + Pd.P
,
9 -------"
/
I- + h;P
+ VP
,
10-----"» /
/ + rJP
+ VB
,
11
._";;
/
/ + fW
+ V + r·jP
,
1 3 ----.-~-; /
/ + P.n .+ V + Pn
-
1 , 2 , 8 , 2 3"'-:'/
I
/
+ Pn
+
v
+ Pn
Er »
In fr /~
; /,'. -
69,70,71-,>/ r
/
+ Pn
"'.- Er -;...,
. + r
5
;
~,
j", Q •
: >~
."+
Intr;';·.
<.'. -
d a t /") !

---

53~
,
-
.-,
69 170,71 ->/
0,-'-
/
+ \\ {( .;. Pn
1+
v";>:>
it r--;:\\+ Pn ;> :'
I
)«+ er'~ ~,! I '
I
P
i
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Pers»
I'
\\ 1+
i<c+ 1
<\\+
.0" g .5>::-
1
"
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Id
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\\
i {{+
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.( -To
Inti;,>
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,; i!:cu $ -;.>
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,
5 ing »\\
C- dat» I '.',of Sing'>, !
I".-
i
!
Emph ~
i / ''':'" Emph ») (
' -
77 ----l'
+ Pn
--i
"
+
I:,
,
+ V
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',.';
,
i <"-+ Pn ~-
'I
'\\
,
-
/f.inton/ +'0
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Er
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dct >:.:1
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I
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I
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i
/./, -
i:::~ .Jh .-~:. i
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I
L
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---

Lexical
_............,.'-.. ...._~ E_:~_~~X~
I .
(1fr i -
--r
(1 )
/f.inton/
V
I
+
+
Pn
:~<"T
Pn »1 ... i L~ ~
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)?
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i ~'-+
I
I J.'-+
PEr1 \\Ll.- Er ))
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P Br s .."
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+ 1 ,.)
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I
I
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I
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Intr ."
U+ Ac cus .»
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t.... + S ~~ ~.., ! I,(- clat .,.)
I ~+ Sg. '?
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(rEplace
(pour wdtEr
(replace
spEElksr)
On
body
for
speaker)
cleanill~)
r
2
ii ~(
+
I 8
+
9
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10
\\
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i 11
;
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1-----1--.1----,
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a
(~ )
?Q J

---

51,0
(1'1
Verb-copying Tran -_-'/
/ f . i n t / +;\\1> + /sang/ <'.1
PeTs.5 g,,+ /i
(1 "
i 1";
Aux.G + /saQ.9/"1
Pers.5ln+,0, .
P,ux.G.5eg Tran ---;>
/ f . i n t / +i.i
+
i
.
Cop.Seg.
Tran
--
,
i\\ ',,1 "
(
)
-:";
/ f .inton/ T.:"\\'
+ Cop « +__
r~8g
+ VP "
e
,/\\(1)
+
s89Q
/.:.. 1 Pers . .:l~"»
+ C~
/
/
,
1 .
_:......:.>
/ f • in ton /
+ L\\
'+ Cop ({ +
(M'BO'.},.,' VP "
+. 1
Pcr3.
Sg + ~<:-P8~,t':'» + Cl. of
PUnct.
Pr~c./. + /sanrj + li:11
R eflexi vizati Dn
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/f.inton/
+
Cop
,.
<t:,
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1 Per s . a f.
5 g + <." - Pas to Pr ~ c ." +
/sang/ ,. u
NP:-Subj.
dd Tr
---~
/f.inton/ + Cop
+
.({
--
( ne Q)
+
VP " +
/sa~~/ + u
,
2
--.::>
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1
P. a f.5g "6-
('-Past ,~+
,.•+. PoncL
PrOC •."
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5
P~st '>
+
y
+
/sal]g/ + U
9
+ Cop (~+ __( ~J e g)
+ ,V p ,,+ 1 P. a f • S 9 +
~ + y + /sa'1g/ + u
1 'J
+CClP+
(NBg)
+Vp,,+
ma+iJ'+y+
" ---"
/sa[jg/ .. u
1 6 .
--""":
• + da + ma +
iJ'
+ Y +,/sal][/ + u
LGxi~al TcprresGntati:Jfl',
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c1am3Y
saQ~u
.
(1) am bathing.

---

1
f'ld
+ NP
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+ Pd. P
>
2
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3
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., ~.
~
., _~ Po sit + ~.J P + Pc:. P
5
+ PC.P
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... }
/
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j 'l
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_
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7
/
1
1 !J
+ ~,]P + \\)0
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0 ' -
•
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' _ ' /
/
1 1
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T/
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/
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/
I
/
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------_ .... -._._-...__._;;>
v
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1.,2,4,2
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5 1J,51,52
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,
III
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---

., ,..
.
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"
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+
+
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PI' ';0
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Er">;.
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H '?>
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n?Jrnc
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3 P ers)<
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I
I·. _
Ptlnct ':.
.;,
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+
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placd
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(namE or pETson)
PhonEt ic ..~.~P~.~2_E~~_! ..Ci~~_~O~_~
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.. 0:
r
fJQ
i
i
.1.

---

5~3
Asp.
Tense Tran'
+
-
- '";>
R
_
cac'
_ • _ _ ~ • • ' iustmellt
- •
•
_,.~ _ _ , _ . _ _ ~
. _ . 'rules:
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L
_ _
• _ _
2
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+ /IJQCJ'r/ +
~<-Past,.:· + ,-.+ PUn et , +
/3'.JCJi/
5
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9
--~:>
+ /1]9'J :r/ +
-
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I
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J.3
noD: :r
-.." ~J

---

. ,
·Cat':QO"i'Y-:c'xPansion TU.LE'S:
",
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....
..
...
.'.• ' _ . -. _•• "
~ " ~ . " " . L
.~"
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~,-
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+
NP
+
Pd.P
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2
Hst .;- (1 P + Pd. P
.__ . -' - ..__ :..
/
3
Pos it
+
:~P
+
Pd. P
- "
..... --."1'...
-
---_.... ..........:...,. /
I
/
-}-
1\\: p
+
Pd. P
-.J
-,
9
/ l
[\\JP
IJP
/.
+
+
-_.,-.~_ ......... '-"
"
.
,
1 0 ___ ._.&4 •• _..._
/
/ +
UP
+
VB
1 1
/ I /
+
~J P
+
\\J
+
rJ P
----- ---;-;
,
1 3
/
/
+
fJ
+
V
+
N
.--~.~.- --" -:,.:-
+
<.~ - Er »
:
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!. <[~ .+
~
""
,
i
Hurna n 5ubj _ _NP
L
+
II!
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I
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+1 'f
. srJ ,51,5:7
I
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~,
;/
I
\\
<, -
\\ ,,+ P:r~:
Er ~;
I<- + H ';.,
~j;:-lIil(,
'\\
<._. +
,>
".+ Tr ",
L-
cid -"
(1
dat
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Hlirr. .Subj
~JP \\

---

.\\
-:.) '.
51J,55,
---"->
/ ' /
+~<T[<j » '1 +': «+ v»
/
,
:
I
't+ Pl.» \\ :<:-. Er ....
i
i .
63,
64
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;
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C
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{~,-:- f'J cl m1'=: ':-.+ Tr .o.
---:; ~
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I
~
i. +
;.~ ".
Ind ~. ~
\\+ da t ;-,
,
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77 -:-7! f. i nton/
+""~1- [j ~
+--«::..+V~
! . +-.
n H .."",
. i:
«+ d ['1 .~.
. !
<,+ f~ r=u t -:»;
(1 )
!'J+ d Zlt '>/'>
i
Hum.'subj
. ------~ --......*- ........... _---._-~-------

---

':--'
-
LexicGl ,ntry
- I '
~-.
.>
----,.
1
j(( +
I
~J '>-)
i
+
'~'" +
V
>....
i ~.;
/ f .inton/ +
~
,
I
..
I
I
i
I
<,f.. -
I/,·
Er .. ~
li.<-\\~ ~'>
+ Pn ;:.>
I
I
I
I
I
>{<:+
c -'''
:<.... + H ,'::'
·1
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>':-
I
I'.'.+ nH ."'"
I~"+ nElrr:e »
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/.+
Ind".
( n a mlE
0 f
per sOn )
( 4 )
.
",
/f.int/
s
j
a'
y
i

---

,
,
,
PrEd.5ubj.;.>greEm~nt Tr".....;--/ /foillLon/+/a:'s/+/ j~:'y/(',3 P'.Sg-,,>+ li
,
r\\Ux.r,.Si?r::.Tra n ,_--I /f.inton/+/::>~s/+·Aux.t. + /ja:y/ :,3 P.Sgo))+il
Asp.
TsoTr?n _--?
/r-.inton/ +/a:'s/+«-Past ~,+ «of- Perfect )')+
/ j a: Y/ <'.3 P. S g. y. +,6
Pers.,',f.Tra n __ ?
/r.inton/+/a: s /'d-<<..-P3 s t'-.,,;.+<-<-+ J=lerfect» +
3 p.a f . S 9 + / j a: y/ '+
/J
Pers.r!f.shift Tran
'---'>
/f.,inton/+/,":s/+.(<:..-P?st7)+f<... -':< Perfect/>+
, / ja~Y/ + 3 Pers .af. Sg + d
Pronominc:liz3tion --->
If. ~.nton/ + /a:s/ + <"-Past '))
+
R e c: d jUs t rr Ent r U1 [=' ~ :
Perfy-,-II-/jcr:Y/+ 3 Pers.;!r.so~'
2
~/
.'
-
« "0/
,
,~
(J
I.J
+ /~ (...- p.',. s t "
/
3 P. Pn • S g. -< <.. :"j cc'>; /
la~'s/
6
--.:::.
,
+ (<...-P.~3t >-;-+ .0 +/j'2:y/ + 3 Pers.df.Sq. +
/
3 P. Pn • 5 g • «"C', cc'.>'? /
--->
/
3 P.Pn.Sg. 1,<, :icc »/
\\
1 2
- - ~ . • +/8..: s /
+ ,0 + fJ + / j a : Y + n a ,+ 3 P. Pn •S Q {. i'. CC'» /
'I,
III
a:S . h,Js sold it
I

---

;:/....,
I; ~ '. ~
1
fl1c1 + r~p + Pd. P
n
L
As t + NP + P
'__;>
cl • P
_ _ _ _
• •
' 0
'
, .
, _ _
3
Posit + NP + Pd.P
--_. ..-_-, ~.-.- --.--...~ ~_.
5
_., '_"_" __
'_~
",'_0
/
1
/
+ rolP + Pd. P
9
/
...._.. -~ ..- ~-- -"-".
-
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1 G
~,
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/ + ~!P + VB
J
11
.
/
+ NP + V + NP
!
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... _-,--~-;
1 3 .__ .. _..._~_.._..__ ../
/
+ N + V + fJ + 5
1 •
/
I
/,+_ N + V + N + Md + NP + Pd.P
/
',. /
+
N
+ V + r·J + As t
+ I'J P +, Pcl • p
3
/
I
I + ~ + V + N + Posit + NP + pd.p
.. ,.--- _. - .. _-.' '--7
[IJP + PJ.p
5
/
I
/
+
N + IJ
--'-"-' ---_._.~
/
I
/
_:_
9
N
\\JG
+ pp
10
i1i
l f / +
.f'· V + r~ + /.\\ +' f~P +
-~---" ,-"-~
" ,--
V
I\\IP
1 1
+
+ pp
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J ' I +
V + P~
1 :3
/
I
/
+
('J
1 I,L,
+ \\1 + r~ +[j T 1-1-+-'J + Prep+[,jP
/
f
/
+
>
, "
1 3 - c - - - - - - : : " . ) .. ,_ .! ,~ L_±. r·J
+ V + i'J +
"- ~.:..

---

~.
:
, 'r:
I
, 1 ,2,L~,7
/
I
/
+ ~J
1
+i ~t-V» -I +
PI' ep+~J
i
i/~ _. Er> ~
it+ Ag8 ;"
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i
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pI a c [' '. j
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i
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dat-,., i
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V
:+ r\\,"£\\+N{~+V ;:y
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k-:+
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---

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t
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C Dunt_~!
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---

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,-
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PlaCe'.,)
I
;jg'~,1
I (/. + IntrJ
'" + cone>'> I
1-
I I::
'"
conc "',
-.J
z..( + nL
<'<,+
nL ')
,-, - CO I_'nt »
z<+ count ',)
-d

---

55:L
'.
+
+
1\\
+ i -'-
;
--.
I
I
!
- j
[,,:c
I
';>';.
!~+\\";:P
I<,<i- r"c -:>,,:
I
_
1(<. -
Er?;>
i«+ n H7.'
nH '>",
I
I
'
I nd
'(',i I
>-:>
i
!
:"0
<:- + A g. S ?~
I
I
r,j~ut:...:,
I :'~+ Tr
ku
I
" >
c:~.:
C [J Il
'
1,('. _
Cl E'l ;'"":-
~< +nL,,> i
\\
'.+ S
!'<, - d:" t
J-coun t:.,)
Q »
i
1+ T,'.'
'+ s,::;., '.
1
<' T'
d e f v~
PhonEtic rEprEsEntation"
•
.~
~ _ _ u _ _ .• __ ~ _ _ •
•
.~_ ...
.
.
k
c
~'~
p
'- .
/ f . in t/
-r L_
x
t,
+
1
(

---

Le.lOc.a\\
cn h~' Q:on~d)
553
~
l"
T
...
-.,.,
,
L\\ "
i\\
I
\\
,
+
,L'
+
+
L-_.~
,
-
i
I\\Jc '»
i /.c + v»
je, + PI' ep >.~ ~
i<'- + i'Jc :>'0
1«, +
I
I
I,
i
!
\\
i
! <-" + nH >:'
(
" ", -
Er ,~. l
1«, + n H '-)
1"'<
... ".
~ s p~ t. 10 c "
i
I
i
1
i
i«,+ I »
!
Ag • S ,>:>1
1«+ ne'ar >.., :
,>~ + I
"'-',
I
I
i
r(.<...
+ C onc ':.» I
+ intr ;,,>1
<"'+ con c
! + v_,~.....pla~G
-"
i
(to
+ t)l -~>
:
c13 t :,.> :.
r. ... + niL
., ),
,
</ -
(' Q\\> ...,';
"':,> I
<z
1('<
+ T ";'>
i
+
plJce,
+ cour,t ;"-
,
,', + Se> :.---
i
+ T
" ,
- - '
~', + cl Et '~"'>c
(c
+ S9. > ..,
-'
1-
i(" + d Ef >">
l_
" ,
Sh"'(le'~l( "'ar'l~v.·k'~i5'r.' c:: c:.nldJ-
~
£. :
p
+
11
't. : '
k
+ C
+
p
Jr 3nS formations:
"
If. int/ + / x
"
2 r /
+ T + /~: k k / +
.........
,
/c6,€
:pl + /ci/ + /n~?p/ + T
....~.
\\
Au;(, [;_.S egment
Tran';
/Lint/ + /x~.r/ + T + Aux . .c + /,10.5 :~/+,
/cr£ :p/ + T + 6. + / C "'8 : p/
+ T + Au x • C +
/nDe :kk/ + /ci/ + /~::,p/ + T
" ~

---

55!t
Asp. T s . Tr a rl S •
/f.int/ + /xar/ + T +" ... PElst-..,j''-,+Pcri"'--.-
~
/ld.'_:Jk~/+ /Cd:;p/ + T + /\\ + /cd?-~p/ + T +
......
··',+Past.,.~ + /n£..:kk/+ /ci/ -+- /~ap/ + T
......
/ f • in t;' + / x a r /
+ T + <'.', +P Er FP + .... - Pas t·, -.: 3 Per s , a f • S 9 +
l&?. : lkl +
.. \\
c~:;p
+ T + L-> + /coi.:p/ + T +·~:.+PE1St-,.,+
..
~
".
/ m£ :kk / +. / c i /
+ / n cl a p /
+ T
·1-"
,,..,
_ . . . .
R l'lativization:
/ f • i n t /
+ / x 3 r: /
+ T +,' " + PG r fe:.
+<,.: - P El S b2O' +
. . . . . . __ • _ _
•
_
•
. _
. . . .
_
• • • •
•
' .
C ~ ~ . ~
3 P.af.Sg· + /l:)::kJ</~ /c~:p/ + L~ +
rEl.
Pn +(,·-t-PC:SL-;+ n·... :l<i<
+ ci + [h.: 2 0'
T
"-.J
- -"
•
'q,f. Hopping Trane:
- P:st
--- -..~::-
.. /xar/ + T + /1 V3 : k kI + ." + Pco rh>! + >- .3P f2 r s • a f •S 9 +
,
:i.
/eEE : p/
.' \\ , .....
1 Pn
/
+ ~~\\ ',,- 1\\ c .
+
n ~
+
6
/xar/ + T + /la:: :k l:/ + ~
' - '
-
/ cas: p/ + /\\ + /R cl. Pnj.t/n~JI? :kk/ +
v
+ /ci/'+ /ndaP/ + T
.~
I
,
I

---

8
-_.;.......? .• ' + /xar/ + mi + /103 :kk/ + ,0 +c,-Past .'; +3: h:rs.1H.S,;: +
-.-'
/Cd3 p/, + II .+. /Rc:l.pn/ +/ncc':kk/ +<'~+Past~'~+ /ei/ +
.
~'
/ ~~.ap/ + li
9
' - - -::>
,• + / x a r /
+ mi
+ /1 38 : 10/v- 0 + % + 3 Per s •~ f • Sg +
/ Cd: : p/
+ /Rc1.Pn/ + /nac kk/ +
):n + /eil +
"
--.
IndaP/ + li
.........
1 :2
• + /xar/ + ml + /lia :kk/ + ,0 + P + ne + /ea:. :pi + /\\-;-
'--"
/Rc1.Pn/ + /naG :kk/ + ~:n + jci/ + /nd~p / + 11
.-.."
...._---.
r'1 0 rp:lOphon emie nil cs:
73
--~
~ + /xar/ + mi + /l'~:k~/+ ~a + /c~:b/ + /Rcl.~n/ +
/n£~ /:1</+
,~~:n
+ /ei/ + /ndab/ + li
'-'"
'---
LGxica1 rcprc:sEntation:
__._----
._-~ .. _-.---._'.--._-- .
.......- .. --
x 3 r
mi
1 Be : k I< n El
c ac : p
b i n aco : k k '.'j: n
ci
ndap
11
'~.... " .
the: ShEEP has eaten ths rice which was in th2 plate.

---

556
-.*
*
*
o18 L IOCR APHY
*
*
**

---

55f
8 IBl'IOm APHY
Agesthi<llingorr,;
s.
1 9 67
1
1 '."1
Ce n pr 3 t i v GCI' a miT! G r
ofT Cl mi 1
.
' )
(A r rag m(3 nt
0 F Ta IT'. i 1
S\\I r-d: El x) ,
Annalrta1ai
UnivErsity .
AkhmanoVa,
0 and
191.39
•; Th to
t h 6 0 r y 0 f S Ynt a X i n r'l 0 J Ern
f'lika,l'a il
l i n 9 u i s t i r s :
,
C.
I
r/l 0 u ton,
ThE
Ho Que ;
Pa.;,-ls.
Ba ch ~ ;:: •
11.'73
"Syntactic
theory 11.
Holt
Rinrh~rt Cln~ Winston.lnc.
1
1964
:lAn introduction
to Transforma··
t ion a l e r a miT! a I' s "
Bloom f i " ~ d,
I.
1 ~j 3 3
11 la n gu Cl g e"
Henry
hold
and
Company,
Inc.
Chomsky,
C.
1 rn5
f1The
Acquisition
of Syntax in
Chilc]r,=n
from
5 to 1!J:~
Thl:' n. I. T.
PreSs.
1957
IlSyntactiC Structurc:'s·l1
Mouto~ and CD., S.Cravenhage
1968,
:'languagE and
Minet"
enlargEcl
1972
edition
:
HaTCoCJrt
Brace;
JDvanov:i.chJ
Iric.
lS"65
'IASpECts
of the
ThEory
of Synt'3K"
The n. I • T.
Pr e5 S •
.-
1975
"Topics in the
tllC'ory
of [;enEI'e-
tivc
Crammar"
~outon, ThE HagUE-Paris.

---

55?> '
...
u.
Chomsky,
N.
1S77
Essays ·on 'Form
and
InterpTEtati:Jn;
f'k w Yo r k,
E~sevL,r flJoDth-
Hel J. a no •.
Chomsky,
f~. and l-1al18
1968
11 Th 8
Sou n cl
P8 t t G r n 0 f
S'l ql ish iI ,
-
J
Harfer
and Row,
Publishers.
CulicO~8r PetEr, U.
1977
i1Formal Syntax tl
Rcademic PrEss ~
~
(et Qlii)
Dick Simon,
C.
for
thE the 0 r y 0 f Qe nE r a 1
linQuistics)
North Holland.
-.)
.,;
Fillmorr-:
Sharles~ J.
1965
[tlndirGct objsct constructions
in
English and
the ordEring of
triJnSfDrmations~;,r,jOuton.
-'
The Ha9UI::-Paris.
1957
;)i\\JOtEboCJk
in Descr~pti\\!e LinQuis-
tic""
HEnry
Holt
and
Company,
)
Ine.
r~ Gll york.
Gr ~ d y,
!'! •.
1 Cl 7J
11 S Y n t ,1 X
El n d S Em ant ic s
0 f
t h 8
English Verb
Phrase 1i
~'iouton,
.
-'
The
HEl Cl 1_' C -P a r is.
Graf f ,
~!. L.
1964
:tLanOL:aQc= and
Langua'oes il
-
-
-
J
Ru 8 5 E'~ t'. a n cJ Ru S 8 e 11- I n c •
[; run i fJ,
C. (~ •
1981
Gr 1. n cl eT,
J. T.
1973
;;Transformation;Jl Grarr.rna rll
-
~
History-Theory-PracticE,
Halt,
Rinehart
and
l.:Jinston,
Inc.
1976
l1LJ
grar:lmairE
.gCnerclti\\',.
Reflexions Critiques:l,
P.u. F.

---

I
'
liThe Sound Patt ern of Russia nl!,
)
1959
Hall e, 1"1 ~
,
,
A Lingui~tic and Acoustical
I
I n v 8 "s t i 0 a t ion
,
.....
-
~
I
J1'
Co. ,S • Gr a v En hag El,
M.I.T~ Mouton and
I
1375
!lA studY of Adverb5 '1 ~
Mouton, The HaQUG-Paris;
1976
:IArgument for
a non-transformE~
Hu d s on, R. At
ti:mal
Grainma r,i
,
T:l e Un i v e r sit Y 0 F Chi c El gO Pr 8S s •
1974
l1An' Introducti~n
to the theory
ISAAC,
C;
of Transformational Generative
Grammar lT university of Keral"l'I.
.
/
JaCOUS, R.P..
-
1968
"English Transformational
RosenbaUlI1,
P.S.'
Gr amr.;ar 11~.
Wiley EastErn Limited.
1977
"Tran~formationEll Generative
J a.C ob 5 C ~' [J.
Grammarl! North Holland.
/
1964
"Grammatical Study of Narrinai 'l
Kamatch, PI.
( ~J i t h t ran s 1 i t era t ion,
t :r an sI El -
ti:Jn
&.
Index) 'submi tted
for
,"
Ph.O • I
Ker a 1 a Un i v er s"1 t y •
Katz,
J.J.
1972
lIS e ma;-"tic Theory" Harper
,,-
Internatiunal [d.
Katz,
J.J.
&. Post<'ll,p.rl.
196!~
llAn
IntegraterJ Theory of
linguistic dEscriptionsl~.
M~I.T. Press.
King, R .G.
1969
"Historical linguistics
and
Generative Grammar llj
Prentice:'Hall,
Inc. ,Englo'ti!oad
Cliff~, New JcrSGY·
I'
(
I
I
I

---

"
5611.
Nida,
[.A.
\\\\, The DsscrlptiV8 Analysis of !.Jords'
2nd Ed.
Ann Prbot
~ The Univer-
sit)' of P1ichigan
Press.
rJ i 1 SEll, D'. L • F •
1972
;iTo~ard;] Semantic sDEcific8ti~Jn
of OGGP Casei!
\\
/
\\
Mout~n, The Hague-Paris.
\\
I
P-3the.O
19'7~
"Crai:\\r.l8ire de lJolof nodG:Lne rl
.
"
\\
Pr es en C G Af r i ca in e,
Par i s ~ .
\\
I
Platt,
J,T.
1971
"Gramm3tic a l
form and grammatical
I
mEaning"
CA tagmElmic view of
\\
rillmoreis dB(?P structure C3~C:­
concepts), i~Drth f-lolland.
Postal,
p.
1964
"ConstituGnt Structure -
A Study
of Contemporary mOdels
of Syn-.
tactic description l
\\ -
;
f'louton ~: C:l.
)
\\\\
'1968
IlASPEcts of
'Phonological The,ny:ll;
HarpEr 2nd Row;
Publishers.
Pr ab h a k a r a Va r LH ~ ~<. n.
1979
"Studies
in f>lalayaL:lm
Grammar'l
-'
University of Madras.
Qu irl<, R.
Et alii
1972
li,n.
Grammar
Clf
ContE::m~:'Jrary
Engli~h;l
Longm3n Group Limited"
-'
1973
;li'-]ominal .CompositiCln in MalaYalam
A Cen(r~tivr: Tran~formational
Apprua'ch't
AnnalTl':J 1 8 i
~n~vcrsity.
"
Rip.ux.J and f~ollinlB.E.
1~n5
liThE Port-Rovnl Cramr",?r l1
.
./
( rd s. )-
Mouton,
The HaQu~-P~ris.·
5;'1lJs&ure
r. de
1 CJ72
Payot,
Paris.
Sch8nc, S.A.
1973
ltGenEr8tivG PhonolDgy't
J
Pr~nticG-Hall~
Inc.Engle~oQd,
Cliffs,
New J~r~~y.
\\ .
Smi t h,
N. an cj 'j i 1. s G n ,D •
1979
"ModErn Linguistics
-
ThE
Rt=sults
of Chomsky's Rr=vC:ilutirm"-'
PenQu in' 0 oClk s •
_.~=...

---

56~
, :
"
Andersa.n, S.R.,
On the role of DEEp structurE inS8~antic
intErpretatian,
Foundationsof Langua~~
JJ.of- Land .P, Vel.7
no 3 August 1971
pp 387-396
Jack12nd~ff, R.S. and
A Recansid,Ja'tian of dativE mCJvement,
CuLLc.over,
p;
Found8ti"ns of LangUage ,IJLP, Val:7
na
3 August 1971,
po 397-412
Koutsoud2S,
A.
GaPPing;
ConjunetiCJn.RerJuction, and Ca-
ordinate d"le'ticm,
.
FounrJatiCJns
of Il.a";juaqc,
IJLF,
Vol.7
no 3 August
1971
pp 337··3GG.
Lasnik
Hand lJas:JlJ' T;
The descriptive Adequacy aF
Int'erpfeti0E
theories.
FDundl.\\tin~of language, IJLP. Vol 7 n~
3 August 1971
pp Li29-430
SampsCln, G.
An equivacatiCln in an Argumsnt for
Generativ" Semantics.
F:Jund"ti.:'-ns of lanQuagc ,I JL P" Vol, 7 ni)
3 .~Ul;L1St 1971, pp '126-42[;.
Irvine, J.
lJelcf naun classific~tiCJn : The social
\\
settin~ of divcrgsr,t thange.
\\
LanQ!J age i n ~ oc i ·';:'{nJ:8'iil?r~d gc, Ur:o Va 1. 7
('\\
. <1._ "'"
'lumber 1 Apnl
;8..-, ~37'.':·64
~~ng~
,~n~~[YIPi\\
ie tic
1 9"Cl
Chore,sky,
N.
,.
n
t~"'~
L l n c' l n C
.<.. -".... l.l,
l j
ko.yne. R. S
1I(ll.}'.tli1\\
IX.!!'.
IIExtensl','ns~r~13inciinc;
and
Cas,,-i'"ic,rki,ng"
(lb1.cI_L..'·/.
Gross, n.
On Ihe f"llurc of Gencratlvc Granmar.
Jnurnal
of the lin~ui5tic sociGty of
i~mcr1c8, Vol.
55 f~o.4 DGcEmc·r:::r 1S79.
\\
~rl clsu3~s co~taining c[lnjo~n.-d alld
pll.lr"l noun-ph-ras'CB ::in En'C1;i..sh "" ..
\\
.
-
.
,~
. '
~.:,;ua~ )'Jort"h Hollaf1rJ Publishing cam-
p,:j !1y-,
A~5 t pn::) u~,. Vol. 2 /~ ~ I 97 Cl ~
\\,
\\

---